Topic 8: Development in Pedagogical Approaches

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Identify the main features of language teaching approaches.

2. Identify the principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
3. Discuss the main characteristics of popular methodologies.
4. Identify the main priorities of the KBSM English language programme.
5. Describe types of bilingualism and its effect on language learning and cognition.

INTRODUCTION:

 In Topic 7, psycholinguistic principles were applied to the reading process.

 This topic shifts focus to second language (L2) pedagogy, where teaching methods
have evolved over time.
 Language teaching is influenced by trends and youth culture, unlike steady fields like
physics or chemistry.
 Few language teachers are aware of the history of their profession and the methods
they use.
 This topic provides a brief survey of approaches in language teaching over the last
century.
 The first part focuses on issues in language teaching connected to psycholinguistics.
 The second part discusses the Communicative Approach and the shift toward social
interaction and constructivism in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory.
 The third part covers the English language curriculum (KBSM) and its goals.
 The topic concludes with a discussion on bilingualism and its impact on language
learning and cognition.

8.1 POINTS TO PONDER

ACTIVITY 8.1: Discuss the teaching of English in Malaysian schools.

 English language teaching has evolved through many theories, ranging from scientific
studies to personal observations.
 These theories are often based on psycholinguistic principles.
  The connection between theory and language pedagogy can be either clear or unclear.
 This topic continues to receive attention.

8.1.1 Formal Instruction vs Informal Learning

 A major question is whether formal instruction (drills, repetition, controlled practice)

has a beneficial effect on language learning.
 Most learning, including language learning, happens through unstructured
participation in meaningful contexts, not just instruction (Illich, 1972).
 First language acquisition supports this, showing that language can be learned
naturally.
 The key to learning a new language may be:
(a) Exposure
(b) Motivation
(c) Opportunities for use
 Studies (e.g., Allwright et al., 1979, Krashen, 1985) support this approach, but form-
focused instruction is still useful for adults learning a language outside target-
language communities.

8.1.2 Noticing

 If form-focused instruction doesn't work as well, teachers should focus on making

students aware of the language.
 Schmidt (1990) introduced "noticing," which is the process by which students become
aware of the language they are exposed to.
 Noticing is necessary for language intake and learning; without it, students are
unlikely to process and learn the language.
 This challenges Krashen’s idea that comprehensible input alone is enough for
language acquisition.

8.1.3 The Affective Variable

 A major issue in recent years is how students' responses to learning affect their self-
perception.
  Many support an affective or "humanist" approach to language teaching (Maslow,
1987; Krashen, 1985; Stevick, 1996).
 According to Carl Rogers (1994), learners need to feel that learning is personally
relevant, and they must experience learning, not just be taught. This enhances their
self-image.

Criticism of the Affective Approach:

 (a) Should teachers ask students to reveal personal feelings and monitor their inner
selves?
 (b) Emphasizing only interpersonal and informal language limits exposure to a wider
range of language.
 (c) Teachers may neglect students' cognitive and intellectual development by focusing
too much on affective factors.
 (d) How far should teachers act as moral guides and therapists while also being
language teachers?

8.2 Popular Approach

8.2.1 Defining Characteristics

(a) Grammar-Translation Approach

 This approach, originally for classical languages, is extended to modern languages.

 Main features:
(i) Instruction is in the students' native language.
(ii) Limited use of the target language for communication.
(iii) Focus is on grammatical parsing (form and inflection of words).
(iv) Early reading of difficult texts.
(v) Exercises involve translating sentences between the target language and mother
tongue.
(vi) Results in students' inability to use the language for communication.
(vii) The teacher does not need to speak the target language.
(b) Direct Approach

 A response to the Grammar Translation Approach’s failure in producing

communicative learners.
 Main features:
(i) The use of the mother tongue is not allowed.
(ii) Lessons start with dialogues and anecdotes in modern conversational style.
(iii) Actions and pictures are used for clarity.
(iv) Grammar is learned inductively.
(v) Literary texts are read for enjoyment, not grammatical analysis.
(vi) The target culture is taught inductively.
(vii) The teacher must be a native speaker or have native-like proficiency in the target
language.

(c) Reading Approach

 A reaction to problems with the Direct Approach, focusing on reading as a practical

skill.
 Main features:
(i) Only grammar needed for reading comprehension is taught.
(ii) Vocabulary is initially controlled (based on frequency and usefulness) and
expanded later.
(iii) Translation is again accepted as a classroom activity.
(iv) Reading comprehension is the primary skill emphasized.
(v) The teacher does not need strong oral proficiency in the target language.

(d) Audiolingualism

 A response to the Reading Approach’s neglect of oral-aural skills.

 Dominated in the U.S. from the 1940s to 1960s, drawing from the Reform Movement,
Direct Approach, structural linguistics (Bloomfield, 1933), and behavioral psychology
(Skinner, 1957).
 Main features:
(i) Lessons start with dialogues.
(ii) Mimicry and memorization are used, assuming language is habit formation.
 (iii) Grammatical structures are sequenced and taught inductively.
(iv) Skills are sequenced: listening, speaking (reading, writing come later).
(v) Pronunciation is emphasized from the start.
(vi) Vocabulary is limited initially.
(vii) Efforts are made to prevent student errors.
(viii) Language is often manipulated without regard to meaning or context.
(ix) Teachers only need proficiency in the specific structures and vocabulary they are
teaching, as activities and materials are controlled.

(e) Oral-Situational Approach

 A reaction to the Reading Approach’s lack of focus on oral-aural skills.

 Dominant in Britain during the 1940s–1960s, drawing from the Reform Movement,
Direct Approach, Firthian linguistics, and the emerging field of language pedagogy.
 Main features:
(i) Spoken language is prioritized.
(ii) All language material is practiced orally (reading and writing follow after oral
proficiency).
(iii) Only the target language is used in the classroom.
(iv) Emphasis on presenting the most general and useful lexical items.
(v) Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex.
(vi) New lexical and grammatical items are introduced and practiced in situational
contexts (e.g., at the post office, at the bank).

(f) Cognitive Approach

 A reaction to the behaviorist elements of Audiolingualism, influenced by cognitive

psychology (Neisser, 1967) and Chomskyan linguistics (Chomsky, 1959, 1965).
 Main features:
(i) Language learning is seen as rule acquisition, not habit formation.
(ii) Instruction is often individualized; students take responsibility for their learning.
(iii) Grammar can be taught deductively (rules first) or inductively (rules discovered
through practice).
(iv) Pronunciation is less emphasized; perfection is not viewed as attainable.
(v) Reading and writing are as important as listening and speaking.
 (vi) Vocabulary instruction becomes important at intermediate and advanced levels.
(vii) Errors are seen as inevitable and useful for learning.
(viii) The teacher should have strong proficiency in the target language and be able to
analyze it.

(g) Affective-Humanistic Approach

 A response to the lack of affective focus in Audiolingualism and the Cognitive

Approach.
 Main features:
(i) Emphasis on respecting the individual (student and teacher) and their feelings.
(ii) Focus on communication that is meaningful to the student.
(iii) Instruction involves pair and small group work.
(iv) Class atmosphere is considered more important than materials or methods.
(v) Peer support and interaction are seen as essential for learning.
(vi) Learning a foreign language is viewed as a self-realization experience.
(vii) The teacher acts as a counselor or facilitator.
(viii) The teacher should be proficient in both the target language and the students’
native language, using translation at first to ease students, then phasing it out.

(h) Comprehension-Based Approach

 Based on research in first language acquisition, assuming second language learning is

similar.
 Main features:
(i) Listening comprehension is emphasized as the foundation for developing speaking,
reading, and writing skills.
(ii) Students should begin by listening to meaningful speech and responding non-
verbally before speaking.
(iii) Students should not speak until they feel ready, which improves pronunciation.
(iv) Students progress by being exposed to input just beyond their competence.
(v) Rule learning helps students monitor their language use but does not aid
acquisition.
(vi) Error correction is considered unnecessary and possibly harmful; the focus is on
understanding and being understood.
 (vii) If the teacher is not a native (or near-native) speaker, appropriate materials like
audiotapes and videotapes are needed for proper input.

(i) Communicative Approach

 Developed from anthropological linguists (e.g. Hymes, 1972) and Firthian linguists
(e.g. Halliday, 1973), who view language primarily as a communication system.
 Main features:
(i) The goal of language teaching is for students to communicate in the target
language.
(ii) The content includes semantic notions and social functions, not just linguistic
structures.
(iii) Students work in pairs or groups to exchange and negotiate meaning.
(iv) Role play and dramatization are used to adjust language use to different social
contexts.
(v) Classroom materials and activities are often authentic, reflecting real-life
situations.
(vi) Skills are integrated from the start, combining reading, speaking, listening, and
writing.
(vii) The teacher's role is mainly to facilitate communication, with error correction
being secondary.
(viii) The teacher should be fluent and appropriate in the target language.

Conclusion:

 Each approach arises in response to previous ones, with distinct theories about
language learning.
o Cognitive Approach: Language as rule-governed behavior.
o Affective-Humanistic Approach: Language learning as self-realization and
social connection.
o Comprehension Approach: Language acquisition occurs through
comprehending meaningful input.
o Communicative Approach: The goal of language is communication.

Activity 8.2:
  Reflect on your teaching practices. Identify features from the listed approaches. What
is your teaching approach?

8.2.2 The Communicative Approach

 The Communicative Approach aims to improve students’ ability to communicate,

unlike earlier approaches that focused on learning isolated language elements
(vocabulary, grammar) without emphasizing their practical use.
 Principles of the Communicative Approach (Mitchell, 1994):
1. Classroom activities should focus on meaningful use of the target language,
prioritizing the message and task completion over the correctness of form and
structure.
2. Learners will make errors when trying to use the target language creatively;
errors are normal, and constant correction is counterproductive.
3. While language analysis and grammar explanation can help some, extensive
experience using the target language is more beneficial for everyone.
4. Language teaching should respond to the needs and interests of individual
learners.
5. Language learning is an active process where learners take increasing
responsibility for their progress.
6. The teacher’s role is to facilitate learning, not control it.
 Communicative Syllabus:

1. Organized around notions (meanings like time, location, degree) and functions
(social interactions like asking for information).
2. Grammar and vocabulary are taught in relation to expressing these notions and
functions, not as standalone elements.
3. Some proponents reject atomistic syllabi (structured or notional-functional)
and advocate for a task-based syllabus that uses real-world tasks and authentic
materials.
8.2.3 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Morrow (1981) listed five principles of communicative methodology:

(a) Know What You Are Doing

 Every lesson should involve an activity the student wants to perform in the target
language.
  Even routine activities like pattern drills should be linked to real communication
tasks.
 Role plays must be meaningful and relate to real tasks, not just for practice.

(b) The Whole is More Than the Sum of the Parts

 Communication is dynamic and can’t be broken down into simple components.

 Real conversations happen in real-time and can’t be studied too slowly.
 A communicative method should help students handle language above the sentence
level in real situations.

(c) The Processes are as Important as the Forms

 The communicative method should provide practice of language forms within real
communication activities.
 The more these processes are incorporated, the more the activity is likely to be
communicative.

(i) Information Gap

 Communication bridges gaps in information.

 Classroom activities should create information gaps to encourage students to bridge
them appropriately.

(ii) Choice

 Communication allows for choice in what to say and how to say it.
 Activities where the teacher controls students' language use fail to practice this aspect
of communication.

(iii) Feedback

 Communication is goal-oriented; what you say depends on what the other person says
and the aim of the conversation.
 Feedback helps guide the conversation toward the intended goal.
(d) To Learn It, Do It

 Learning happens through active participation in communicative activities.

 The classroom environment should encourage students to engage in tasks, make
choices, and evaluate feedback.
 A regimented classroom structure inhibits communication.

(e) Mistakes are Not Always a Mistake

 Mistakes are part of the learning process, but how they are handled matters.
(i) Minor mistakes (grammar or pronunciation) may not matter if the student
communicates effectively.
(ii) Mistakes may occur when students are pushed into activities beyond their level of
preparation.
 If mistakes are constantly corrected, it can damage the student's confidence.
 CLT encourages language use even with mistakes, focusing on communication rather
than strict accuracy.

(a) Language Arts

 Focuses on language forms like syntax, morphology, and phonology.

 Activities include translation, dictation, rote memorization, vocabulary expansion
(through synonyms, antonyms, and cognates), pronunciation exercises, and grammar
explanations.
 Language Arts games engage students while focusing on form.

(b) Language for a Purpose

 Focuses on using English for real communicative goals.

 Tailor materials to students' specific communicative needs.
  In ESL classrooms, students use English naturally; in EFL classrooms, special
attention is needed to provide English language experience.
 Exclusive use of English, content-based instruction, immersion, and task-based
curricula can be options.
 Teachers need to support students in understanding and expressing themselves in
English, even if it’s not perfect.

(c) My Language is Me: Personal English Language Use

 Focuses on the student’s emerging identity in English.

 Affective factors (student attitudes) are key to success.
 Teaching should consider both cognitive and emotional aspects.
 Respect for students' self-expression is crucial, and native-like English may not be the
goal.
 Avoid emphasizing "native-like" performance, recognizing diversity in
communicative abilities.

(d) You B, I’ll Be: Theatre Arts

 Students experiment with roles they may play in real life.

 Activities include role play, simulations, and pantomime.
 The teacher acts as a coach, providing support, strategies, and encouragement for
exploring new ways of expression.

(e) Beyond the Classroom

 Focuses on preparing students to use English in the outside world.

 Development starts by understanding student interests and needs.
 In EFL, challenges exist, but technology provides new opportunities like penpals,
online communication, English media, and peer interaction through the internet.
 Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is expected to increase, offering more
opportunities to practice English.
8.2.4 Popular Methodologies

Apart from CLT, four methods have significantly impacted language teaching, falling under
the Affective-Humanistic Approach, focusing on reducing students' affective filter.

(a) Community Language Learning (CLL)

 Created by Curran (1972), based on Carl Rogers’ view of education.

 Encourages lowering defenses for open communication between students and the
teacher.
 The teacher acts as a counselor, focusing on students’ needs, instead of being a threat
or an authority figure.
 Main features:
(i) Students establish trust and interpersonal relationships using their native language.
(ii) Students initially sit in a circle; later, they may work in pairs.
(iii) The teacher stands outside the circle as a counselor.
(iv) Students may be beginners in the target language.
(v) A student says something in their first language.
(vi) The teacher translates the utterance into the target language.
(vii) The student repeats the translated sentence accurately.
(viii) At the end of a session, students make conclusions about the language
inductively.
(ix) The teacher may explain specific linguistic items.
(x) Students reflect on how they feel about the activity.
(xi) The teacher’s role is to facilitate and guide students toward their goals, offering
support and counsel.

(b) The Silent Way

 Founded by Caleb Gattegno (1972).

 Emphasizes discovery-learning and problem-solving, with students creating and
discovering language rather than simply repeating what is taught.
 Encourages independence, autonomy, and responsibility.
  Key features:
(i) Uses Cuisenaire rods (colored rods of different lengths) and colorful wall charts as
teaching materials.
(ii) Rods help introduce vocabulary (colors, numbers, adjectives), verbs, and syntax.
(iii) Charts provide pronunciation models and grammatical paradigms.
(iv) The teacher models sounds by pointing to charts or rod arrangements; students
imitate.
(v) Teacher uses gestures or expressions to indicate correct or incorrect actions.
(vi) Students solve problems and learn the language with indirect teacher assistance.

(c) Suggestopedia

 Developed by Georgi Lazanov (1979), based on Soviet psychological research and

yoga.
 Focuses on relaxed states of mind for enhanced retention.
 Uses Baroque music (60 beats per minute) to increase alpha brain waves, reduce
blood pressure, and aid in language acquisition.
 Key features:
(i) Infantilization: Students are given different names to reduce learning barriers and
foster a parent-child dynamic.
(ii) Traumatic themes are avoided.
(iii) The teacher shows sympathy towards students.
(iv) The lesson consists of three parts:
1. Oral review of previously learned material.
2. Presentation and discussion of new dialogue material and its L1 equivalent.
3. "Concert" session where students listen to Baroque music while the teacher
reads the new dialogue material in sync with the music.

(d) Total Physical Response (TPR)

 Developed by Asher (1977), based on the observation that children first learn to listen
before speaking, accompanied by physical responses.
 Asher believes motor activity (right-brain function) should precede language
processing (left-brain function) in language learning.
  The TPR classroom aims to reduce anxiety by focusing on listening and physical
actions.
 TPR is often combined with other methods.
 Key features:
(i) TPR classes use the imperative mood, even at advanced levels.
(ii) Commands are given, but no verbal response is required.
(iii) The process continues until students are ready to give instructions themselves.

8.3 COMMUNICATIVE SYLLABUS AND THE KBSM

8.3.1 The KBSM English Language Programme

 The KBSM (Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah) is Malaysia’s Integrated

Secondary School Curriculum.
 It introduced changes to the traditional roles of teachers and students, focusing on
whole-person development through language learning.

Key Highlights from Compendium Vol.1 (1989:1):

 English is a means to develop the individual, not just a subject.

 Teachers are language educators, not merely instructors.
 Emphasis is placed on moral, spiritual, and intellectual development.

Moral and Spiritual Aspects:

 English lessons provide a platform to introduce moral values through language

activities.
 Language topics naturally lead to meaningful discussions on values without making
moral lessons secondary or boring.

Intellectual Aspects:

 Teachers are encouraged to ask higher-level questions requiring analysis, evaluation,

and opinions.
 Students are given opportunities to ask questions, making it a regular part of lessons.
Goals of the KBSM English Programme:

 By the end of secondary school, students should be competent and confident

language users.
 Lessons should encourage active participation and consist of three stages:
(a) Language presentation stage
(b) Practice stage
(c) Language extension stage

Student-Centred Learning:

 Teachers shift from teacher-centred to student-centred classes.

 Students are encouraged to become more autonomous, taking responsibility for their
learning and contributing to decisions on lesson content and style.

Overall:

 The KBSM English programme strives to be communicative in nature, though actual

classroom application may vary.

8.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF READING

 Bilingualism is widespread, especially where English is concerned.

 Being monolingual is uncommon – most people globally are bilingual to some
degree.
 Malaysia is a clear example of a multilingual society.
Reasons for Bilingualism:

 Societal factors – Growing up in bilingual societies.

 Education and economy – Schooling in a second language.
 Immigration – Adopting the dominant language.
 Colonisation – Imposition of languages like English in Malaysia and India.
 Professional advantages – Business professionals learning foreign languages.
 Family environment – Mixed language households.

Definition of Bilingualism:

 Bilingual – Anyone who functions in more than one language (Snow in Gleason and
Ratner, 1998).

Why Study Bilingualism?

 It relates to language acquisition and falls under psycholinguistics.

Benefits of Bilingualism:
  Social – Promotes cultural understanding and unity (e.g., Malaysia).
 Personal – Access to other cultures and easier integration abroad.

Criticisms of Bilingualism:

 Concerns about early childhood development.

 Fears that bilingualism could hinder linguistic and cognitive growth in young
children.
 Criticisms mostly stem from the early 20th century, when research was limited.

Next:

 Explore the effects of bilingualism on language and cognitive development.

8.4.1 Effects on the Development of Language

Impact of Learning a Second Language on First Language Acquisition:

 Studies show both positive and negative effects.

(a) Negative Findings:

 Smith’s (1930) study compared pre-school children in Iowa (monolingual) and

Hawaii (bilingual – Chinese, Filipino, Hawaiian, Japanese, Portuguese).
 Finding: Bilingual children in Hawaii made more errors than monolinguals in Iowa.
 Conclusion: Bilingualism retards language development.
 Criticism of the Study:
o Language variety differences – Hawaiian children spoke a distinct variety,
not Standard American English.
o Uncontrolled factors – Family education, socioeconomic background (Labov
1966, Bernstein 1973, Trudgill 1983).
o Flawed comparison – Monolingual and bilingual children should be from
similar environments (e.g., both from Iowa or Hawaii).

(b) Positive Findings:

 Bruck et al. (1976) – Longitudinal study in French immersion.

  Subjects: L1 English children in a French immersion programme.
 Findings:
o By 4th and 5th grade, bilingual children’s reading and writing skills matched
native French speakers.
o L1 competency was on par with monolingual English peers.
o Bilingual children excelled in creativity, mathematics, and science.

Steinberg (1993) Conclusion:

 No evidence suggests early bilingualism hinders language development.

 Bilingualism enhances cognitive development.

8.4.2 Effects on the Development of Intelligence

Impact of Bilingualism on Intelligence and Creativity:

 Early research suggested negative effects, but later studies found positive
correlations between bilingualism and cognitive development.

(a) Negative Findings:

 Goddard (1971) – Study on Jewish immigrants at Ellis Island using the Binet
intelligence test.
 Findings:
o Less than 50% of respondents produced 60 words in a word fluency test
(compared to 200 for 11-year-old Americans).
o Conclusion: Immigrants were labeled “feeble-minded.”
o A petition was made to restrict immigration based on these results.
 Criticism of the Study:
o The test did not account for language proficiency – poor performance
reflected language barriers, not intelligence.
o Cultural bias in the test led to skewed results.
o This led to reforms in intelligence testing methodologies in the 1950s.

(b) Positive Findings:

  Bain and Yu (1980):
o Study: Longitudinal study of monolingual and bilingual children (Canada,
France, Hong Kong).
o Participants: Babies (6–8 months) raised as monolinguals or bilinguals under
researcher supervision.
o Method: Puzzles and verbal instructions used to assess cognitive ability.
o Results: By age 4, bilingual children outperformed monolingual peers in
intelligence tests.
 Conclusion:
o Bilingualism enhances cognitive abilities, supporting development in areas
like science, math, and creativity.
o Social benefits – Promotes inter-cultural understanding and eases
socialization.

Discussion Questions:

1. Is bilingualism detrimental to language development and intelligence?

o Argument Against:
 Bilingualism enhances cognitive flexibility and problem-solving
skills.
 Studies (Bruck, Bain & Yu) show no negative effects; bilinguals often
perform better academically.
 Bilingualism delays cognitive decline in aging populations.
o Possible Challenges:
 Temporary delays in early speech milestones.
 Language interference (code-switching) may confuse learners but is
typically temporary.
2. Why is bilingualism seen as a threat to cultural stability in some regions?
o Preservation of Heritage: Fear that learning a second language may erode
the mother tongue.
o Identity Concerns: Language is tied to cultural identity – bilingualism may
lead to a dilution of traditions.
 o National Unity: In some countries, one national language is promoted to
foster unity and reduce ethnic divisions.
o Colonial Influence: Bilingualism may be viewed as a reminder of colonial
history, leading to resistance.

Final Thought:
Bilingualism is increasingly seen as an asset rather than a threat. In multicultural societies
like Malaysia, it enhances unity and broadens economic and social opportunities.

8.4.3 Simultaneous and Sequential Learning

Bilingualism develops in two ways:

1. Simultaneous Acquisition
2. Sequential Acquisition

(a) Simultaneous Acquisition

 Happens only in children.

 Involves learning two languages at the same time from birth.

Two Situations:

1. 1P-1L (One Parent, One Language):

o Each parent speaks one language consistently.
o Example: Mother speaks English, father speaks Mandarin.
o Result: Faster language development due to less confusion.
2. 1P-2L (One Parent, Two Languages):
o Each parent speaks two languages.
o Example: Mother speaks both English and Mandarin.
o Result: Children may mix languages at first but learn to separate them over
time.
(b) Sequential Acquisition

 Can happen in children or adults.

 The second language is learned after the first language.

Common in:

 Immigrant families or communities where the home language differs from the
community language.

Success Factors:

 Motivation, social environment, and language similarity to the first language (L1).
 Example: French speakers may find it easier to learn English than Japanese speakers
because the languages are more similar.

Key Point:

 The closer the languages are culturally and linguistically, the easier the acquisition
process.

Sure! Here's a set of 20 multiple-choice questions based on the topic of Simultaneous and
Sequential Language Learning. Answers are provided at the end.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. How many conditions can lead to bilingualism according to the text?

a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) Four

2. Simultaneous acquisition of languages occurs:

a) Only in adults
b) Only in children
c) In both children and adults
d) In immigrants exclusively

3. In the 1P-1L (One Parent, One Language) model, how do parents communicate with
the child?
a) Both parents speak the same language
b) One parent speaks two languages
c) Each parent speaks one language consistently
d) Parents switch between languages randomly

4. What is the primary advantage of the 1P-1L model for children?

a) Faster vocabulary development
b) Less confusion between languages
c) Better pronunciation skills
d) Increased social interaction

5. In the 1P-2L model, parents:

a) Speak only one language to the child
b) Use different languages at home and in public
c) Speak two languages to the child
d) Encourage the child to speak one language only

6. According to Steinberg (1993), children can use both languages competently by the
age of:
a) Two
b) Three or four
c) Five
d) Six or seven

7. Children in the 1P-2L situation initially produce:

a) Perfectly formed sentences in both languages
b) Mixed language sentences
c) Sentences in only one language
d) No sentences until much later
8. What is the main reason children in the 1P-1L model acquire languages faster?
a) They are exposed to fewer words
b) They receive consistent language input
c) They have better memory skills
d) They attend language classes earlier

9. Sequential acquisition can occur:

a) Only in adults
b) Only in children
c) In both children and adults
d) Exclusively in multilingual families

10. Sequential acquisition often occurs in:

a) Monolingual societies
b) Immigrant families
c) Communities with limited education
d) Countries with strict language policies

11. What is a key factor for successful sequential language acquisition?

a) Early exposure to books
b) Psychological barriers and motivation
c) Watching television in another language
d) Attending international schools

12. Which language would be easier for a French speaker to learn?

a) Japanese
b) Korean
c) English
d) Chinese

13. Why is English easier to learn for French speakers compared to Japanese speakers?
a) English and French are spoken widely
b) English and French share cultural and linguistic similarities
c) Japanese grammar is simpler
d) Japanese has more complex vocabulary
14. In sequential acquisition, which factor can negatively impact learning a second
language?
a) High motivation
b) Language similarity
c) Psychological barriers
d) Social support

15. Simultaneous bilingual children initially:

a) Master both languages without errors
b) Face difficulty differentiating between two languages
c) Speak fluently by age two
d) Refuse to speak in either language

16. Which of the following statements is true about simultaneous language acquisition?
a) It is slower than sequential acquisition
b) It occurs in adults more frequently than children
c) Children can switch between languages effortlessly by age three or four
d) It only happens in immigrant families

17. In sequential acquisition, children or adults learn:

a) One language from birth
b) Two languages at the same time
c) A second language after the first is established
d) Three or more languages simultaneously

18. A significant barrier to learning a second language in sequential acquisition is:

a) Strong parental support
b) Attending bilingual schools
c) Low motivation or fear of making mistakes
d) Access to language resources

19. What happens over time to children who initially produce mixed language sentences
in the 1P-2L model?
a) They continue mixing languages into adulthood
b) They struggle to speak either language fluently
c) They successfully differentiate between the two languages
d) They revert to speaking only one language

20. One of the reasons bilingualism is common in immigrant families is:

a) The community speaks the same language as the family
b) The parents enforce monolingualism
c) Parents teach a second language different from the local language
d) The home language differs from the community language

Answers:

1. b) Two
2. b) Only in children
3. c) Each parent speaks one language consistently
4. b) Less confusion between languages
5. c) Speak two languages to the child
6. b) Three or four
7. b) Mixed language sentences
8. b) They receive consistent language input
9. c) In both children and adults
10. b) Immigrant families
11. b) Psychological barriers and motivation
12. c) English
13. b) English and French share cultural and linguistic similarities
14. c) Psychological barriers
15. b) Face difficulty differentiating between two languages
16. c) Children can switch between languages effortlessly by age three or four
17. c) A second language after the first is established
18. c) Low motivation or fear of making mistakes
19. c) They successfully differentiate between the two languages
20. d) The home language differs from the community language
Multiple Choice Questions 2:

1. What does pedagogy refer to?

a) The science of curriculum development
b) The philosophy of education
c) The method and practice of teaching
d) The administration of schools

2. Which of the following is a characteristic of traditional pedagogy?

a) Learner autonomy
b) Rote memorization
c) Collaborative learning
d) Student-led projects

3. A learner-centered approach emphasizes:

a) Teacher authority
b) Passive learning
c) Active participation
d) Uniform testing

4. Which teaching method involves students working in groups to solve real-world problems?
a) Direct instruction
b) Problem-based learning
c) Lecture method
d) Grammar-translation method

5. In modern pedagogical approaches, the teacher acts primarily as a:

a) Disciplinarian
b) Sole source of knowledge
c) Facilitator
d) Textbook reader

6. Which learning theory supports the idea that students construct their own knowledge?
a) Behaviorism
b) Constructivism
c) Cognitivism
d) Essentialism

7. What is one benefit of incorporating technology into pedagogy?

a) Encourages dependence on screens
b) Replaces teachers
c) Enhances interactive and personalized learning
d) Discourages collaboration

8. Which of the following best represents differentiated instruction?

a) One-size-fits-all lesson plans
b) Assigning the same work to all students
c) Adapting content to meet diverse learning needs
d) Using only digital materials

9. What does the term “flipped classroom” mean?

a) Reversing the classroom seating arrangement
b) Students teach the lessons to teachers
c) Instruction happens at home, and practice occurs in class
d) Classes are conducted in outdoor environments

10. Which strategy is most aligned with inquiry-based learning?

a) Dictating notes
b) Answering textbook questions
c) Encouraging students to ask questions and explore answers
d) Memorizing vocabulary lists

11. Project-based learning primarily develops:

a) Short-term memory
b) Multiple-choice test skills
c) Real-world problem-solving and collaboration
d) Repetitive drill techniques

12. In a communicative language teaching approach, the main goal is:

a) Grammar mastery
b) Reading comprehension
c) Effective communication
d) Vocabulary drilling

13. Which of the following is a principle of student-centered learning?

a) Teacher lectures are the main activity
b) Students are passive recipients
c) Students take responsibility for their learning
d) Learning is rigid and unchanging

14. Which approach best suits bilingual learners in a diverse classroom?

a) Monolingual instruction
b) Translating every word into the first language
c) Code-switching and scaffolding
d) Punishing use of native language

15. Which assessment is commonly used in modern pedagogical approaches?

a) Standardized tests
b) Summative assessments only
c) Formative assessments and reflective journals
d) Memory quizzes

16. What is the role of reflection in modern pedagogy?

a) A waste of time
b) Encourages surface-level learning
c) Helps students evaluate and improve their learning process
d) Replaces classroom instruction

17. Which teaching strategy promotes inclusivity and supports learners with diverse needs?
a) Uniform instruction
b) Differentiated teaching
c) Lecture-based delivery
d) Timed drills

18. Which of the following is not a benefit of using active learning techniques?
a) Improved retention
b) Enhanced critical thinking
c) Increased boredom
d) Better engagement

19. Which of the following is a drawback of teacher-centered learning?

a) Promotes creativity
b) Ignores student input
c) Develops collaborative skills
d) Encourages learner autonomy

20. Pedagogical development encourages teachers to:

a) Stick to one method
b) Avoid technology
c) Continuously reflect and improve their practice
d) Teach the way they were taught

Answers:

1. c) The method and practice of teaching

2. b) Rote memorization
3. c) Active participation
4. b) Problem-based learning
5. c) Facilitator
6. b) Constructivism
7. c) Enhances interactive and personalized learning
8. c) Adapting content to meet diverse learning needs
9. c) Instruction happens at home, and practice occurs in class
10. c) Encouraging students to ask questions and explore answers
11. c) Real-world problem-solving and collaboration
12. c) Effective communication
13. c) Students take responsibility for their learning
14. c) Code-switching and scaffolding
15. c) Formative assessments and reflective journals
16. c) Helps students evaluate and improve their learning process
17. b) Differentiated teaching
18. c) Increased boredom
19. b) Ignores student input
20. c) Continuously reflect and improve their practice