COMMAS

1. Use a comma before any coordinating conjunction (and,

but, for, or, nor, so, yet) that links two independent clauses.

Example: "I went running, and I saw a duck."

If we were to eliminate the second "I" from that example, the

second clause would lack a subject, making it not a clause at
all. In that case, it would no longer need a comma: "I went
running and saw a duck."

2. Use a comma after a dependent clause that starts a

sentence.

Example: "When I went running, I saw a duck."

Commas always follow these clauses at the start of a

sentence. If a dependent clause ends the sentence, however,
it no longer requires a comma. Only use a comma to
separate a dependent clause at the end of a sentence for
added emphasis, usually when negation occurs.

3. Use commas to offset appositives from the rest of the

sentence.

Appositives act as synonyms for a juxtaposed word or

phrase. For example, "While running, I saw a mallard, a kind
of duck." "A kind of duck" is the appositive, which gives
more information about "a mallard."

If the appositive occurs in the middle of the sentence, both

sides of the phrase need a comma. As in, "A mallard, a kind
of duck, attacked me."

"A mallard, the kind of duck I saw when I went running,

attacked me."
There's one exception to this rule. Don't offset a phrase that
gives necessary information to the sentence. Usually,
commas surround a non-essential clause or phrase. For
example, "The duck that attacked me scared my friend"
doesn't require any commas. Even though the phrase "that
attacked me" describes "the duck," it provides essential
information to the sentence. Otherwise, no one would know
why the duck scared your friend. Clauses that begin with
"that" are usually essential to the sentence and do not
require commas.

4. Use commas to separate items in a series.

For example, "I saw a duck, a magician, and a liquor store

when I went running."

That last comma, known as the serial comma, Oxford

comma, or

5. Use a comma after introductory adverbs.

"Finally, I went running."

"Unsurprisingly, I saw a duck when I went running."

Many adverbs end in "ly" and answer the question "how?"

How did someone do something? How did something
happen? Adverbs that don't end in "ly," such as "when" or
"while," usually introduce a dependent clause, which rule
number two in this post already covered.

Also insert a comma when "however" starts a sentence, too.

Phrases like "on the other hand" and "furthermore" also fall
into this category.

6. Use a comma when attributing quotes.

If attribution comes before the quote, place the comma
outside the quotations marks. The runner said, "I saw a
duck."

If attribution comes after the quote, put the comma inside

the quotation marks. "I saw a duck," said the runner.

7. Use a comma to separate each element in an address. Also

use a comma after a city-state combination within a
sentence.

"I work at 257 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10010."

"Cleveland, Ohio, is a great city."

8. Also use a comma to separate the elements in a full date

(weekday, month and day, and year). Also separate a
combination of those elements from the rest of the sentence
with commas.

"March 15, 2013, was a strange day." Even if you add a

weekday, keep the comma after "2013."

"Friday, March 15, 2013, was a strange day."

"Friday, March 15, was a strange day."

You don't need to add a comma when the sentence mentions

only the month and year. "March 2013 was a strange
month."

9. Use a comma when the first word of the sentence is

freestanding "yes" or "no."

"Yes, I saw a duck when I went running."

"No, the duck didn't bite me."

10. Use a comma when directly addressing someone or
something in a sentence.

My editor often asks, "Christina, is that article up yet?"

11. Use a comma between two adjectives that modify the

same noun.

For example: "I saw the big, mean duck when I went
running."

Only coordinate adjectives require a comma between them.

Two adjectives are coordinate if you can answer yes to both
of these questions: 1. Does the sentence still make sense if
you reverse the order of the words? 2. Does the sentence
still make sense if you insert "and" between the words?

Since "I saw the mean, big duck " and "I saw the big and
mean duck" both sound fine, you need the comma.

Sentences with non-coordinate adjectives, however, don't

require a comma. For example, "I lay under the powerful
summer sun." "Powerful" describes "summer sun" as a whole
phrase. This often occurs with adjunct nouns, a phrase
where a noun acts as an adjective describing another noun
— like "chicken soup" or "dance club."

12. Use a comma to offset negation in a sentence.

For example: "I saw a duck, not a baby seal, when I went
running."

In this case, you still need the comma if the negation occurs
at the end of the sentence. "I saw a baby seal, not a duck."

Also use commas when any distinct shift occurs in the

sentence or thought process. "The cloud looked like an
animal, perhaps a baby seal."
 13. Use commas before every sequence of three numbers
when writing a number larger than 999. (Two exceptions are
writing years and house numbers.)

For example, 10,000 or 1,304,687.

SEMICOLONS

Using Semicolons
Rules for Using Semicolons
 A semicolon is most commonly used to link (in a single sentence) two independent clauses that are
closely related in thought.

When a semicolon is used to join two or more ideas (parts) in a sentence, those ideas are then given
equal position or rank.

Some people write with a word processor; others write with a pen or pencil.

 Use a semicolon between two independent clauses that are connected by conjunctive
adverbs or transitional phrases.

However they choose to write, people are allowed to make their own decisions; as a result, many people swear by their writing
methods.

 Use a semicolon between items in a list or series if any of the items contain commas.

There are basically two ways to write: with a pen or pencil, which is inexpensive and easily accessible; or by computer and
printer, which is more expensive but quick and neat.

 Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction if the clauses are
already punctuated with commas or if the clauses are lengthy.

Some people write with a word processor, tablet, or a even a phone; but others, for different reasons, choose to write with a pen
or pencil.

Avoid using a comma when a semicolon is needed:

Incorrect: The cow is brown, it is also old.
Correct: The cow is brown; it is also old.

What's going on here? Both parts of the sentence are independent clauses, and commas
should not be used to connect independent clauses if there is no coordinating conjunction. This
mistake is known as a comma splice.
Incorrect: I like cows, however, I hate the way they smell.
Correct: I like cows; however, I hate the way they smell.

What's going on here? The conjunctive adverb however signals a connection between
two independent clauses, and commas should not be used to connect independent clauses if there is
no coordinating conjunction.

Incorrect: I like cows: they give us milk, which tastes good, they give us beef, which also tastes good, and they give us leather,
which is used for shoes and coats.
Correct: I like cows: they give us milk, which tastes good; they give us beef, which also tastes good; and they give us leather,
which is used for shoes and coats.

What's going on here? It's unclear what the three list items are, since the items are separated by
commas.

Incorrect: Cows, though their bovine majesty has been on the wane in recent millenia, are still one of the great species of this
planet, domesticated, yet proud, they ruminate silently as we humans pass tumultuously by.
Correct: Cows, though their bovine majesty has been on the wane in recent millenia, are still one of the great species of this
planet;domesticated, yet proud, they ruminate silently as we humans pass tumultuously by.

What's going on here? It's unclear where the first independent clause ends and the second
independent clause begins.

Avoid using a semicolon when a comma is needed:

Incorrect: Because cows smell; they offend me.
Correct: Because cows smell, they offend me.

What's going on here? The first part is not an independent clause, so no semicolon is required.

COLONS

Today's topic is how to use colons.

One of my favorite grammar books, titled* Punctuate It Right, has a wonderful

name for the colon: the author calls it the mark of expectation or addition (1).
That's because the colon signals that what comes next is directly related to the
previous sentence.
Here are some occasions when you might need to use a colon. We'll talk about
each situation more in detail below.

1. Use colons after complete sentences

2. Use colons to format lists

We'll also talk about two frequently asked questions that come up around
colons, specifically:

1. How many spaces to use after a colon

2. How to capitalize after a colon

Use Colons After Complete Sentences

The most important thing to remember about colons is that you only use them
after statements that are complete sentences. Never use a colon after
a sentence fragment.

For example, it's correct to say, "Grammar Girl has two favorite hobbies:
watching clouds and seeing how long she can stand on one foot." That's correct
because "Grammar Girl has two favorite hobbies" is a complete sentence all by
itself.

Notice how the items after the colon expand on or clarify what came before the
colon. I referred to my favorite hobbies before the colon and then specifically
named them after the colon. A quick and dirty way to decide whether a
colon is acceptable is to test whether you can replace it with the
word namely. For example, you could say, "Grammar Girl has two favorite
hobbies, namely, watching clouds and seeing how long she can stand on one
foot." Most of the time, if you can replace a colon with the word namely, then
the colon is the right choice.

Let's go back to the complete-sentence issue: it would be wrong to say,

"Grammar Girl's favorite hobbies are: skiing and reading" because "Grammar
Girl's favorite hobbies are" is not a complete sentence by itself. (And, really,
who would rather ski than stand on one foot?) You can often fix those kind of
sentences by adding the words the following after your sentence fragment. For
example, it would be fine to say, "Grammar Girl's favorite hobbies are the
following: skiing and reading" because you've made the thing before the colon
a grammatically complete sentence by adding the words the following

Use Colons to Format Lists

For some reason, people seem to get especially confused about when to use
colons when they are formatting vertical lists. Whenever I talk about the
complete sentence rule, the next thing people ask is "But what about when
you're introducing a list, like a bulleted list or numbered list?"
No need to worry. The rules are the same whether you are writing lists or
sentences: use a colon when you could use the word namely and after
something that could be a complete sentence on its own.

So those are the rules about colons for today: use a colon when you
could use the word namely, only use a colon after a complete sentence,
put one space after a colon, and don't capitalize the first word after a
colon (and that's a style choice, so check with your employer or teacher
and be consistent).

DASHES

Em dash
The em dash is perhaps the most versatile punctuation mark. Depending on the
context, the em dash can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colons—in
each case to slightly different effect.

Notwithstanding its versatility, the em dash is best limited to two appearances

per sentence. Otherwise, confusion rather than clarity is likely to result.

Do not mistake the em dash (—) for the slightly narrower en dash (–) or the
even narrower hyphen (-). Those marks serve different purposes and are
further explained in other sections.

Em dashes in place of commas

A pair of em dashes can be used in place of commas to enhance readability.

Note, however, that dashes are always more emphatic than commas.

And yet, when the car was finally delivered—nearly three months after it was
ordered—she decided she no longer wanted it, leaving the dealer with an oddly
equipped car that would be difficult to sell.

Em dashes in place of parentheses

A pair of em dashes can replace a pair of parentheses. Dashes are considered

less formal than parentheses; they are also more intrusive. If you want to draw
attention to the parenthetical content, use dashes. If you want to include the
parenthetical content more subtly, use parentheses.

Note that when dashes are used in place of parentheses, surrounding

punctuation should be omitted. Compare the following examples.
Upon discovering the errors (all 124 of them), the publisher immediately
recalled the books.

Upon discovering the errors—all 124 of them—the publisher immediately

recalled the books.

When used in place of parentheses at the end of a sentence, only a single dash
is used.

After three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction (or, rather, lack
of direction).

After three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction—or, rather, lack
of direction.

The em dash in place of a colon

The em dash can be used in place of a colon when you want to emphasize the
conclusion of your sentence. The dash is less formal than the colon.

After months of deliberation, the jurors reached a unanimous verdict—guilty.

The white sand, the warm water, the sparkling sun—this is what brought them
to Hawaii.

Rules:

1. Use em dashes in place of commas or parentheses to create a break in a

sentence
Examples:

 Please call my lawyer—Richard Smith—on Tuesday.

This sentence could also be written with commas or parentheses.

Please call my lawyer, Richard Smith, on Tuesday.

Please call my lawyer (Richard Smith) on Tuesday.

 I talked to Mr. Johnson—my son's math teacher—at the game on Friday.

This sentence could also be written with commas or parentheses.

I talked to Mr. Johnson, my son's math teacher, at the game on Friday.

I talked to Mr. Johnson (my son's math teacher) at the game on Friday.
2. Use an em dash like a colon or semicolon to create emphasis
A) In place of a colon:

 Mom needs four things at the store—butter, milk, flour, and bread.

This sentence would be written with a colon in formal writing.

Mom needs four things at the store: butter, milk, flour, and bread.

 The house rule is simple—clean up after yourself!

This sentence would be written with a colon in formal writing.

The house rule is simple: clean up after yourself!

B) In place of a semicolon:

 My sister loves chocolate—my brother loves vanilla

This sentence would be written with a semicolon in formal writing.

My sister loves chocolate; my brother loves vanilla.

 Tim got an "A" on his spelling test—therefore, he gets a longer recess.

This sentence would be written with a semicolon in formal writing.

Tim got an "A" on his spelling test; therefore, he gets a longer recess.

3. Use an em dash to show a sudden change of thought

Examples:

 I was going to buy a—what did you say she wanted for her birthday?

 Mom needs to talk to you about—oh, please excuse me! I did not know you had
company.

 I had a great day at the zoo—hey! Is that a jaguar?

Dashes: http://englishlinx.com/cgi-bin/pdf_viewer.cgi?script_name=%2Fpdf-content-by-subject
%2FDash-as-Interruption-Worksheet.pdf&x=87&y=5

http://englishlinx.com/cgi-bin/pdf_viewer.cgi?script_name=%2Fpdf-content-by-subject%2FDash-as-
Substitution-Worksheet.pdf&x=121&y=15
 http://englishlinx.com/cgi-bin/pdf_viewer.cgi?script_name=%2Fpdf-content-by-subject%2FDash-or-
Hyphen-Worksheet.pdf&x=63&y=17

Decide whether the following can have a colon (:), semicolon (;) or a dash (-)

 1) There are so many things to do in London ___ there’s the theatre, the shopping, the
sights and the parks.

 2) I had a few days off last week and I knew exactly where to spend them ___ the beach.

 3) I love working in advertising. You have so many challenges ___ being creative, working in
a team, keeping clients happy and meeting deadlines.

 4) He decided to spend a few days in the country ___ the tranquillity helped him think.

 5) David read the letter and he smiled ___ 'I've got the job.'
 -

 6) Paul realised that it was getting late and the wind was getting stronger ___ he knew it
was time to go home.

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/punctuation-the-colon-semicolon-and-more/
introduction-to-semicolons/e/using-semicolons-and-commas

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/exercises/3/5/23