9.

Light: Reflection and Refraction

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that causes the sensation of sight. Light is used in
communication, for example optical fibers are used in telecommunication.

Nature of light

Light consists of electromagnetic wave (non-mechanical), which does not require any
material medium for their propagation. The speed of these electromagnetic waves depends on
the nature of the medium they travel through. In vacuum or free space, they travel with an
enormous speed of 3  108 m/s. In air, it’s marginally less. The speed of light in glass or
water is marginally reduced. The wavelength range of visible light is 4  10 -7 m to
8  10-7 m (approximately).

A light wave propagates from one point to another in a straight-line path joining them, called
a ray of light. A bundle of such rays are called a beam of light.

When light falls on a surface or boundary separating two media, usually a part is reflected, a
part is transmitted (refracted) and a part is absorbed.

Images

When a number of rays, starting from a point after reflection or refraction, meet at another
point, the second point is called the image of the first point.

Real and virtual images

1. The image formed is real if the rays actually meet. If the rays do not actually meet, but
appear to meet when produced backwards, the image is virtual.
2. A real image can be obtained on the screen, while a virtual image cannot be obtained on a
screen.
3. Real image is inverted while virtual image is erect.
4. The images formed on a cinema screen are real images. The image of our face in a plane
mirror is a virtual image.
 Reflection of light

The process of sending back the light rays which fall on the surface of an object, is
called reflection of light.
The ray of light, which falls on the mirror surface, is called the incident ray.
The point at which the incident ray falls on the mirror is called the point of incidence. The
ray of light, which is sent back by the mirror, is called the reflected ray.
The normal is a line at right angle to the mirror surface at the point of incidence.
The angle of incidence is the angle made by the incident ray with the normal at the point of
incidence and the angle of reflection is the angle made by the reflected ray with the normal
at the point of incidence.

Laws of reflection of light

1. The angle of incidence ( i) is equal to the angle of reflection ( r).

2. The incident ray, the normal to the surface at the point of incidence and the reflected
ray, all lie in the same plane.

►These laws of reflection are applicable to both plane and spherical (concave and
convex) mirrors.
 Reflection of light by a plane mirror

Silver metal is one of the best reflectors of light. Depositing a thin layer of silver metal on
one side of a plane glass sheet makes ordinary mirrors. A coat of paint then protects the silver
layer. The reflection of light in a plane mirror takes place at the silver surface in it.
When a ray of light is incident normally on a mirror, it’s reflected back along the same path
(angle of incidence = to the angle of reflection = 0).

Formation of image by a plane mirror

Let an extended object ‘AB’ of height (size) ‘h’ be placed at a perpendicular distance ‘u’ on
the left of a plane mirror ‘MN’ as shown in figure.

Each small portion of the extended object acts like a point source. To locate the image of
point A formed, we draw two incident rays AC and AO, from this point and also draw the
corresponding reflected ray, CA and OD. The ray of light AC, falling normally on the mirror,
retraces its path on reflection along CA. The reflected rays CA and OD are divergent and
therefore, cannot actually meet in front of the mirror. We extend these rays backwards behind
the mirror, where they intersect at A’. A’ is the virtual image of the point A. Similarly rays
from the point B of the object form its image at the point B’ behind the mirror. Also all the
other points sources between A and B on the object form the corresponding image point
between A’ and B’, forming an erect and virtual image A’B’ at a distance ‘v’ from the mirror.
 Characteristics of nature of image formed by a plane mirror

1. The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual and erect.

2. It’s of the same size as the object.
3. The image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
4. It’s laterally inverted, i.e. the image is inverted sideways.

► A plane mirror has radius of curvature is infinity.

Reflection by spherical mirrors (Curved surfaces)

A spherical mirror is a reflecting portion cut from a hollow glass sphere whose one surface is
polished. These are of two types (i) concave mirror and (ii) convex mirror.
In concave mirror, reflection of light takes place at ‘bent in’ concave side surface. In convex
mirror, the reflection of light takes place at the ‘bulging out’ convex side surface.

Some important terms associated with mirrors

1. Pole - The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is a point called the
‘Pole’. It lies on the surface of the mirror. It is usually represented by the letter ‘P’ .
2. Centre of curvature – The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part of a
sphere. This sphere has a centre. This point is called the centre of curvature of the
spherical mirror. It’s represented by the letter ‘C’. Centre of curvature is not a part of
the mirror. It lies outside its reflecting surface. The centre of curvature of a concave
mirror lies in front of it and it lies behind the mirror in case of a convex mirror.
3. Radius of curvature - Radius of the sphere ‘PC’ of which the reflecting surface of a
spherical mirror forms a part, is called radius of curvature. It’s represented by the
letter ‘R’.
4. Principal axis- It is the line PC joining the pole ‘P’ and the centre of curvature ’C’ of
the spherical mirror. Principal axis is normal to the mirror at its pole.
 5. Principal focus - The rays of light incident parallel and close to the principal axis on a
concave mirror, after reflection, converge to a point ‘F’ on the principal axis or appear
to diverge from a point ‘F’ on the principal axis on a convex mirror. This point F is
called the principal focus of the spherical mirror. It’s real focus for concave mirrors
and virtual focus for convex mirrors.
6. Focal length - The distance between focus ‘F’ and the pole ‘P’ is called the focal
length of the mirror. It’s represented by the letter ‘f’.
7. Normal - For spherical mirrors, line joining the center of curvature of the mirror and
any point on the mirror surface is called the normal.
8. Aperture - The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is by and large spherical. The
surface, then, has a circular outline. The diameter of the reflecting surface of spherical
mirror is called its Aperture. The surface ‘MN’ of the mirror from which reflection
takes place.

(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror

For a spherical mirror of small aperture the focal length of a spherical mirror (concave or
convex) is half of the radius of curvature of the of the same mirror

i.e., f = R/2

For example, if the radius of curvature of a concave mirror is 36 cm, its focal length is 18 cm.
(f = R/2 = 36/2 = 18 cm)
 Rules for obtaining images formed by spherical (concave and convex)
mirrors

1. A ray of light incident on the mirror parallel to the principal axis after reflection will
actually pass through the principal focus of the concave mirror or appear to diverge
from the principal focus in case of a convex mirror.

2. A ray of incident light passing through the principal focus (concave mirror) or a ray
which is directed towards the principal focus (convex mirror) becomes parallel to the
principal axis after reflection.

(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror

 3. A ray of incident light passing through the center of curvature (concave mirror) or
directed in the direction of the centre of curvature (convex mirror) is reflected back
along the same path.

4. A ray of light incident obliquely at the pole of a concave (or convex) mirror is reflected
back obliquely making same angle as the angle of incidence with the principal axis.

►In all the above cases, the laws of reflection are followed.

Image formation by concave mirror

Following ray diagrams illustrates the image formation by a concave mirror when the object is
at infinity, beyond the center of curvature, at the center of curvature, between focus and center
of curvature, at focus and between focus and pole of the mirror.

►The distances between the pole and the focus and focus and the centre of curvature are taken
to be equal (Mirrors of small aperture)

►A minimum of two rays and two rules have to be used for the image formation ray diagrams.

►When an object is placed at a distance much greater than the focal length (u >> f), then the
object is said to be at infinity. Light rays coming from an object at infinity are parallel to
the principal axis.
Image formation by a concave mirror for different positions of the object

(a) Object placed at infinity

(b) Object placed beyond the centre of curvature

(c) Object placed at the centre of curvature

(d) Object placed between centre of curvature and focus

 (e) Object placed at the focus

(f) Object placed between focus and the pole

The image formed in the first 5 cases, is real where as in the last case, when the object is
between focus and the pole of the mirror, the image formed is virtual.
If the aperture is large, the image is not distinct but suffers from certain defects or distortion
effects of the image.
 Uses of Concave Mirrors

1. It’s commonly used in torches, search-lights and vehicles headlights to get powerful
parallel beams of light.
2. Dentist and ENT specialist uses it to see large images of the teeth of patients.
3. It’s used as a shaving mirror to see a large image of the face.
4. It’s used in the table lampshades to converge the light in a small region on the table.
5. Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar
furnaces.

Image formation by a convex mirror

In convex mirror, when the object is at infinity, the image formed is behind the mirror at the
focus. In all other positions of the object in front of the mirror, the image is always formed
diminished in size and behind the mirror between pole and the focus; F. It’s always virtual
and erect.

Image formation by a convex mirror for different positions of the object

(a) Object at infinity

(b) Object between infinity and the pole of the mirror

►As the object in front of the convex mirror is brought closer to the pole of the mirror, the
image formed moves away from the focus behind the mirror and it’s size increases. When the
object is moved away from the convex mirror, the image becomes smaller and will move
closer to the focus. The size of the image will be always smaller than the object and will lie
between the pole and focus of the convex mirror.

►Generally concave mirrors form real images and plane and convex mirrors form virtual
images. A plane mirror will produce an image of the same size, a concave mirror will
produce magnified image and a convex mirror will produce a diminished image when the
object lies between the pole and focus of the mirror. (Method to identify mirrors)

Uses of Convex mirrors

1. It’s used as reflector in street lamps to diverge the light over a large area.
2. It’s widely used as rear view mirror in vehicles.

Explanation: It provides the driver a clear view of the vehicles approaching from
behind. Convex mirrors are preferred because they always give an erect, though
diminished image. Also they have a wider field view as they are curved outwards,
enabling the driver to view much larger area than would not be possible with a plane
mirror.
 New Cartesian Sign Convention for reflection by spherical mirrors.

In this convention, the pole ’P’ of the mirror is taken as the origin. The principal axis of the
mirror is taken as the x-axis (X’X) of the coordinate system. The conventions are as follows-

1. The object is on the left of the mirror, i.e., light is incident on the mirror from the left
hand side of the mirror.
2. All the distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the
spherical mirror.
3. The distances measured in the direction of the incident light are taken as positive
(along positive x-axis to the right of origin).
4. The distances measured in the direction opposite of the direction on incident light are
taken as negative (along negative x-axis to the left of origin).
5. The heights measured upwards (above x-axis, X’X) and perpendicular to the principal
axis of the mirror are taken as positive (along positive y-axis).
6. The heights measured downwards (below X’X) and perpendicular to the principal
axis of the mirror are taken as negative( along negative y-axis)

Symbols used

1. ‘u’ – Object distance, that is the distance of the object from the pole of the mirror.
2. ‘v’ – Image distance, that is the distance of the image from the pole of the mirror.
3. ‘f’ – Focal length, that is the distance between the pole and focus of the mirror.
4. ‘R’ – Radius of curvature, that is the distance between the pole and centre of
curvature of the mirror.
5. ‘h’/ O – Height of the object
6. ‘h’’/ I – Height of the image.
 Conclusions from the sign convention

1. The object distance (u) is always negative.

2. If an image is formed behind a concave mirror (to the right side), the image distance
(v) is positive, but if the image distance is formed in front of the mirror (on the left
side), then the image distance will be negative.
3. The image distance (v) for a convex mirror will be always positive.
4. The focal length (f) of a concave mirror is generally considered negative and the focal
length of a convex mirror is positive.
5. The height of an object is always considered positive.
6. If an image is formed above the principal axis, its height is taken as positive and if the
image is formed below the principal axis, then it’s height is taken as negative.

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

u Negative u Negative
v Negative except when object is v Positive
placed between pole and the
focus (+ve)
f Negative f Positive
R Negative R Positive
h/O Positive h /O Positive
h’ / I Negative except when object is h’ / I Positive
placed between pole and the
focus (+ve)

Mirror Formula

It gives the relationship between image distance (v) from the pole, object distance (u) from
the pole and focal length (f) of a spherical mirror,

1/v + 1/u = 1/f

OR 1/v + 1/u = 2/R (since f = R/2)

This equation is valid in all situations with spherical mirrors including the virtual image
formed by a concave mirror or a convex mirror because we have taken proper care of the
signs of the distances denoted by u, v, f and R according to the new Cartesian sign
convention.

►►We must use the New Cartesian Sign Convention while substituting numerical
values for ‘u’, ‘v’, ‘f’ and ‘R’ in the mirror formula for solving problems.
 Magnification

Magnification (m) of a spherical mirror is defined as the ratio of the size (height) of the
image to the size (height) of the object.

Linear magnification (m) = size of image / size of object = A’B’ / AB = I / O = h’ / h

The size of the object is taken as positive. Magnification will be positive when h’ is positive
(image is erect and virtual) and ‘m’ will be negative when h’ is negative (image is inverted
and real).

m=I/O=-v/u

Where v = distance of the image from the mirror and u = distance of the object from the
mirror.
m = ± numerical value

►The sign of the magnification tells about the nature of image – virtual or real. Positive sign
means the image is virtual and erect and if the sign is negative, it means the image is real and
inverted.
►The numerical value tells about the size of the image. If it’s greater than one, then it means
height of image is bigger than object, equal to one means both image and object are of the
same size and if it is less than one, then it means image is smaller than the object.

►►We must use the New Cartesian Sign Convention while substituting numerical
values for ‘u’, ‘v’, ‘I’ and ‘O’ in the magnification formula for solving problems.

On applying the new Cartesian sign convention, we see that the focal length (f) and radius of
curvature (R) of a concave mirror are negative, while for the convex mirror they are positive.

►In case of concave mirror, the magnification for real image is negative and for a virtual
image, it’s positive. In case of a convex mirror, the magnification (m) is always positive
because image formed is always virtual and erect.
►A negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is real. A positive
sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is virtual.

Magnification (m) for a plane mirror is +1.

 Refraction of light

The change in the direction of light when it passes from one medium to another is called
refraction. The change in the path of light rays when it travels from one medium to another
is due to change in the speed of light while traversing from one medium to another.

The angle between the incident ray and normal (at the point of incidence) is called the angle
of incidence ( i) and the angle between the refracted ray and the normal (at the point of
incidence) is called the angle of refraction( r).

Laws of refraction of light

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface of separation of two
media at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant.
i.e. sin i / sin r = a constant
This constant ratio ( sin i / sin r) is called the refractive index of the second medium with
respect to first medium. It’s represented by ‘’ or ‘n’. This law is also known as Snell’s
law.
1
 2 =  21 = 1 n 2 = n 21 = sin i / sin r
For example, the angle of incidence for a ray of light in air is 37  and the angle of refraction
in glass is 24, refractive index of glass ,  = sin 37 / sin 24 = 1.5

The laws of refraction of light are valid for the plane as well as for spherical refracting
surfaces.

The Refractive index

The amount by which a ray of light bends when it enters the second medium depends on the
speed of light V2 in that medium compared to its speed V1 in the first medium.
Refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium is given by
1
 2 = speed of light in first medium (V1) / speed of light in second medium (V2)
1
 2 = V1 / V2
If the first medium is free space or vacuum, then the refractive index of the medium with
respect to vacuum (absolute refractive index of medium) is

n or  = speed of light in vacuum (C ) / speed of light in the medium ( V)

 =C/V

If n 1 and n 2 are the refractive indices of the first and the second medium with respect to
vacuum, the speed of light, V1 = C / n 1 and V2 = C / n 2 , in the first and second medium
respectively.

1  2 = sin i / sin r = V1 / V2 = C / n 1 / C/n2 =n2/n1 [since  = C / V ]

Where 1  2 is the refractive index of medium 2 (where light ray is refracted) with respect to
medium 1 (where light ray is incident).

►The frequency of refracted ray remains the same as that of incident light, but the
velocity and wavelength changes.
1  2 = sin i / sin r = V1 / V2 = C / V2 = υ λ / υ λm where λ is wavelength in air and λm is
the wavelength in the medium.( Assuming the first medium is air)

1  2 = sin i / sin r = V1 / V2 = C / V2 = υ λ / υ λm = λ / λm (frequency

of refracted ray remains the same)

►►The refractive index depends on the nature of the material of the medium and on the
wavelength (or colour) of the light used. It’s independent of the angle of incidence.

Absolute refractive Index – The refractive index of a medium with respect to the vacuum is
called absolute refractive index.
Relative refractive index – The refractive index of a medium with respect to another
medium (other than vacuum) is called relative refractive index.
►The medium with larger refractive index is called optically denser medium and the
medium with lower refractive index is called optically rarer medium. The speed of light is
more in an optically rarer medium than optically denser medium.

Direction of bending of light during refraction

1. A ray of light traveling from a rarer medium to a denser medium bends

towards the normal (at the point of incidence). For example, a ray traveling from

air to water.

2. A ray of light traveling from optically denser medium to a rarer medium bends
away from the normal (at the point of incidence). For example, when a ray of light
travels from glass to air.
►Note: An optically denser medium may not possess greater mass density. For example,
Kerosene / turpentine oil has a higher refractive index and so is optically denser than water.
But its mass density is less than that of water and hence it floats on the surface of water.

Refraction through a glass slab

Consider a rectangular glass slab PQRS. Let the refractive index of the glass slab be n 2.
Let light be incident from air (rarer medium with refractive index n1) on face PQ of glass slab
(denser medium). Refraction occurs at both the surfaces PQ (air – glass interface) and SR
(glass – air interface) of the glass slab.
Let AB be the incident ray and CD the emergent ray. (The angle that the emergent ray makes
with the normal is called the angle of emergence)
To prove that the emergent ray of light is parallel to the incident ray of light, we have to
prove that the angle of emergence ( e) is equal to the angle of incidence ( i).
At the first surface PQ (air – glass interface), refractive index is given by Snell’s law.

1
n 2 = sin i / sin r = n 2 / n 1 …………….. (1)

At the second surface SR (glass – air interface), refractive index is given by Snell’s law

2
n 3 = sin r / sin e = n 3 / n 2…………………..(2)
(the angle of incidence here is equal to the refracted angle since PQ parallel to SR)

But refractive index of air ( n1 =n3 = 1)

Therefore Equations (1) and (2) becomes

Sin i / sin r = n 2 / 1 or n 2 sin r = sin i ……………………(3)

And sin r / sin e = 1 / n 2 or n 2 sin r = sin e ……………….(4)

Comparing Equations (3) and (4), we get

Sin i = sin e or  i =  e
Since angle of emergence is equal to angle of incidence, the emergent ray of light CD is
parallel to the incident ray of light AB.

Though the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray, it’s laterally displaced from the
original path of incident light ABE and the emergent light goes along CD, the displacement
between them being DE.

Lateral displacement – The emergent ray, is shifted parallel to the incident ray, by a
certain distance in refraction through a glass slab. This perpendicular shift (distance) between
the actual direction of the incident ray and the emergent ray is called ‘lateral displacement’.

Lateral displacement of the emergent ray of light increases with

1. an increase in the thickness of the medium
2. an increase in the angle of incidence
3. an increase in the refractive index of the medium
4. a decrease in the wavelength of light (lateral displacement more for violet light than
red)

►For a given angle of incidence and a pair of media, lateral displacement is proportional to
the thickness of the glass slab (PS). It increases with increase of thickness of the glass
slab.

To find the relative refractive index of a pair of media when their absolute refractive indices

are known.

Let air/vacuum be medium 1, water medium 2 and glass medium 3.

Refractive index of water with respect to air is 1 n 2 . Refractive index of glass with respect
to air is 1 n 3. Therefore, refractive index of water with respect to glass is
 3
n 2 or 3  2 = 1  2 / 1  3 and
refractive index of glass with respect to water is
2
3=13 /12

Principle of Reversibility of light

According to the principle of reversibility of light, final path of a ray of light after a number
of reflections and refractions is reversible.
1
μ 2 = sin i/ sin r ….(1) 2μ1= sin r/ sin i……(1) From 1 and 2, we get, 1μ 2 = 1 / 2μ1
 Refraction by spherical lenses

A lens is a portion of a transparent medium (generally glass) bounded by one or two

spherical surfaces. The curved refracting surfaces may be cylindrical or parabolic also.
Lenses are of two types:
1. Convex (converging) lens: It’s thicker in the middle than at the edges. It is
converging in nature and has a real focus.
2. Concave (diverging) lens: It’s thinner in the middle than at the edges. It is diverging
in nature and has virtual focus.

►A plane surface is a type of spherical surface of infinite radius of curvature.

Terms related to spherical lenses

1. Centre of curvature (C) – of a surface of a lens is defined as the center of that sphere
of which that surface forms a part. There are two centers of curvature for a lens (C1
and C2), one each belonging to the two surfaces.
2. Radius of curvature (R) – of a surface of a lens is defined as the radius of that sphere
of which the surface forms a part. There are two radii of curvature for a lens (R1 and
R2), one each belonging to the two surfaces.
3. Principal axis – is the straight line passing through the center of curvatures C1 and
C2 of the two surfaces of a lens and the optical centre.
4. Optical centre (O) – is the point lying on the principal axis of a lens so that a ray
passing through it is supposed to be passing undeviated. [Actually a ray passing
through the optical centre emerges parallel to the direction of incident ray i.e. the
emergent ray is slightly displaced parallel to the original direction of incident ray. For
 thin this lateral displacement is small enough to be ignored and hence the assumption
that the ray passes undeviated]

5. Principal focus – is a point on the principal axis such that rays diverging from it
(convex lens) or appear to converge at it (concave lens) becomes parallel to the
principal axis after refraction. It is denoted by F1 and is called as first principal
focus. Similarly there is another point on the principal axis such that rays incident on
the lens parallel to the principal axis after refraction converges at a point (convex
lens) or appear to diverge from a point (concave lens). It is called second principal
focus and is denoted by F2.
 6. Focal length (f) – is the distance between principal focus and optical center of a lens.
Focal length of converging (convex) lens is taken positive and negative for a
diverging lens (concave).

►If the medium on both sides of a lens is same, the first and second focal length will be
equal. That is the two foci of a lens are at equal distances from the optical center, one on
either side of the lens. For convexo-concave and concavo-convex lens, optical center may be
outside the lens.

Rules for image formation by lenses (convex or concave)

1. A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from a
convex lens, passes through the principal focus on the other side of the lens (Fig.(a)).
In case of a concave lens, the ray appears to diverge from the principal focus located
on the same side of the lens (Fig (b)).

2. A ray of light passing through a principal focus, after refraction from a convex lens,
will emerge parallel to the principal axis (Fig.(a)). A ray of light appearing to meet at
the principal focus of a concave lens, after refraction, will emerge parallel to the
principal axis (Fig (b)).
 3. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge out without any
deviation after refraction.

Image formation by a convex lens

Following ray diagrams illustrates the image formation by a convex lens when the object is at
infinity, beyond ‘2F’, at ‘2F’, between ‘F1’ and ‘2F1’, at focus ‘F1’ and between focus ‘F1’ and
optical centre ‘O’.

►A minimum of two rays and two rules have to be used for the image formation ray diagrams.

►When an object is placed at a distance much greater than the focal length (u >> f), then the
object is said to be at infinity. Light rays coming from an object at infinity are parallel to
the principal axis.

Image formation by a convex lens for different positions of the object

(a) Object placed at infinity

(b) Object placed beyond ‘2F’

(c) Object placed at ‘2F’

(d) Object placed between between ‘F1’ and ‘2F1’

(e) Object placed at the focus ‘F1’

 they will meet at infinity

(f) Object placed between focus ‘F1’ and between focus ‘F1’ and optical centre ‘O’

►Convex lens forms a real and virtual image except when the object is placed between the
focus and the optical center.
We should not look directly at the sun through the lens because it may damage our eyes.

Image formation by a concave lens

In a concave lens, irrespective of the position of the object in front of the lens, the image is
always formed diminished, virtual and erect and on the same side of the lens at the focus or
between the focus and the optical center.

1. Object at Infinity

2. Object anywhere between infinity and optical centre of lens.

 Method to distinguish between concave and convex lens

If we bring a lens close to the page of a book, we see the image of the writings of the book
through it. If the letters appear enlarged in size, then it’s a convex lens and if the letters
appear diminished, then it’s a concave lens.

Sign convention for spherical lenses

1. Light is incident on the lens from the left hand side.

2. All distances are measured from the optical center of the lens taken as origin and
principal axis of the lens lies along axis XX’.
3. The distance taken in the direction of the incident light, are taken as positive.
4. The distances taken in a direction opposite to the incident light are taken as negative.
5. Heights or distances measured upward and normal to the principal axis are taken as
positive while downward distances are taken as negative.
 Symbols used

7. ‘u’ – Object distance, that is the distance of the object from the optical centre of the
lens.
8. ‘v’ – Image distance, that is the distance of the image from the optical centre of the
lens.
9. ‘f’ – Focal length, that is the distance between the optical centre and focus of the lens.
10. ‘R’ – Radius of curvature, that is the distance between the optical centre and centre of
curvature of the lens.
11. ‘h’/ O/ho – Height of the object
12. ‘h’’/ I/ hi – Height of the image.

Conclusions from the sign convention

7. The object distance (u) is always negative.

8. If an image is formed behind the lens (to the right side), the image distance (v) is
positive, but if the image distance is formed in front of the lens (on the left side), then
the image distance will be negative.
9. The image distance (v) for a concave lens will be always negative.
10. The focal length (f) of a concave lens is generally considered negative and the focal
length of a convex lens is positive.
11. The height of an object is always considered positive.
12. If an image is formed above the principal axis, its height is taken as positive and if the
image is formed below the principal axis, then it’s height is taken as negative.

Convex lens Concave lens

u Negative u Negative
v Positive except when object is v Negative
placed between optical centre
and the focus (-ve)
f Positive f Negative
R Positive R Negative
h/O Positive h /O Positive
h’ / I Negative except when object is h’ / I Positive
placed between optical centre and
the focus (+ve)

Lens formula

It gives the relationship between object distance (u) from the optical center, image distance
(v) from the optical center and focal length (f) of a thin lens, i.e.

1/f = 1/v–1/u
This formula is valid in all situations for any spherical lens including the virtual image
formed by a concave lens or a convex lens.
►►We must use the New Cartesian Sign Convention while substituting numerical
values for ‘u’, ‘v’, ‘f’ and ‘R’ in the lens formula for solving problems.

Magnification

Linear magnification (m) is defined as the ratio of the size (or height) of the image formed (I
or h’ ) formed by the lens to the size (or height) of the object (O or h),

i.e. Linear magnification (m) = Size of image / size of object = I / O or h’/ h

m=I/O=v/u

m = ± numerical value

►The sign of the magnification tells about the nature of image – virtual or real. Positive sign
means the image is virtual and erect and if the sign is negative, it means the image is real and
inverted.
►The numerical value tells about the size of the image. If it’s greater than one, then it means
height of image is bigger than object, equal to one means both image and object are of the
same size and if it is less than one, then it means image is smaller than the object.
In a convex lens, the magnification is positive when the image formed is virtual and negative
when the image formed is real. Concave lens produce always virtual image and hence
magnification is always positive.

►►We must use the New Cartesian Sign Convention while substituting numerical
values for ‘u’, ‘v’, ‘I’ and ‘O’ in the magnification formula for solving problems.
 Power of a lens

The power of a lens is a measure of the degree of convergence or divergence of light rays
falling on it.
The power (P) of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length (f) in metres.

P=1/f

The S.I unit of power of a lens is dioptre, denoted by the symbol ‘D’.

One dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 meter.

►The power of a converging (convex) lens is positive and that of a diverging lens (concave)
is negative.
For example, a convex lens with a focal length 0.5m has a power +2D.
[P =1/f =1/0.5= +2] and a concave lens of focal length –0.4 m has a power of –2.5 D
[ P = 1/f = 1/ -0.4 = -2.5D].

A short focal length lens, which bends light rays more, through large angles by focusing them
closer to the optical centre, has a large power.

Power of a combination of lenses

The net power (P) of a number of lenses placed in contact is given by the algebraic sum of
the individual powers P1, P2, P3 …… of the lenses.

i.e. P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ……..