Internal Forced Flow and

Convection Heat Transfer

Chapter 8

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 Because learning changes everything. ®

Chapter 8

Internal Forced
Convection

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No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Goals or Intended Outcomes
By the end of this course, the students should be able to understand the
followings:
1. Explain the modes of heat transfer
2. Analyze conduction in various coordinates and in composite systems
3. Determine free and forced convection heat transfer coefficient
4. Design of heat exchangers of various types

What Will We Learn?

a. How shape of object for internal flow changes velocity
b. Concept of Developed and Developing velocity profiles
c. How Heat Transfer Coefficient changes in developing and
developed laminar and turbulent flows
d. Developing fundamental understanding of flow in annulus and
concentric pipes

© McGraw-Hill Education
 Objectives
• Obtain average velocity from a knowledge of velocity profile, and average
temperature from a knowledge of temperature profile in internal flow.
• Have a visual understanding of different flow regions in internal flow, and
calculate hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths.
• Analyze heating and cooling of a fluid flowing in a tube under constant
surface temperature and constant surface heat flux conditions, and work with
the logarithmic mean temperature difference.
• Obtain analytic relations for the velocity profile, pressure drop, friction factor,
and Nusselt number in fully developed laminar flow.
• Determine the friction factor and Nusselt number in fully developed turbulent
flow using empirical relations, and calculate the heat transfer rate.

© McGraw-Hill Education 4
 Internal Flow: Fundamentals
• Flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and cooling
applications and fluid distribution networks.
• The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump.
• Theoretically, we know only a few simple cases such as fully developed laminar
flow in a circular pipe.
• Therefore, experimental results and empirical relations are most useful here.

For a fixed surface area, the circular tube

gives the most heat transfer for the least
pressure drop.

FIGURE 8–1
Circular pipes can withstand large pressure differences between the inside
and the outside without undergoing any significant distortion, but noncircular
pipes cannot.
© McGraw-Hill Education 5
 Internal Flow: Fundamentals
• Velocity is zero at wall (no slip condition)
• Vavg constant in incompressible flow when
pipe is constant
• Vavg can change during heating/cooling;
subject to density change
FIGURE 8–2
Average velocity Vavg is defined as the average speed
through a cross section. For fully developed laminar pipe Vmax = 2Vavg
flow, Vavg is half of the maximum velocity.
Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube m = Vavg Ac
Vavg D Vavg D  D  m  4m
Re = = =  =
v     D 4   D
2

For flow through noncircular tubes, the Reynolds number as well as the
Nusselt number, and the friction factor are based on the hydraulic
diameter Dh
4 Ac 2
4 Ac 4 D 4
Dh = Circular tubes : Dh =
p
=
D
=D
p
© McGraw-Hill Education 6
 Internal Flow: Fundamentals
4 Ac
Hydraulic Diameter = Dh =
p
Under most practical conditions, the flow in a pipe is laminar for
Re < 2300, fully turbulent for Re > 10,000, and transitional in
between.

© McGraw-Hill Education 7
 Average Velocity And Temperature
In internal flow, there is no free stream and thus we need an alternative.
The value of the average (mean) velocity m = Vavg Ac =   u ( r ) dAc
Ac
Vavg at some streamwise cross-section.
The average velocity for incompressible flow in
a circular pipe of radius R. When velocity
profile is known
  u ( r ) dAc  u ( r ) 2 rdr
R
 2
 u ( r ) rdr
R
= = = 2
Ac 0
Vavg
 Ac  R 2 R 0

In fluid flow, it is convenient to work with an

average or mean temperature Tm, which remains
constant at a cross section. The mean temperature
Tm changes in the flow direction whenever the fluid
is heated or cooled.
Efluid = mc pTm =  c pT ( r )  m =   c pT ( r ) u ( r ) dAc
m Ac FIGURE 8–3
c pT ( r )  m c pT ( r )  u ( r ) 2 rdr
R
Actual and idealized temperature
  2 R
T ( r ) u ( r ) rdr
Vavg R 2 0
Tm = m
= 0
= profiles for flow in a tube (the rate
mc p Vavg ( R 2 ) c p at which energy is transported with
When velocity and thermal the fluid is the same for both cases).
profiles are known
© McGraw-Hill Education 8
 Average Velocity And Temperature
Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes
• Flow in a tube can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the flow conditions.
• Fluid flow is streamlined and thus laminar at low velocities, but turns
turbulent as the velocity is increased beyond a critical value.
• Transition from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly; rather, it
occurs over some range of velocity where the flow fluctuates between
laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes fully turbulent.
Most pipe flows encountered in practice are turbulent.
• Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in
small diameter tubes or narrow passages.
• Transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the Reynolds number as
well as the degree of disturbance of the flow by surface roughness, pipe
vibrations, and the fluctuations in the flow.
• The flow in a pipe is laminar for Re < 2300, fully turbulent for Re > 10,000,
and transitional in between.

© McGraw-Hill Education 9
 The Entrance Region: Hydrodynamics
Velocity boundary layer (boundary layer): The region of the flow in which the effects of the
viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt.
The hypothetical boundary surface divides the flow in a pipe into two regions:
Boundary layer region: The viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant.
Irrotational (core) flow region: The frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains
essentially constant in the radial direction.
Hydrodynamic entrance region: The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the velocity
profile is fully developed.
Hydrodynamic entry length Lh: The length of this region.
Hydrodynamically fully developed region: The region beyond the entrance region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged.
Flow in the entrance region is called hydrodynamically developing flow since this is the region
where the velocity profile develops.

FIGURE 8–6
The development of the velocity
boundary layer in a pipe. (The
developed average velocity
profile is parabolic in laminar
flow, as shown, but much flatter
or fuller in turbulent flow.)

© McGraw-Hill Education 10
 The Entrance Region: Thermal
The fluid properties in internal flow are usually evaluated at the bulk mean fluid temperature, which
is the arithmetic average of the mean temperatures at the inlet and the exit: Tb = (Tm ,i + Tm ,e ) 2
Thermal entrance region: The region of flow over which the thermal boundary layer develops
and reaches the tube center.
Thermal entry length: The length of this region.
Thermally developing flow: Flow in the thermal entrance region. This is the region where the
temperature profile develops.
Thermally fully developed region: The region beyond the thermal entrance region in which the
dimensionless temperature profile remains unchanged.
Fully developed flow: The region in which the flow is both hydrodynamically and thermally
developed.

FIGURE 8–7
The development of
the thermal
boundary layer in a
tube. (The fluid in
the tube is being
cooled.)

© McGraw-Hill Education 11
 The Entrance Region: Conditions
Hydrodynamically fully developed:
u ( r , x )
= 0 → u = u (r )
x
Thermally fully developed:
  Ts ( x ) − T ( r , x ) 
 =0
x  Ts ( x ) − Tm ( x ) 
Surface heat flux
T k ( T r ) r = R
qs / / = hx (Ts − Tm ) = k → hx =
r r=R Ts − Tm

In the thermally fully developed region of a tube, the

local convection coefficient is constant (does not vary
with x).
Therefore, both the friction (which is related to wall
shear stress) and convection coefficients remain
constant in the fully developed region of a tube.
The pressure drop and heat flux are higher in the FIGURE 8–8
entrance regions of a tube, and the effect of the entrance Variation of the friction factor and the
region is always to increase the average friction factor convection heat transfer coefficient in the
flow direction for flow in a tube (Pr  1).
and heat transfer coefficient for the entire tube.
© McGraw-Hill Education 12
 The Entrance Region: Lengths
Entry Lh ,laminar  0.05Re D
Lh ,turbulent  Lt ,turbulent  10 D
Lengths Lt ,laminar  0.05Re Pr D = Pr Lh ,laminar

• The Nusselt numbers and thus h values are much higher in the entrance region.
• The Nusselt number reaches a constant value at a distance of less than 10 diameters,
and thus the flow can be assumed to be fully developed for x > 10D.

• The Nusselt numbers for the

uniform surface temperature and
uniform surface heat flux
conditions are identical in the fully
developed regions, and nearly
identical in the entrance regions.

FIGURE 8–9
Variation of local Nusselt number
along a tube in turbulent flow for
both constant surface temperature
and constant surface heat flux

© McGraw-Hill Education 13
 General Thermal Analysis
Rate of heat gained
Q = mc p (Te − Ti ) (W )
The thermal conditions at the surface can be
approximated to be
Surface heat flux for energy constant surface temperature (Ts= const)

constant surface heat flux ( qs ll = const )

transferred
qs = hx (Ts − Tm )
//
(W m 2
)
The constant surface temperature
hx the local heat transfer coefficient
condition is realized when a phase change
process such as boiling or condensation
occurs at the outer surface of a tube.
The constant surface heat flux condition is
realized when the tube is subjected to
radiation or electric resistance heating
uniformly from all directions.
FIGURE 8–10 We may have either Ts = constant or
The heat transfer to a fluid
flowing in a tube is equal to qs = constant at the surface of a tube,but not both.
the increase in the energy
of the fluid.
© McGraw-Hill Education 14
 General Thermal Analysis: Constant Flux

(
Constant Surface Heat Flux qs / / = constant )
Rate of heat transfer:

q = qs / / As = mc p (Te − Ti ) (W)
Mean fluid temperature at the tube exit:

qs / / As
Te = Ti +
mc p
Surface temperature:
qs / / FIGURE 8–11
qs //
= h (Ts − Tm ) → Ts = Tm + Variation of the tube surface
h and the mean fluid temperatures
along the tube for the case of
constant surface heat flux.

© McGraw-Hill Education 15
 General Thermal Analysis: Constant T

Constant Surface Temperature (Ts = constant)

Rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube

q = hAs Tavg = hAs (Ts − Tm )avg (W )

Two suitable ways of expressing Tavg
• arithmetic mean temperature difference
• logarithmic mean temperature difference

© McGraw-Hill Education 16
 General Thermal Analysis: Constant T

Arithmetic mean temperature difference

Ti + Te (Ts − Ti ) + (Ts − Te ) Ti + Te

Tavg  Tam = = = Ts − = Ts − Tb
2 2 2
Bulk mean fluid temperature: Tb = (Ti + Te ) 2

By using arithmetic mean temperature difference, we assume that the mean

fluid temperature varies linearly along the tube, which is hardly ever the case
when Ts = constant.
This simple approximation often gives acceptable results, but not always.
Therefore, we need a better way to evaluate Tavg.

© McGraw-Hill Education 17
 General Thermal Analysis: Constant T

mc p dTm = h (Ts − Tm ) dAs

dAs = pdx dTm = −d (Ts − Tm )
d (Ts − Tm ) hp
=− dx
Ts − Tm mc p

Integrating from x = 0 (tube inlet, Tm = Ti) to

x = L (tube exit, Tm = Te)
Ts − Te hA
ln =− s
Ts − Ti mc p

Te = Ts − (Ts − Ti ) exp ( −hAs mc p ) FIGURE 8–14

The variation of the mean
fluid temperature along the
tube for the case of
constant temperature.
FIGURE 8–12
Energy interactions for a differential
control volume in a tube.

© McGraw-Hill Education 18
 General Thermal Analysis: Constant T

Ti − Te Te − Ti
q = hAs Tln Tln = = log mean temperature
ln (Ts − Te ) (Ts − Ti )  ln ( Te Ti ) difference

NTU: Number of transfer units. A measure of

the effectiveness of the heat transfer systems.
For NTU = 5, Te = Ts, and the limit for heat
transfer is reached.
A small value of NTU indicates more
opportunities for heat transfer.
Tln is an exact representation of the average
temperature difference between the fluid and
the surface.
When Te differs from Ti by no more than 40
percent, the error in using the arithmetic mean FIGURE 8–15
temperature difference is less than 1 percent. An NTU greater than 5 indicates that
the fluid flowing in a tube will reach
the surface temperature at the exit
regardless of the inlet temperature.

© McGraw-Hill Education 19
 Laminar Flow In Tubes
2 −2 R R 2  dP   r2  R 2  dP 
u ( r ) rdr = 2 
R
Vavg = 2
R  0   1 −
R 0 4   dx   R 2 
 rdr = − 
8  dx 


 r 2  The maximum velocity occurs at umax = 2Vavg

u ( r ) = 2Vavg 1 − 2 
 R  the centerline, r = 0:
Velocity profile The average velocity in fully developed laminar pipe flow
is one-half of the maximum velocity.
Therefore, the velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a
tube is parabolic with a maximum at the centerline and a minimum
(zero) at the tube wall. Also, the axial velocity u is positive for any r,
and thus the axial pressure gradient FIGURE 8–17
Free-body diagram of a ring-shaped
dP must be negative (i.e., pressure must decrease in the differential fluid element of radius r,
dx flow direction because of viscous effects). thickness dr, and length dx oriented
coaxially with a horizontal tube in
Pressure Drop fully developed laminar flow.

A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the pressure drop P since it is directly related
to the power requirements of the fan or pump to maintain flow.
dP P2 − P1 8 LVavg 32  LVavg
= Laminar flow: P=P1 − P2 = =
dx L R2 D2
L Vavg
2

Pressure loss: PL = f

D 2
© McGraw-Hill Education 20
 Laminar Flow In Tubes
The head loss hL represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be
PL
2
L Vavg
raised by a pump in order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe. The hL = = f
head loss is caused by viscosity, and it is directly related to the wall shear stress.  g D 2g

The required pumping power Wpump,L = V PL = V  ghL = mghL

to overcome the pressure loss:

Horizontal tube : Vavg =

( P1 − P2 ) R 2 ( P1 − P2 ) D 2
= =
PD 2 The average velocity for
8 L 32  L 32  L laminar flow

V = Vavg Ac =
( P1 − P2 ) R 2
 R2 =
( P1 − P2 )  D 4

=
P D 4
Poiseuille’s law
8 L 128 L 128 L

For a specified flow rate, the pressure drop and thus the required pumping
power is proportional to the length of the pipe and the viscosity of the fluid, but
it is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the radius (or diameter) of
the pipe.

© McGraw-Hill Education 21
 Laminar Flow In Tubes: Temperature Profile
hD
Circular tube, laminar ( qs = constant ) : Nu = = 4.36
k
Therefore, for fully developed laminar flow in a circular tube subjected to constant
surface heat flux, the Nusselt number is a constant. There is no dependence on the
Reynolds or the Prandtl numbers.
hD
Circular tube, laminar (Ts = constant ) : Nu = = 3.66
k
The thermal conductivity k for use in the Nu relations should be evaluated at the bulk mean fluid
temperature.
For laminar flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and the heat transfer
coefficient is negligible.
Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes
Nusselt number relations are given in Table 8-1
for fully developed laminar flow in tubes of
various cross sections.
The Reynolds and Nusselt numbers for flow in
these tubes are based on the hydraulic diameter Dh = 4 Ac p ,
FIGURE 8–22
In laminar flow in a tube with constant Once the Nusselt number is available, the convection
surface temperature, both the friction factor heat transfer coefficient is determined from
and the heat transfer coefficient remain
constant in the fully developed region. h = kNu Dh .
© McGraw-Hill Education 22
 Laminar Flow In Tubes
Table 8-1
Nusselt number and friction
factor for fully developed
laminar flow in tubes of
various cross sections
Dh = 4 Ac p
Re = Vavg Dh v
Nu = hDh k

© McGraw-Hill Education 23
 Laminar Flow In Tubes: Empirical Relations
Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region
For a circular tube of length L subjected to constant surface temperature, the average
Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region:
0.065 ( D L ) Re Pr
Entry region, laminar : Nu = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04 ( D L ) Re Pr 
23

The average Nusselt number is larger at the entrance region, and it approaches
asymptotically to the fully developed value of 3.66 as L → .
When the difference between the surface and the fluid temperatures is large:
0.14
 Re Pr D   b 
13

Entry region, laminar : Nu = 1.86    

 L   s 
All properties are evaluated at the bulk mean fluid temperature, except for s, which is
evaluated at the surface temperature.
The average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region of flow between isothermal
parallel plates of length L is
0.03 ( Dh L ) Re Pr
Entry region, laminar : Nu = 7.54 +
1 + 0.016 ( Dh L ) Re Pr 
23

Re ≤ 2800

© McGraw-Hill Education 24
 Turbulent Flow In Tubes
f = ( 0.790 ln Re − 1.64 )
−2
Smooth tubes : 3000  Re  5 106
First Petukhov equation
Nu = 0.125 f Re Pr1 3 Chilton–Colburn analogy
f = 0.184 Re −0.2
 0.7  Pr  160 
Nu = 0.023Re0.8 Pr1 3   Colburn equation
 Re  10, 000 

Nu = 0.023Re0.8 Pr n Dittus–Boelter equation

n = 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling

When the variation in properties is large due to a large temperature difference

0.14
1 3  b   0.7  Pr  16, 700 
Nu = 0.027 Re Pr  
0.8
 
 s   Re  10, 000 

All properties are evaluated at Tb except s, which is evaluated at Ts.

© McGraw-Hill Education 25
 Turbulent Flow In Tubes

Nu =
( f 8 ) Re Pr  0.5  Pr  2000  Second Petukhov
 4 6
1.07 + 12.7 ( f 8 ) ( Pr 2 3 − 1)    equation
0.5
 10 Re 5 10 

Nu =
( f 8 )( Re− 1000 ) Pr  0.5  Pr  2000  Gnielinski relation
 6
1 + 12.7 ( f 8 ) ( Pr 2 3 − 1)    
0.5 3
 3 10 Re 5 10 

Liquid metals, Ts = constant: Nu = 4.8 + 0.0156 Re 0.85 Prs0.93

Liquid metals, q s = constant: Nu = 6.3 + 0.0167 Re 0.85 Prs0.93

( 0.004  Pr  0.01) 104  Re  106

The relations above are not very sensitive to the thermal conditions at the tube
surfaces and can be used for both Ts = constant and qs = constant.

© McGraw-Hill Education 26
 Turbulent Flow In Tubes
Fully Developed Transitional Flow Heat Transfer
In some cases; the flow is in this transitional zone. The methods for handling
turbulent flow can easily be adopted to deal with in this region.
The recommendation is to continue to use Gnielinski’s (1976) correlation (Eq. 8–71)
along with f values determined from the following expressions for two common flow
geometries, the round tube and the parallel plate channel.
These correlations can be applied over the Reynolds number ranges listed and are
reasonably accurate for any thermal boundary condition, including the uniform wall
temperature and uniform wall heat flux cases.
For most engineering applications, the following expressions are suitable.

Smooth round pipe :

f = 3.03 10−12 Re3 − 3.67 10−8 Re 2 + 1.46 10 −4 Re − 0.151
which is valid for 2300  Re  4500
Smooth, parallel - plate channel :
f = −6.38 10−13 Re3 + 1.17 10−8 Re 2 − 6.69 10 −5 Re+ 0.147
which is valid for 2300  Re  8000

© McGraw-Hill Education 27
 Turbulent Flow In Tubes
Rough Surfaces
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the Reynolds number and
the relative roughness  D , which is the ratio of the mean height of roughness of the pipe to
the pipe diameter.

1  D 2.51 
= −2.0 log  +
 3.7 Re f  ( turbulent flow ) Colebrook equation
f  

Moody chart is given in the appendix as Fig. A–20.

It presents the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow as a function of the Reynolds number and
 D over a wide range.

1  6.9   D 1.11  An approximate explicit relation

 −1.8 log  +  
f  Re  3.7   for f was given by S. E. Haaland

In turbulent flow, wall roughness increases the heat transfer coefficient h

by a factor of 2 or more. The convection heat transfer coefficient for rough tubes can be
calculated approximately from Gnielinski relation or Chilton–Colburn analogy by using the
friction factor determined from the Moody chart or the Colebrook equation.

© McGraw-Hill Education 28
© McGraw-Hill Education
 Turbulent Flow In Tubes

Table 8-2 Table 8-3

Standard sizes for Schedule 40 steel pipes Equivalent roughness values for new
commercial pipes*
Nominal Size, in Actual Inside
Diameter, in Material Roughness, Roughness,
ε in ft ε in mm
⅛ 0.269
Glass, plastic 0 (smooth)
14 0.364
Concrete 0.003 - 0.03 0.9 - 9
⅜ 0.493
Wood stave 0.0016 0.5
12 0.622
Rubber, smoothed 0.000033 0.01
34 0.824
Copper or brass tubing 0.000005 0.0015
1 1.049
Cast iron 0.00085 0.26
11 1.610
2
Galvanized iron 0.0005 0.15
2 2.067
21
Wrought iron 0.00015 0.046
2 2.469
Stainless steel 0.000007 0.002
3 3.068
5 5.047 Commercial steel 0.00015 0.045

10 10.02 *the uncertainty in these values can be as much as ±

60 percent.

© McGraw-Hill Education 30
 Flow in Annulus Space
The hydraulic diameter of annulus
4 Ac 4 ( D0 − Di ) 4
2 2

Dh = = = D0 − Di ri ,i ri ,o
p  ( D0 + Di ) Ro ,i

When all information is available: • •

Ro ,o
VDh D m m m
Re = = V h = V = V =
  Vol Vol Aannulus FIGURE 8–29
• • A double-tube heat exchanger that
m Dh m Di − d o consists of two concentric tubes.
 Re = = 
Aannulus  ( / 4 ) ( Di2 − do2 )  Table 8-4
For laminar flow, the convection coefficients for the Nusselt number for fully developed
laminar flow in an annulus with one
inner and the outer surfaces are determined from surface isothermal and the other
hD hD adiabatic
Nu i = i h and Nu 0 = 0 h
k k Di D0 Nui Nu0
For fully developed turbulent flow, hi and ho are approximately equal 0 - 3.66
to each other, and the tube annulus can be treated as a noncircular duct 0.05 17.46 4.06
with a hydraulic diameter of Dh = Do − Di.
The Nusselt number can be determined from a suitable turbulent flow 0.10 11.56 4.11
relation such as the Gnielinski equation. To improve the accuracy, 0.25 7.37 4.23
Nusselt number can be multiplied by the following correction factors
when one of the tube walls is adiabatic and heat transfer is through the 0.50 5.74 4.43
other wall: −0.16
 Di  1.00 4.86 4.86
Fi = 0.86   ( outer wall adiabatic )
 D0  Source: Kays and Perkins,1972
0.6
D 
F0 = 1 − 0.14  i  ( inner wall adiabatic )
 D0 

© McGraw-Hill Education 31
 Turbulent Flow In Tubes

Heat Transfer Enhancement

Tubes with rough surfaces have much higher heat
transfer coefficients than tubes with smooth
surfaces.
Heat transfer in turbulent flow in a tube has been
increased by as much as 400 percent by roughening
the surface. Roughening the surface, of course, also
increases the friction factor and thus the power
requirement for the pump or the fan.
The convection heat transfer coefficient can also be FIGURE 8–30
increased by inducing pulsating flow by pulse Tube surfaces are often
generators, by inducing swirl by inserting a twisted roughened, corrugated,
tape into the tube, or by inducing secondary flows or finned in order to
by coiling the tube. enhance convection heat
transfer.

© McGraw-Hill Education 32
 Summary
Summary
Introduction
Average Velocity and Temperature
• Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes
General Thermal Analysis
• Constant Surface Heat Flux
• Constant Surface Temperature
The Entrance Region
• Entry Lengths
Laminar Flow in Tubes
• Pressure Drop
• Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number
• Constant Surface Heat Flux

© McGraw-Hill Education 33
 Summary
• Constant Surface Temperature.
• Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes.
• Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region.

Turbulent Flow in Tubes

• Fully Developed Transitional Flow Heat Transfer.
• Rough Surfaces.
• Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region.
• Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes.
• Flow through Tube Annulus.
• Heat Transfer Enhancement.

© McGraw-Hill Education 34
 References

Chapter 8

Chapter 8

© McGraw-Hill Education 35
 Tutorial Problem-1
Oil at 15°C is to be heated by saturated
steam at 1 atm in a double-pipe heat oil
exchanger to a temperature of 25°C. 15C 100C 25C
The inner and outer diameters of the do Di
annular space are 3 cm and 5 cm,
respectively, and oil enters with a mean
velocity of 0.8 m/s.
The inner tube may be assumed to be
isothermal at 100°C, and the outer tube is
well insulated.
Assuming fully developed flow for oil,
determine the tube length required to heat
the oil to the indicated temperature.
In reality, will you need a shorter or
longer tube? Explain.

© McGraw-Hill Education 36
 Ts = 100C
Solution Oil
15C
Assumptions: 0.8 m/s
25C
5 cm
1. Steady operating conditions exist 3 cm
2. The surfaces of the tube are smooth.
Properties The properties of oil at the average temperature of L
(15+25)/2=20C are (Table A-13)

 = 888.1 kg/m 3
k = 0.145 W/m  C
c p = 1881 J/kg  C
 = 0.8374 kg/m  s

Di 2 − d o 2 (0.05 m) 2 − (0.03 m) 2
Ac =  = = 0.001257 m 2
4 4
 = AcVavg = (888.1 kg/m 3 )(0.001257 m 2 )(0.8 m/s) = 0.8931 kg/s
m

q = mc p (Te − Ti ) = (0.8931 kg/s)(1881 J/kg.C)(25 − 15)C = 16, 799 W

VDh V ( Di − d o ) (888.1 kg/m3 )(0.8 m/s)(0.02 m)

Re = = = = 16.97
  0.8374 kg/m  s

© McGraw-Hill Education 37
 Solution
Since the flow is laminar and fully developed, the Nusselt number is determined from
Table 8-4 at do/Di =3/5=0.6 to be Nui = 5.564. Then the hydraulic diameter of annulus, the
heat transfer coefficient, and the logarithmic mean temperature difference are
Table 8-4
Dh = Di − d o = 0.05 m − 0.03 m = 0.02 m Nusselt number for fully developed
laminar flow in an annulus with one
k 0.145 W/m.C surface isothermal and the other
hi = Nu i = (5.564) = 40.34 W/m 2 .C adiabatic
Dh 0.02 m d o / Di Nui Nu0
Ti − Te 15 − 25 0 - 3.66
Tlm = = = 79.90C
 T − Te   100 − 25  0.05 17.46 4.06
ln  s 

ln  
 Ts − Ti   100 − 15 
0.10 11.56 4.11
0.25 7.37 4.23
The heat transfer surface area is determined from: 0.50 5.74 4.43
1.00 4.86 4.86
q 16, 799 W
q = hAs Tlm ⎯⎯
→ As = = = 5.212 m 2

hTlm (40.34 W/m 2 .C)(79.90C)

Then the tube length becomes In reality, we need a shorter tube since
the effect of entry region is to increase
As 5.212 m 2
As = DL ⎯
⎯→ L = = = 55.3 m the average heat transfer coefficient
Di  (0.03 m) and a higher value of heat transfer
coefficient translates into a shorter
tube length.

© McGraw-Hill Education 38
 Tutorial Problem-2
A geothermal district heating system involves the
transport of geothermal water at 110°C from a 1
2

geothermal well to a city at about the same elevation Water D = 60 cm

1.5 m3/s
for a distance of 12 km at a rate of 1.5 m3/s in 60-cm-
diameter stainless steel pipes.
The fluid pressures at the wellhead and at the arrival L = 12 km

point in the city are to be the same. The minor losses

are negligible because of the large length-to-diameter
ratio and the relatively small number of components
that cause minor losses.

(a) Assuming the pump-motor efficiency to be 65 percent, determine the electric

power consumption of the system for pumping.
(b) Determine the daily cost of power consumption of the system if the unit cost of
electricity is $0.06/kWh.
(c) The temperature of geothermal water is estimated to drop 0.5°C during this long
flow. Determine if the frictional heating during flow can make up for this drop in
temperature.

© McGraw-Hill Education 39
 Solution
Properties The properties of water at 110C are  = 950.6 kg/m3,  = 0.25510-3 kg/ms, and cp = 4.229
kJ/kgC (Table A-9). The roughness of stainless steel pipes is 210-6 m (Table 8-3).

Analysis (a) We take point 1 at the well-head of geothermal resource and point 2 at the final point of
delivery at the city, and the entire piping system as the control volume.

V V 1.5 m 3 /s
Vavg = = = = 5.305 m/s
Ac D / 4
2
 (0.60 m) / 4
2

Vavg D (950.6 kg/m 3 )(5.305 m/s)(0.60 m)

Re = = = 1.186 10 7
 0.255 10 −3 kg/m  s

2  10 −6 m
/D= = 3.33  10 −6
0.60 m
The friction factor can be determined from the Moody chart, but to avoid the reading error, we determine it
from the Colebrook equation using an equation solver (or an iterative scheme),

1  / D 2.51  1  3.33  10 −6 2.51 

= −2.0 log  +  → = −2.0 log  + 
f  3.7 Re f  f  3.7 1.187  10 7 f 
  

f = 0.00829

© McGraw-Hill Education 40
 Solution
L Vavg   1 kPa 
2
12,000 m (950.6 kg/m 3 )(5.305 m/s) 2  1 kN 
P = f = 0.00829 = 2218 kPa
D 2 0.60 m 2  1000 kg  m/s 2  1 kN/m 2 
 
W pump,u VP (1.5 m 3 /s)(2218 kPa )  1 kW 
W elect = = =   = 5118 kW
 pump-motor  pump-motor 0.65  1 kPa  m /s 
3

(b) The daily cost of electric power consumption is determined by multiplying the amount of power
used per day by the unit cost of electricity,
Amount = W elect, in t = (5118 kW)(24 h/day) = 122,832 kWh/day
Cost = Amount  Unit cost = (122,832 kWh/day)($0.06/kWh) = $7370/day
(c) The energy consumed by the pump (except the heat dissipated by the motor to the air) is eventually
dissipated as heat due to the frictional effects. Therefore, this problem is equivalent to heating the water by a
5118 kW of resistance heater (again except the heat dissipated by the motor). To be conservative, we consider
only the useful mechanical energy supplied to the water by the pump. The temperature rise of water due to this
addition of energy is
pump-motorWelect,in 0.65  (5118 kJ/s)
Welect = V c p T → T = = = 0.55C
V c p (950.6 kg/m3 )(1.5 m3 /s)(4.229 kJ/kg  C)

Therefore, the temperature of water will rise at least 0.55C, which is more than the 0.5C drop in
temperature (in reality, the temperature rise will be more since the energy dissipation due to pump
inefficiency will also appear as temperature rise of water). Thus we conclude that the frictional heating during
flow can more than make up for the temperature drop caused by heat loss.

© McGraw-Hill Education 41