Engineering Mechanics

 In this subject, we deals with the study of different Laws and principles of engineering
mechanics applied to the engineering problems.
 It also includes the study of forces and their effects on the bodies in different states.
 Mechanics is branch of Science which deals with the Study of forces and their effects on
bodies either at rest or in motion.
 As a matter of fact, knowledge of engineering mechanics is very essential for an engineer
in planning, designing and construction of his various types of structure and machine.

Classification of Mechanics
The engineering mechanics are classified as shown
Engineering
Mechanics

Mechanics of Mechanics of Mechanics of

Rigid Bodies Deformed fluid
Bodies
Statics (rest Dynamics (In Statics (rest
position) motion) position)

Kinetics (Mass force are

Dynamics (In
considered)
motion)

Kinematics (Mass force not

considered)

BRANCHES OF MECHANICS:
Mechanics can be divided into two branches.
1. Static. 2. Dynamics.
a) Statics:
It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces acting on a body in equilibrium.
Either the body at rest or in uniform motion is called statics

b) Dynamics:
It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces on body in motion is called
dynamics. It is further divided into two branches.
i) Kinetics ii) kinematics.
(i) Kinetics: It is the branch of the dynamics which deals the study of body in motion
under the influence of force i.e. is the relationship between force and motion are
considered or the effect of the force are studied.
(ii) Kinematics: It is the branch of the dynamics that deals with the study of body in
motion without considering the force.

Fundamental concept/Idealization of mechanics

The mathematical description of a real engineering problem can become very complex. Thus,
idealization and assumptions are used in mathematics in order to simplify the application of
the theory.
The following are the fundamental concept used in the engineering mechanics
1. Force
In general force is a Push or Pull, which creates motion or tends to create motion, destroy or
tends to destroys motion. In engineering mechanics force is the action of one body on another.
A force tends to move a body in the direction of its action,
A force is characterized by its point of application, magnitude, and direction, i.e. a force is a
vector quantity.
Force exerted on body has following two effects
1. The external effect, which is tendency to change the motion of the body or to develop
resisting forces in the body
2. The internal effect, which is the tendency to deform the body.
If the force system acting on a body produces no external effect, the forces are said to be in
balance and the body experience no change in motion is said to be in equilibrium.

Units of force
The following force units are frequently used.
A. Newton
The S.I unit of force is Newton and denoted by N. which may be defined as 1 N =1 kg. 1 m/s2
B. Dynes
Dyne is the C.G.S unit of force.
1 Dyne = 1 g. 1 cm/s2
One Newton force = 102 dyne
C. Pounds
The FPS unit of force is pound.
1 lbf = 1 lbm. 1ft/s2
One pound force = 4.448 N
One dyne force = 2.248 x 10 lbs

2. Space
Space is the geometrical region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by linear
and angular measurement relative to coordinate systems. For three dimensional problems there
are three independent coordinates are needed. For two dimensional problems only two
coordinates are required.
The geometric region in which study of body is involved is called space.
3. Particle
A particle may be defined as a body (object) has mass but no size (neglected), such body cannot
exists theoretically, but when dealing with problems involving distance considerably larger
when compared to the size of the body. For example a bomber aeroplane is a particle for a
gunner operating from ground.
In the mathematical sense, a particle is a body whose dimensions are considered to be near zero
so that it analyze as a mass concentrated at a point. A body may tread as a particle when its
dimensions are irrelevant to describe its position or the action of forces applied to it. For
example the size of earth is insignificant compared to the size of its orbits and therefore the
earth can be modeled as a particle when studying its orbital motion. When a body is idealized
as a particle, the principles of mechanics reduce to rather simplified form since the geometry
of the body will not be involved in the analysis of the problem.
4. Body
An object having definite mass and occupying the definite space is called as body.

5. Rigid Body
A rigid body may be defined a body in which the relative positions of any two particles do not
change under the action of forces means the distance between two points/particles remain same
before and after applying external forces.
As a result the material properties of any body that is assumed to be rigid will not have to be
considered while analyzing the forces acting on the body. In most cases the actual deformations
occurring in the structures, machines, mechanisms etc are relatively small and therefore the
rigid body assumption is suitable for analysis

Basic quantities
In engineering mechanics length, mass, time and force are basic quantities
1. Length
In engineering mechanics length is needed to locate the position of a particle and to describe
the size of physical system. Some important length conversions factors 1m 100 cm
1cm = 10 mm 1m = 100 cm 1m = 1000 mm
1 m = 3.2808 (feet) 1 m = 39.37 Inch 1 Mile = 1.609 km
2. Mass
Mass is the property of matter by which we can compare the action of one body with that of
another. This property manifests itself as gravitational attraction between two bodies and
provides a quantitative measure of the resistance of matter to a change in velocity. Some
important mass conversion factors are given below
1 Kg - 2.204 lbm
3. Time
Time is the measure of the succession of events and is a basis quantity in dynamic. Time is not
directly involved in the analysis of statics problems but it has importance in dynamics.
It is the basic quantity used for measurement of the duration for an event.
4. Weight
The force of attraction with which the body is attracted towards the earth centre is called as
weight.

Systems of units
In engineering mechanics length, mass, time and force are the basic units used therefore, the
following are the units systems are adopted in the engineering mechanics
1. International System of Units (SI):
In SI system of units the basic units are length, time, and mass which are arbitrarily defined as
the meter (m), second (s), and kilogram (kg). Force is the derived unit.
I N = 1 kg. 1 m/s2
2. CGS systems of units
In CGS system of units, the basic units are length, time, and mass which are arbitrarily defined
as the centimeter (cm), second (s), and gram (g). Force is the derived units
1 Dyne = 1 g. 1 cm/s one newton force = 102 dyne
3. British systems of units
In CGS system of units, the basic units are length, time, and mass which are arbitrarily defined
as the foot (ft), second (s), and pound (lb). Force is the derived units.
1 lbf = 11bm. 1ft/s one pound force = 4.448 N one dyne force = 2.248 × 10-6 lbs

4. U.S. Customary Units

The basic units are length, time, and force which are arbitrarily defined as the foot (ft),
second(s), and pound (lb). Mass is the derived unit.

MASS AND WEIGHT

Mass of a body is the total quantity of matter contained in the body.

Weight of a body is the force with which the body is attracted towards the centre of the earth.

RIGID BODY AND ELASTIC BODY

A body is said to be rigid if it does not undergo deformation whatever force may be applied to
the body. In actual practice, there is no body which can be said to be rigid in true sense of
terms.
A body is said to be elastic if it undergoes deformation under the action of force. All bodies
are more or less elastic.
SCALAR AND VECTOR
All physical quantities can be divided into scalar quantity and vector quantity. Scalar quantity
is that physical quantity which has only magnitude and no direction. For example, length, mass,
energy etc. Vector quantity is that physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction.
For example, force, velocity etc.

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITY

Scalar quantity
Scalar quantity is that quantity which has only magnitude (numerical value with suitable unit)
or
Scalars quantities are those quantities, which are completely specified by their magnitude using
suitable units are called scalars quantities. For example mass, time, volume density,
temperature, length, age and area etc
The scalars quantities can be added or subtracted by algebraic rule e.g. 7kg + 8kg = 15 kg sugar
Or 4 sec + 5 sec = 9 sec
Vector quantity
Vector quantity is that quantity, which has magnitude unit of magnitude as well as direction, is
called vector quantity. Or
Vector quantities are those quantities, which are completely specified by their magnitude using
suitable units as well directions are called vector quantities. For example velocity, acceleration,
force, weight, displacement, momentum and torque etc are all vector quantities. Vector
quantity can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided by particular geometrical or graphical
methods.

VECTOR REPRESENTATION
A vector quantity is represented graphically by a straight line the length of line gives the
magnitude of the vector and arrowhead indicates the direction.
For example we consider a displacement (d) of magnitude 10 km in the direction of east. Hence
we cannot represent 10 km on the paper therefore we select a suitable scale shown in fig.
Scale 1 cm = 2 km
So we draw a line of length 5 cm which show the magnitude of vector quantity that is 10 km
while the arrow indicates the direction form origin to east ward as shown in fig.
Point A is called tail that shows the origin.
Point B is called head, which shows the direction of vector quantity.
The length of line is the magnitude of the vector quantity.

Vector Algebra
Vector quantities have both direction as well as magnitude such as velocity, acceleration, force
and momentum etc. We will use 𝐴⃗ for any general vector and its magnitude by |𝐴̅|. In diagrams
vectors are denoted by arrows: the length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the

vector, and the arrowhead indicates its direction. Minus 𝐴⃗ (-𝐴⃗) is a vector with the same

magnitude as 𝐴⃗ but of opposite direction.

Vector in Force system
Co-ordinate Geometry:
The space is divided into four quadrants by using x-axis and y-axis as shown in Figure. In these
quadrants a point is denoted by the coordinate point which is called
Cartesian co-ordinate of a point and denoted by P(x,y).

Trigonometry
In right angle triangle, the sum of square of two perpendicular sider is equal to the square of
hypotaneous.
Fundamental Laws of Engineering Mechanics
 Newton’s First Law of Motion
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
 Newton’s Law gravitation
 Law of transmissibility of Forces
 Parallelogram Law of Forces

 Newton’s First Law of Motion

A body remains in the state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless and until an
external force acts on it. Newton's first law of motion states that an object will remain at rest
or continue moving in a straight line at a constant speed unless an external force acts upon
it. This law is also known as the law of inertia.
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Newton's second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force can produce on
the motion of a body. It states that the time rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal
in both magnitude and direction to the force imposed on it.

 Newton's Third law of motion:

It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Consider the two bodies in contact with each other. Let one body applies a force F on another.
According to this law, the second body develops a reactive force R which is equal in magnitude
to force F and act in the line same as F but in the opposite direction. Following fig. shows the
action of the ball and the reaction from the floor.

 Newton's Law of gravitation

Every body attracts the other body. The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly
proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.

 Law of conservation of mass :

This law states that, “Mass can neither be created nor be destroyed through any physical or
chemical process”. Mathematical expression of this law is :

Where, m is mass of a body.

  Law of conservation of energy :
This law states that, “Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can only transform
from one form to another”.

 Law of parallelogram of forces:

This law is used to determine the resultant of two coplaner forces acting on a point.
It states that, "if two forces acting on a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.
Law of parallelogram of force is represented in above figure, where the resultant (R) of forces
F1 and F2 Inclined at an angle 𝛼 and acting at O is given by the diagonal of parallelogram
passing through point O. The resultant R is inclined at angle 𝜃 with force F1.

According to parallelogram method 'If two forces (vectors) are acting simultaneously on a
particle be represented (in magnitude and direction) by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram,
their resultant may represent (in magnitude and direction) by the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing through the point. OR
When two forces are acting at a point such that they can by represented by the adjacent sides
of a parallelogram then their resultant will be equal to that diagonal of the parallelogram which
passed through the same point.
The magnitude and the direction of the resultant can be determined either graphically or
analytically as explained below.
Graphical method
Let us suppose that two forces F1 and F2 acting simultaneously on a particle as shown in the
figure (a) the force F2 makes an angle θ with force F1.

First of all we will draw a side OA of the parallelogram in magnitude and direction equal to
force F1 with some suitable scale. Similarly draw the side OB of parallelogram of same scale
equal to force F2, which makes an angle θ with force F1. Now draw sides BC and AC parallel
to the sides OA and BC. Connect the point O to Point C which is the diagonal of the
parallelogram passes through the same point O and hence it is the resultant of the given two
forces. By measurement the length of diagonal gives the magnitude of resultant and angle α
gives the direction of the resultant as shown in fig (A).
Analytical method
  TRIANGLE METHOD OR TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES
According to triangle law or method" If two forces acting simultaneously on a particle by
represented (in magnitude and direction) by the two sides of a triangle taken in order their
resultant is represented (in magnitude and direction) by the third side of triangle taken in
opposite order. OR
If two forces are acting on a body such that they can be represented by the two adjacent sides
of a triangle taken in the same order, then their resultant will be equal to the third side
(enclosing side) of that triangle taken in the opposite order.
The resultant force (vector) can be obtained graphically and analytically or trigonometry.
Graphically
Let us consider two forces F1 and F2 acting on the particle the force F1 is horizontal while the
force F2 makes an angle θ with force F1 as shown in fig (A). Now draw lines OA and AB to
some convenient scale in magnitude equal to F1 and F2. Join point O to point B the line OB
will be the third side of triangle, passes through the same point O and hence it is the resultant
of the given two forces. By measurement the length of OB gives the magnitude of resultant and
angle α gives the direction of the resultant as shown in fig (B).
S

 POLYGON METHOD
According to this method" if more then two forces acting on a particle by reprehend by the
sided of polygon taken in order their resultant will be represented by the closing side of the
polygon in opposite direction"
OR
If more than two forces are acting on a body such that they can by represented by the sides of
a polygon Taken in same order, then their resultant will be equal to that side of the polygon,
which completes the polygon (closing side taken in opposite order. The resultant of such forces
can be determined by graphically and analytically.
Principle of transmissibility of forces
The state of rest of motion of a rigid body is unaltered if a force acting in the body is replaced
by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on the body along
the line of action of the replaced force.
For example the force F acting on a rigid body at point A. According to the principle of
transmissibility of forces, this force has the same effect on the body as a force F applied at point
B.

The following two points should be considered while using this principle.
1. In engineering mechanics we deal with only rigid bodies. If deformation of the body is to be
considered in a problem. The law of transmissibility of forces will not hold good.
2. By transmission of the force only the state of the body is unaltered, but not the internal
stresses which may develop in the body
Therefore this law can be applied only to problems in which rigid bodies are involved

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF FORCES:

This principle states that the combined effect of force system acting on a particle or a rigid
body is the sum of effects of individual forces.
Consider two forces P and Q acting at A on a boat as shown in Fig 1.13. Let R be the resultant
of these two forces P and Q. According to Newton's second law of motion, the boat will move
in the direction of resultant force R with acceleration proportional to R. The same motion can
be obtained when P and Q are applied simultaneously.

Free body diagram

A diagram or sketch of the body in which the body under consideration is freed from the contact
surface (surrounding) and all the forces acting on it (including reactions at contact surface) are
drawn is called free body diagram. Free body diagram for fow cases are shown in below

Procedure of drawing Free Body Diagram

To construct a free-body diagram, the following steps are necessary:
Draw Outline Shape
Imagine that the particle is cut free from its surroundings or isolated by drawing the outline
shape of the particle only
Show All Forces
Show on this sketch all the forces acting on the particle. There are two classes of forces that
act on the particle. They can be active forces, which tend to set the particle in motion, or they
can be reactive forces which are the results of the constraints or supports that tend to prevent
motion.
Identify Each Force
The forces that are known should be labeled complete with their magnitudes and directions.
Letters are used to represent the magnitudes and directions of forces that are not known.

SYSTEM OF FORCES
When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to form a system of forces.Force system
is basically classified into following types.
i. Coplanar forces
ii. Collinear forces
iii. Concurrent forces
iv. Coplanar concurrent forces
v. Coplanar non- concurrent forces
vi. Non-coplanar concurrent forces
vii. Non- coplanar non- concurrent force

COPLANAR FORCES:

The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar forces.
COLLINEAR FORCES:
The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same line, are known as collinear forces. They act
along the same line. Collinear forces may act in the opposite directions or in the same direction.

CONCURRENT FORCES: The forces, whose lines of action pass through a common point,
are known as concurrent forces. The concurrent forces may or may not be collinear
COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES:
The forces, whose lines of action lie in the same plane and at the same time pass through a
common point are known as coplanar concurrent forces.
COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCES:
The forces, which do not meet at one point, but their lines of action lie on the same plane, are
known as coplanar non-concurrent forces.

NON-COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES: The forces, which meet at one point, but
their lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are known as non-coplanar concurrent forces.
NON-COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCES: The forces, which do not meet at one
point and their lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are called non-coplanar non-
concurrent forces.
Bow's Notation
When three or more members are pinned together and static the resultant force must be zero.
This means that if we add up all the forces as vectors, they must form a closed polygon. If one
or even two of these forces is unknown, then it must be the vector, which closes the polygon.
We need to be able to identify the members and to do this we use Bow's Notation.
Consider three members joined by a pin as shown in the figure.
1. Label the spaces between each member. It doesn't matter what order you label them in. This
is why the diagram is called a Space Diagram.
2. Starting at any space, say A, identify each member by moving clockwise around the joint.
In this case the first becomes a - b, the next b - c and the last c - a (in this case only).

Now let's apply Bow's notation to a simple problem in order to solve the unknown forces. We
draw a vector diagram to add them together and we know it must add up to zero. The vectors
must be drawn at the correct angles as given or as measured.
Only one of these forces is known and this is important if we are to draw the vector diagram.
Three forces will give us a Triangle of Forces.
1. Identify the members as previously. The only known vector is a - b.
2. Draw the known vector a - b. We know that the next vector b c starts at b but we do not
know its length. Draw a 'c' line from 'b' in the direction of c line member b - c.
We know that when all the vectors are added, they must form a closed triangle so c - a must
end at 'a'. Draw a 'c' line through 'a' in the direction of member c - a. Where the two 'c' lines
cross must be point 'c'.
3. Finally, transfer the arrows back to the space diagram in the same direction as on the triangle
of forces. If they push onto the pin joint, the member must be in compression and so is a strut.
If the arrow pulls on the joint, the member must be in tension and so is a tie.
Bow’s Notation
1. When the different system of the forces are drawn, then spaces are formed around it. These
spaces so formed are named by capital letters A, B, C, D, E and so on in order.
2. This method of putting the capital, alphabetic letters on either side of the forces in order is
called as Bow’s notation.
3. Bow’s notation is used to represent or designate or to denote the force in graphical solution
of the problem. For example, consider a force of 30 N is acting on a body. Two spaces are
formed around it are named by Bow’s notation A, B as shown in figure.
To represent this force in a force diagram or vector diagram, a suitable scale is taken (1 cm =
10 N as in figure) and line ‘ab’ = 3 cm is drawn parallel to the line of action of AB as shown
in figure. Length ‘ab’ shows the magnitude of a force and an arrow head indicate direction.
RESULTANT FORCE:
The resultant force, R is a force which produces the same effect of number of forces F1, F2, F3
and F4 are acting on particle as shown in fig.1.31. The different methods used to determine the
resultant force of a number of given forces are as follows
1) Graphical Method.
2) Analytical Method
a) Geometrical resolution method b) Algebraic sum of resolution method

1) Graphical method for the resultant force:

This method also named as polygon law of forces to find the resultant force in magnitude and
direction. The graphical or vector methods started with the space drawing which shows the
position of force vector acting on a particle. The graphical method of vector force is continued
by addition of force one by one to the direction and magnitude of the suitable scale. The
resultant force of all forces is obtained by the line joining of start point of first vector force and
end point of last vector force is a magnitude value of resultant in that suitable scale. The angle
of direction is measured from first vector to the position of resultant force.
Parallelogram law and triangle law of vectors can also be used to find the resultant force
graphically. This method gives a clear picture of the work being carried out. However the main
disadvantage is that it needs drawing aids like pencil, scale, drawing sheets. Hence there is
need for analytical method.
Problems:
SP1.6: A particle is acted upon by three forces equal to 50N, 100N and 130N along the three
sides of an equilateral triangle taken in order. Find graphically the magnitude and direction of
the resultant force.
Solution by Graphical method:
Step 1: Draw the space/ position diagram as per given data and denote lettering for the corners
of vector force by A, B and C.
Step 2: Now start to draw the vector diagram for the above drawn space diagram with suitable
scale. The scale is selected for the force but the angular dimension not to be changed. 100 N
magnitude forces is taken as 10 cm of linear scale. Only the length of the scale in cm is used to
measure and marking but the denoted as original unit of N (Newton).
In this step draw a line from point as as a starting point of first force at length 5cmfor the 50N
ended with point b along the direction as position in space diagram.
Step 3: The second force 100 N is measured as 10cm and draw a line from b at 10 cm length
in the direction specified by the space diagram say 120o from the first vector force which is at
zero degree. Now mark letter c at the end point of second vector force.

Figure Step-1 Step-2

Step-3
Step 4: The third force 130 N measured as 13 cm and draw a line from point c at 13 cm length
in the direction specified by the space diagram as 120 o from the second vector force which at
120o from horizontal. Now mark letter ae at the end point of third vector force because this
vector force ended with starting point of first vector force.
Step 5: The vector force by the space diagram is completed and finally joins the line between
starting point of first vector force as and ending point of third vector force ae is known as
resultant force of given vector forces by the method graphical.

Step 6: Now, measure the length between point as and ae in cm as 7 cm and converted into the
magnitude force scale as Resultant force R, 70N. Using protractor, measure the angle of
direction of the resultant force  is 200o. From the direction of positive x that is horizontal
direction.
 MOMENT OF FORCE AND ITS APPLICATIONS:
When a force acts upon a body to turn it with respect to a point, the turning effect of force is
called as moment of the force.
The product of magnitude of force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
force from a point is known as moment of the force about that point.
The unit of moment in S.I system is N-m.

Clockwise moment – It is the moment of a force which produces the turning effect of the body
in clockwise direction. The clockwise moment is taken as positive
Anticlockwise moment – It is the moment of a force which produces the turning effect of the
body in anticlockwise direction. The anticlockwise moment is taken as negative.

Law of moments:
The principle of moment states that, “if a body is in equilibrium under the action of a number
of parallel forces, the sum of the clockwise moments about any point must be equal to the sum
of anti-clockwise moments about the same point”.

1. If a system of co-planar forces (concurrent or non-concurrent) is in equilibrium, the algebraic

sum of the moments of those forces about any point in their plane is zero, i.e., the sum of the
clockwise moments about any point in their plane is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise
moments about the same point.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of any number of co-planar forces (concurrent or non-
concurrent) about a point lying on the line of action of their resultant is zero.
3. From 1 and 2 above, it can be concluded that if the algebraic sum of the moments of any
number of co-planar forces about any point in their plane is zero, either the forces are in
equilibrium or their resultant passes through that point.

According to the principle of moments,

Sum of anti-clockwise moments = sum of clockwise moments
From figure, 𝑚1𝑑1 + 𝑚2𝑑2 = 𝑚3𝑑3 + 𝑚4𝑑4

Couple:
Two equal and opposite parallel forces acting at different points in a body forms a couple.
A body acted upon by the couple will rotate the body in clockwise direction or anti-clockwise
direction.
Steering wheel and pedals of bicycles are the examples for couple, where the two forces are
equal but acting in opposite direction.
Moment of the couple: It is the product of one of the forces and the arm of the couple.

Types of couple:

The algebraic sum of the forces forming the couple is zero.

A couple can be balanced by another couple of equal magnitude and opposite reaction.
Examples of couple: opening or closing of a water tap, turning of the cap of a pen.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COUPLE: A couple (whether clockwise or anticlockwise)

has the following characteristics:
1. The algebraic sum of the forces, constituting the couple, is zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces, constituting the couple, about any point is
the same, and equal to the moment of the couple itself.
3. A couple cannot be balanced by a single force. But it can be balanced only by a couple of
opposite sense.
4. Any no. of coplanar couples can be reduced to a single couple, whose magnitude will be
equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the couples.

VARIGNON’S THEOREM
Varignon‟s theorem states that the algebraic sum of the moment, two forces about any point in
their plane is equal to the moment of the, resultant about the same point.
Proof.
Case (i) When the forces are concurrent

Let P and Q be any two forces acting at a point O along lines OX and OY respectively and let
D be any point in their plane as shown in Fig 1.44.
Line DC is drawn parallel to OX to meet OY at B. Let in some suitable scale, line OB represent
the force Q in magnitude and direction and let in the same scale, OA represent the force P in
magnitude and direction.
With OA and OB as the adjacent sides, parallelogram OACB is completed and OC is joined.
Let R be the resultant of forces P and Q. Then, according to the “Theorem of parallelogram of
forces”, R is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal OC of the parallelogram
OACB.
The point D is joined with points O and A. The moments of P, Q and R about D are given by
2 x area of ΔAOD, 2 x area of ΔOBD and 2 x area of ΔOCD respectively.
With reference to Fig1.44(a), the point D is outside the <AOB and the moments of P, Q and R
about D are all anti-clockwise and hence these moments are treated as +ve.
Now, the algebraic sum of the moments of P and Q about D = 2ΔAOD + 2ΔOBD
= 2 (ΔAOD + ΔOBD)
= 2 (ΔAOC + ΔOBD) {See note below]
= 2 (ΔOBC + ΔOBD)
= 2ΔOCD = Moment of R about D.
[Note. As AOC and AOD are on the same base and have the same altitude. ΔAOD = ΔOBC. .
Again, As AOC and OBC have equal bases and equal altitudes. ΔAOC = ΔOBC].
With reference to Fig 1.44 (b), the point D is within the <AOB and the moments of P, Q and R
about D are respectively anti-clockwise, clockwise and anti-clockwise.
Now, the algebraic sum of the forces P and Q about
D = 2ΔAOD-2 ΔOBD = 2 (ΔAOD-ΔOBD)= 2 (ΔAOC- ΔOBD)=2(ΔOBC - ΔOBD)
= 2ΔOCD = Moment of R about D

Case (ii): When the forces are parallel

Let P and Q be any two like parallel forces (i.e. the parallel forces whose lines of action are
parallel and which act in the same sense) and O be any point in their plane.
Let R be the resultant of P and Q.
Then, R=P+Q
From O, line OACB is drawn perpendicular to the lines of action of forces P, Q and R
intersecting them at A, B and C respectively as shown in Fig 1.45.
Now, algebraic sum of the moments of P and Q about O
= P*(OA) + Q*(OB)
= P*(OC - AC) + Q*(OC + BC)
=P*(OC) – P*(AC) + Q*(OC) + Q*(BC).
But P*(AC) = Q*(BC)
Algebraic sum of the moments of P and Q about O
= P*(OC) + Q*(OC)
= (P+Q)*(OC) = R*(OC) = Moment of R about O.
In case of unlike parallel forces also it can be proved that the algebraic sum of the moments of
two unlike parallel forces (i.e. the forces whose lines of action are parallel but which act in
reverse senses) about any point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about
the same point.

COUPLES AND RESULTANT OF FORCE SYSTEM:

The two forces having equal in magnitude and unlike parallel line of action of force is known
as a couple. Consider the action of two equal and opposite forces F and –F a distance ‘d’ apart
as shown in fig. These two forces cannot be combine into a single force due to their sum of
direction in everywhere is zero. The rotation is produced by their effect. The combined moment
of the two forces about an axis normal to their plane and passing through any point such as O
in their plane is the couple MC . This couple has a magnitude (Scalar product)
Mc = F(a + d) – Fa or Mc = Fd
The moment of a couple is also expressed by using vector algebra. The moment of force F and
–F is a cross product of distance from the point of moment (axis line about O) and the line of
action of force. The couple is written as

Where r A and rB are position vectors which run from point O to arbitrary points A and B on the
lines of action of F and –F respectively. Therefore, rA rB r then the couple written as
The couple of moment force not having the centre of moment about point O as reference but it
is free to rotate. The distance between the two unlike parallel vectors is accounted to determine
the couple of given forces. Fig. 1.45 (c) shows the couple vector is counter clockwise by the
lines of action of forces.
 Truss
INTRODUCTION
A truss is a system of members that are fastened together at their ends to support stationary and
moving loads. These are used in bridges, buildings, roofs of industrial sheds, railway platforms,
godown, transmission towers, etc.
The main characteristics of a truss are as follows:
1. Each member of a truss is usually of uniform cross-section along its length.
2. Members of a truss have different cross-sections and cross-sectional areas as they must
transmit different forces.
3. The common cross-sections of truss members are angles (L), I-section (I); channels ([),
hollow tubes made from rolled steel.
4. The members of a truss are always connected at their ends. A truss is different than a frame.
A frame may have some members connected along their length in addition to end connections.
5. In order to maximize the load-carrying capacity of a truss, the external loads must be applied
at the joints, because the members of a truss are long and slender, the compression members
may buckle under transverse loads.
6. The members of the trusses are fastened together by welding, riveting or bolting, through
gusset plates in plane trusses.

8. The weight of the member of a truss is small as compared to external loads applied on a
truss. The weight of the member is usually neglected. In case the weight of the member has to
be considered, half load is considered acting at each joint.
9. Each member of a truss is two-force member, i.e., a tensile member or compression member.
A compression member pushes the joint whereas a tensile member pulls the joint where it is
connected.

TYPES OF TRUSSES
There are two categories of trusses according to geometry:
1. Plane truss consists of coplanar system of members. Examples: Roof truss, sides of a bridge.
2. Space truss consists of a three-dimensional system of members. Example: Electric power
transmission tower.

Simple Truss
A simple truss is just-rigid truss and removal of any of its members destroys its rigidity. If
removing a member does not destroy rigidity, the truss is over-rigid.
The most elementary just-rigid truss has three members connected to form a triangle (ABC).
The plane and space trusses are built-up from this triangle by adding for each new joint three
new members. The trusses so built are called simple trusses.
A simple relationship exists between the number of joints, j and the number of members, m.

Classification of Simple Truss

A simple truss can be classified as follows:
(a) Perfect truss (stable truss)
In a perfect truss the above relationship holds good. The truss does not collapse under the
loading.
Example: In a triangular truss ABC, here r =3 as truss has three reactions
No. of joints, j=3
No. of members, m=3
For plane truss, m = 2 j-3 = 2×3-3 = 3
A triangular truss satisfies the relationship and is a perfect truss.

(b) Imperfect truss (unstable truss)

A truss which does not satisfy the above relationship is called imperfect truss. A truss which
collapses when loaded is called unstable truss.
(c) Redundant truss (over-rigid truss)
In a redundant truss, m>2j-3
Example: In Fig. 8.6 a redundant truss ABCD is shown.
No. of joints, j=4
No. of members, m=6
2j-3 = 2x4-3 = 5
Therefore, m>2j-3
One member is surplus and can be removed.

(d) Deficient truss (less rigid)

A truss in which m<2j-3 is called deficient truss and will collapse under loading.
Example: In Fig. 8.7, ABCD is a truss which has
Members, m=4
Joints, j=4
Now, 2j-3=2x4-3=5
Therefore, one member is short.
To make the truss just-rigid or perfect, add a member AC.
Introduction to Truss
In engineering mechanics, the study of structures is crucial as it forms the foundation for
understanding how various mechanical components interact and support loads. Structures are
an integral part of engineering systems, ranging from simple trusses to complex bridges and
buildings. A structure is an assembly of several members connected such that these bodies
don’t have any relative motion between them to carry and distribute loads safely and efficiently.

Truss
Trusses are fundamental structural elements extensively used in civil and mechanical
engineering to carry and distribute loads efficiently. Trusses are commonly used in bridges,
roofs, transmission towers and other load-bearing structures due to their efficient load
distribution capabilities and cost-effectiveness.
 The concept of a truss is derived from the remarkable stability of a basic triangular
formation. A triangle stands as the simplest geometric shape that maintains its form
under the application of load when the lengths of its sides remain fixed.
 A truss is a structure that is made of straight slender bars joined together at their
ends by frictionless pins to form a pattern of triangle.

The loads exclusively apply to the joints and not the members. As a result, each member of a
truss is classified as a two-force member.
Classification of Trusses
Trusses can be classified based on the orientation of their members in space as follows:

 Plane Truss: A plane truss is a type of truss in which all its members lie in a single plane.
This means that all the bars and joints of the truss are confined to a two-dimensional
surface. Plane trusses are commonly used for simple and relatively flat structures, such as
roof trusses or bridge decks, where the loads and forces primarily act in one plane.
 Space Truss: A space truss is a type of truss in which its members extend into three
dimensions and are not confined to a single plane. The bars and joints in a space truss form
a three-dimensional network, providing additional stability and load-carrying capacity
compared to plane trusses.
Note: Space trusses are generally not included in the syllabus of competitive exams.
Therefore, we won’t be covering the space truss in detail, as it is not relevant for exam
preparation.

Types of Plane Trusses

Plan Trusses can be classified as follows:
Perfect Truss: –
 A perfect truss is one composed of just sufficient members to maintain equilibrium when
subjected to loads without experiencing any deformation in its shape.
 A perfect truss is statically determinate.

m → number of members, j → number of joints, r → number of reactions

Perfect truss must be statically determinate, so
Number of unknowns = Number of equilibrium equations

Imperfect Truss
A truss is called imperfect truss when the actual number of members in truss is more or less
than the minimum number of members required for perfect truss. (i.e., m≠ 2j-r )
 A truss is called imperfect deficient truss or deficient truss when the actual number
of members in truss is less than the minimum number of members required for perfect
truss. (i.e., m < 2j-r )

 A truss is called imperfect redundant truss or redundant truss when the actual
number of members in truss is more than the minimum number of members required
for perfect truss. (i.e., m > 2j-r )
Note: When the support conditions are idealized (e.g., one hinge support and one roller
support), the number of unknown reactions will be three, and the expression for a
 perfect truss will be as follows: m = 2j − 3
 deficient truss will be as follows: m < 2j − 3
 redundant truss will be as follows: m > 2j − 3

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL REDUNDANCY:

If a plane truss has more external supports than are necessary to ensure a stable equilibrium
conditions, then the truss is said to be statically indeterminate. The extra supports in that plane
truss constitute external redundancy force.
If a truss has more internal members than are necessary to prevent collapse when the truss is
removed from its supports then the extra members constitute internal redundancy and the truss
is said to be statically indeterminate.
For a truss which is statically determinate externally there is a definite relation between the
number of its members and the number of its joints necessary for internal stability without
redundancy. The equilibrium of each truss joint is specified by two scalar force equations such
that all joints have the equation as 2J.
The entire truss is composed of ‘m’ number of two force members (m is a tension or
compression forces) and having the maximum of three unknown support reaction which equals
the twice of joint in a truss. Then the relation is stated as statically determinate as
m + 3 = 2J
If m + 3 > 2J then the truss is statically indeterminate which means more number of members
present in that truss.
If m + 3 < 2J then the truss is not sufficient to hold the stable position thereby the truss tends
to collapse under load.
Example

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS FOR TRUSSES

When designing the members and joints of a truss, first it is necessary to determine the forces
in each truss member. This is called the force analysis of a truss. When doing this, two
assumptions are made:
1. All loads are applied at the joints. The weight of the truss members is often neglected as the
weight is usually small as compared to the forces supported by the members.
2. The members are joined together by smooth pins. This assumption is satisfied in most
practical cases where the joints are formed by bolting the ends together.
With these two assumptions, the members act as two-force members. They are loaded in either
tension or compression. Often compressive members are made thicker to prevent buckling.

STEP FOR ANALYSIS

1. If the truss’s support reactions are not given, draw a FBD of the entire truss and determine
the support reactions (typically using scalar equations of equilibrium).
2. Draw the free-body diagram of a joint with one or two unknowns. Assume that all unknown
member forces act in tension (pulling on the pin) unless you can determine by inspection that
the forces are compression loads.
3. Apply the scalar equations of equilibrium, ΣFX = 0 and ΣFY = 0, to determine the unknown(s).
If the answer is positive, then the assumed direction (tension) is correct, otherwise it is in the
opposite direction (compression).
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 at each joint in succession until all the required forces are determined.

ZERO-FORCE MEMBERS
If a joint has only two non-collinear members and there is no external load or support reaction
at that joint, then those two members are zero-force members. In this example members DE,
DC, AF, and AB are zero force members. Zero-force members can be removed (as shown in
the figure) when analyzing the truss.

If three members form a truss joint for which two of the members are collinear and there is no
external load or reaction at that joint, then member DA and CA are zero force members.
Please note that zero-force members are used to increase stability and rigidity of the truss, and
to provide support for various different loading conditions.

1. Check if there are any zero-force members. 2. First analyze pin D and then pin A.
METHOD OF SECTIONS:
When we need to find the force in only a few members of a truss, we can analyse the truss
using the method of sections. It is based on the principle that if the truss is in equilibrium then
any segment of the truss is also in equilibrium. For example, consider the two truss members
shown on the left in Fig.2.12. If the forces within the members are to be determined, then an
imaginary section, indicated by the blue line, can be used to cut each member into two parts
and thereby “expose” each internal force as “external” to the free-body diagrams shown on the
right. Clearly, it can be seen that equilibrium requires that the member in tension (T) be
subjected to a “pull,” whereas the member in compression (C) is subjected to a “push”.

The method of sections can also be used to “cut” or section the members of an entire truss. If
the section passes through the truss and the free-body diagram of either of its two parts is
drawn, we can then apply the equations of equilibrium to that part to determine the member
forces at the “cut section.” Since only three independent equilibrium equations ( Fx  0 , Fy
 0 and MO  0) can be applied to the free-body diagram of any segment, then we should try
to select a section that, in general, passes through not more than three members in which the
forces are unknown.
For example, consider the truss in Fig.2.13 (a). If the forces in members BC, GC, and GF are
to be determined, then section aa would be appropriate. The free-body diagrams of the two
segments are shown in Figs.2.13 (b) and (c). Note that the line of action of each member force
is specified from the geometry of the truss, since the force in a member is along its axis. Also,
the member forces acting on one part of the truss are equal but opposite of those acting on the
other part—Newton’s third law. Members BC and GC are assumed to be in tension since they
are subjected to a “pull,” whereas GF in compression since it is subjected to a “push.”
The three unknown member forces FBC, FGC and FGF can be obtained by applying the three
equilibrium equations to the free-body diagram in Fig.2.13 (b). If, however, the free-body
diagram in Fig.2.13 (c) is considered, the three support reactions D x, Dy and Ex will have to be
known, because only three equations of equilibrium are available.

When applying the equilibrium equations, we should carefully consider ways of writing the
equations so as to yield a direct solution for each of the unknowns, rather than having to solve
simultaneous equations. For example, using the truss segment in Fig.2.13 (b) and summing
moments about C would yield a direct solution for FGF. Since FBC and FGC create zero moment
about C. Likewise, FBC can be directly obtained by summing moments about G. Finally, FGC
can be found directly from a force summation in the vertical direction since FGF and FBC have
no vertical components. This ability to determine directly the force in a particular truss member
is one of the main advantages of using the method of sections. Suppose the method of joints
were used to determine say the force in member GC it would be necessary to analyse
joints A, B and G in sequence. As in the method of joints, in this method of section also there
are two ways in which we can determine the correct sense of an unknown member force:
Procedure using the method of section:
1) Free-Body Diagram:
a) Make a decision on how to “cut” or section the truss through the members where forces are
to be determined.
b) Before isolating the appropriate section, it may first be necessary to determine the truss’s
support reactions. If this is done then the three equilibrium equations will be available to solve
for member forces at the section.
c) Draw the free-body diagram of that segment of the sectioned truss which has the least
number of forces acting on it.
d) Use one of the two methods described above for establishing the sense of the unknown
member forces.
2) Equations of Equilibrium:
a) Moments should be summed about a point that lies at the intersection of the lines of action
of two unknown forces, so that the third unknown force can be determined directly from the
moment equation.
b) If two of the unknown forces are parallel, forces may be summed perpendicular to the
direction of these unknowns to determine directly the third unknown force
 Friction
A force that resist the movement of two contacting surfaces that slide relative to one other is
known as friction force or friction. This force always acts tangent to the surface at the point of
contact and is directed so as to oppose the possible or existing motion between the surfaces.
In some types of machines and processes, this want to minimize the retarding effect of friction
forces. Examples are bearings of all types, power screws, gears, the flow of fluids in pipes, and
the propulsion of aircraft and missiles through the atmosphere. In other situations this to
maximize the effects of friction, as in brakes, clutches, belt drives, and wedges. Wheeled
vehicles depend on friction for both starting and stopping, and ordinary walking depends on
friction between the shoe and the ground.
Friction forces are present throughout nature and exist in all machines no matter how accurately
constructed or carefully lubricated. A machine or process in which friction is small enough to
be neglected is said to be ideal. When friction must be taken into account, the machine or
process is termed real. In all cases where there is sliding motion between parts, the friction
forces result in a loss of energy which is dissipated in the form of heat. Wear is another effect
of friction.
The amount of resistance force developed between two surfaces of contact when one body
moves over another is called as friction. Force of friction is an opposing force which resists
the motion of one body over another and it always acts in the direction opposite to the direction
of applied force.

Where P= applied force

F=frictional force
W= weight of the body
R= normal reaction.

TYPES OF FRICTION;
The types of frictional resistance encountered in mechanics are
a) Dry Friction:
Dry friction occurs when the unlubricated surfaces of two solids are in contact under a
condition of sliding or a tendency to slide. A friction force tangent to the surfaces of contact
occurs both during the interval leading up to impending slippage and while slippage takes
place. The direction of this friction force always opposes the motion or impending motion. This
type of friction is also called Coulomb friction. The principles of dry or Coulomb friction were
developed largely from the experiments of Coulomb in 1781 and from the work of Morin from
1831 to 1834. Although we do not yet have a comprehensive theory of dry friction. This dry
friction is followed as
i) Static friction:
It is the friction experienced by a body when it is rest or it is the friction when the body tends
to move.
ii) Dynamic friction:
It is the friction experience by a body when it is in motion. It is also called kinetic friction. The
dynamic friction is of the following two types;
1) Sliding friction:
It is the friction experienced by a body when it slides over another body.
2) Rolling friction:
It is the friction, experienced by a body when it rolls over another.

b) Fluid Friction:
Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers in a fluid (liquid or gas) are moving at different
velocities. This motion causes frictional forces between fluid elements, and these forces depend
on the relative velocity between layers. When there is no relative velocity, there is no fluid
friction. Fluid friction depends not only on the velocity gradients within the fluid but also on
the viscosity of the fluid, which is a measure of its resistance to shearing action between fluid
layers. Fluid friction is treated in the study of fluid mechanics and will not be discussed here.

c) Internal Friction:
Internal friction occurs in all solid materials which are subjected to cyclical loading. For highly
elastic materials the recovery from deformation occurs with very little loss of energy due to
internal friction. For materials which have low limits of elasticity and which undergo
appreciable plastic deformation during loading, a considerable amount of internal friction may
accompany this deformation. The mechanism of internal friction is associated with the action
of shear deformation, which is discussed in references on materials science.

LIMITING FRICTION:
It has been observed that when a body, lying over another body, is gently pushed, it does not
move because of the frictional force, which prevents the motion. It shows that the force of the
hand is being exactly balanced by the force of friction, acting in the opposite direction. If again
push the body, a little harder, it is still found to be in equilibrium. It shows that the force of
friction has increased itself so as to become equal and opposite to the applied force. Thus the
force of friction has a remarkable property of adjusting its magnitude, so as to become exactly
equal and opposite to the applied force, which tends to produce motion. There is, however, a
limit beyond which the force of friction cannot increase. If the applied force exceeds this limit,
the force of friction cannot balance it and the body begins to move, in the direction of the
applied force. This maximum value of frictional force, which comes into play, when a body
just begins to slide over the surface of the other body, is known as limiting friction. It may be
noted that when the applied force is less than the limiting friction, the body remains at rest, and
the friction is called static friction, which may have any value between zero and limiting
friction.
It is the maximum value of frictional force experienced by the body, when the body just begins to
slide over the surface of another body.

NORMAL REACTION:
Whenever a body, lying on a horizontal or an inclined surface, is in equilibrium, its weight acts
vertically downwards through its centre of gravity. The surface, in turn, exerts an upward
reaction on the body. This reaction, which is taken to act perpendicular to the plane, is called
normal reaction and is, generally, denoted by R or (Rn)
If weight is the only vertical force acting on an object lying or moving on a horizontal surface,
the normal reaction force is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction to the weight. It is
always acting perpendicular to the plane.

ANGLE OF FRICTION:
Consider a body of weight W resting on an inclined plane as shown in Fig. We know that the body
is in equilibrium under the action of the following forces:
1. Weight (W) of the body, acting vertically downwards,
2. Friction force (F) acting upwards along the plane, and
3. Normal reaction (R) acting at right angles to the plane.

Let the angle of inclination (α) be gradually increased, till the body just starts sliding down the
plane. This angle of inclined plane, at which a body just begins to slide down the plane, is called
the angle of friction. This is also equal to the angle, which the normal reaction makes with the
vertical.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION:
It is the ratio of limiting friction to the normal reaction, between the two bodies, and is generally
denoted by μ.
Mathematically, coefficient of friction,

 If F is the force necessary to start sliding, then 𝛍 is known as coefficient of static friction.
 If F is the force necessary to maintain sliding of a moving body, then 𝛍 is known as
coefficient of kinetic friction.
 Coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction.

Angle of inclination:
It is the angle made by the inclined plane with the horizontal plane. It is denoted by ‘𝛂’.

Limiting angle of friction:

It is the angle between the resultant limiting friction and the normal reaction. It is the angle
made by the resultant of frictional force and normal reaction with normal reaction. It is denoted
by ‘ ∅ ’. We may write,
tan ∅ = 𝝁 = F / RN
∅ = tan-1(𝝁)
Angle of Repose:
It is the maximum angle made by the inclined plane with the horizontal plane when a body
starts moving without the application of force. The body begins to slide when the angle of
inclination of the plane is equal to the angle of friction. i.e. 𝜇 = ∅.

LAWS OF FRICTION
Prof. Coulomb, after extensive experiments, gave some laws of friction, which may be grouped
under the following heads :
1. Laws of static friction, and
2. Laws of kinetic or dynamic friction.
LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION
Following are the laws of static friction as
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body tends to
move, if the force of friction would have been absent.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force, which tends to move the
body.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between
the two surfaces. Mathematically:

Where, F = Limiting friction, and

R = Normal reaction.
4. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces.

LAWS OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC FRICTION:

Following are the laws of kinetic or dynamic friction as
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body is moving.
2. The magnitude of kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between the
two surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases slightly with
the increase of speed.
 Equilibrium of a body on a rough horizontal plane:
Case – 1
Consider a body on a rough horizontal plane as shown in figure.
Let, W = weight of the body RN = normal reaction
μ = coefficient of friction P = effort required to move the body
For equilibrium the following condition may consider.
Σ𝐻 = P – F = 0 ⇒ P = F = μ RN ------- (i)
Σ𝑉 = RN – W = 0 ⇒ RN = W ------- (ii)
Replacing the value of RN in equation – (i) we get,
P = μW

Case – 2
Consider a body on a rough horizontal plane as shown in figure.
Let, W = weight of the body RN = normal reaction
μ = coefficient of friction P = effort required to move the body
For equilibrium the following condition may consider:
Σ𝐻 = P cos𝜃 – F = 0
⇒ P cos𝜃 - μ RN = 0 ------- (i)
Σ𝑉 = RN + P sin𝜃 – W = 0
⇒ RN = W – P sin𝜃 ------- (ii)
Replacing the value of RN in equation – (i) we get,
P cos𝜃 - μ RN = 0
⇒ P cos𝜃 - μ (W – P sin𝜃) = 0
⇒ P cos𝜃 - μW + μP sin𝜃 = 0
⇒ P cos𝜃 + μP sin𝜃 = μW
⇒ P (cos𝜃 + μ sin𝜃) = μW

Equilibrium of a body on a rough inclined plane:

Case – 1
Consider a body moving up the inclined plane which is inclined with an angle ‘α’ with the
horizontal plane. Consider P is the effort applied parallel to the inclined plane.
 When the body slides downward:
Let, W= weight of the body α = angle of inclination
∅ = limiting angle of friction P = effort required
RN = normal reaction
Resolving all the forces perpendicular the plane,
RN = W cos α ---------- (i)
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane,
P = W sin α - 𝜇 RN ---------- (ii)
Putting the value of RN in equation-(ii) , we get
P = W sin α - 𝜇 W cos α
⇒ P = W(sin α - 𝝁 cos α) ----------- (iii)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 Ø
Replacing the value, 𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø , we get
𝑠𝑖𝑛 Ø
⇒ P = W (sin α - × cos α)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø
( sin α.cosØ − sin Ø.cos α cos Ø )
=W 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø
sin (α − Ø )
⇒P=𝐖 -----------(iv)
cos Ø

When the body moving up:

Let, W= weight of the body α = angle of inclination
∅ = limiting angle of friction P = effort required
RN = normal reaction
Resolving all the forces perpendicular the plane,
RN = W cos α ------------------- (i)
Resolving the forces parallel to the plane,
P = W sin α + 𝜇 RN ------------------- (ii)
Putting the value of RN in equation-(ii) , we get
P = W sin α + 𝜇 W cos α
⇒ P = W(sin α + 𝝁 cos α) ----------- (iii)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 Ø
Replacing the value, 𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø we get
𝑠𝑖𝑛 Ø ( sin α.cosØ + sin Ø.cos α cos Ø )
⇒ P = W (sin α + × cos α) = W
𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ø
sin (α + Ø )
⇒P=𝐖 cos Ø
-----------(iv)
Ladder friction:
A ladder is supported at its two ends where friction plays an important role. Consider a ladder
AB whose one end (A) is supported on ground/floor and the other end (B) is supported on wall
as shown in figure.
Let, W = weight of the ladder AB = length of ladder = l
RA = reaction force at A. RB = reaction force at B.
FA = friction at the end A between the floor and ladder.
FB = friction at the end B between the wall and ladder.
𝜇A = coefficient of friction between floor and ladder.
𝜇B = coefficient of friction between wall and ladder.
For equilibrium of ladder the sum of horizontal forces and sum of vertical forces must be zero.
Considering Σ H = 0, we get
FA = 𝜇A RA = RB ---------- (1)
Considering Σ V = 0, we get
RA + FB = W
⇒ RA + 𝜇B RB = W ---------- (2)

Belt friction
Consider a follower (i.e. driven) pulley rotating in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig
33·9.

Let T1 = Tension in the belt on the tight side,

T2 = Tension in the belt on the slack side, and
θ = Angle of contact in radians i.e., angle subtended by the arc
AB, along which the belt touches the pulley, at the centre.
Now consider a small portion of the belt PQ, subtending an angle δθ at the centre of the pulley
as shown in Fig. 33·9. The belt PQ is in equilibrium under the following forces:
1. Tension T in the belt at P,
2. Tension T + δT in the belt at Q,
3. Normal reaction R, and
4. Frictional force F = μ × R.
where μ is coefficient of friction between belt and pulley.
Resolving all the forces horizontally and equating the same,

𝛿𝜃 𝛿𝜃
Since δθ is very small, therefore substituting sin( 2 ) = in equation (i),
2
Gravitational:
It was Newton who discovered that the force which governs above and similar other motions
is the gravitational force. The law of universal gravitation was formulated by Newton when
he saw an apple falling down and not going up. It states that the gravitational force between
any two bodies in the universe is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Center of Gravity:
A body is composed of an infinite number of particles of differential size, and so if the body is
located within a gravitational field, then each of these particles will have a weight dW. These
weights will form a parallel force system, and the resultant of this system is the total weight of
the body, which passes through a single point called the center of gravity, G.

The coordinates of the location of the center of gravity can be determined by the following
formulas:

Where:
𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅, 𝑧̅ are the coordinates of the center of gravity G.
𝑥̃, 𝑦̃, 𝑧̃ are the coordinates of arbitrary particle in the particle.

Centroid
The point at which the total area of a plane figure (like rectangle, square, triangle etc.) is
assumed to be concentrated, is known as the centroid of that area. Centroid is also represented
by C.G. of simply G. The centroid and center of gravity at same point.
The plane figures (like triangle, quadrilateral, circle etc.) have only areas, but no mass. The
centre of area of such figures is known as centroid. The method of finding out the centroid of
a figure is the same as that of finding out the center of gravity of a body.
Methods for Centroid:
The centroid may be found out by any one of the following methods:
1. by geometrical considerations
2. by moments
3. by graphical method

CENTRE OF GRAVITY BY GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The centre of gravity of simple figures may be found out from the geometry of the figure as
given below.
1. The centre of gravity of uniform rod is at its middle point.
2. The centre of gravity of a rectangle (or a parallelogram) is at the point, where its diagonals
meet each other. It is also a middle point of the length as well as the breadth of the rectangle
as shown in Fig. 6.1.
3. The centre of gravity of a triangle is at the point, where the three medians (a median is a
line connecting the vertex and middle point of the opposite side) of the triangle meet as
shown in Fig. 6.2.

ℎ
4. The centre of gravity of a trapezium with parallel sides a and b is at a distance of ×
3
𝑏+2𝑎
( 𝑏+𝑎 ) measured form the side b as shown in Fig. 6.3.
4𝑟
5. The centre of gravity of a semicircle is at a distance of 3𝜋 from its base measured along the

vertical radius as shown in Fig. 6.4.

6. The centre of gravity of a circular sector making semi-vertical angle α is at a distance of
2𝑟 sin 𝛼
× from the centre of the sector measured along the central axis as shown in Fig.
3 𝛼

6.5.
𝑙
7. The centre of gravity of a cube is at a distance of 2 from every face (where l is the length

of each side).
𝑑
8. The centre of gravity of a sphere is at a distance of from every point (where d is the
2

diameter of the sphere).

3𝑟
9. The centre of gravity of a hemisphere is at a distance of from its base, measured along
8

the vertical radius as shown in Fig. 6.6.

ℎ
10. The centre of gravity of right circular solid cone is at a distance of 4 from its base, measured
along the vertical axis as shown in Fig. 6.7.
3 (2𝑟−ℎ)2
11. The centre of gravity of a segment of sphere of a height h is at a distance of 4 × from
3𝑟−ℎ

the centre of the sphere measured along the height. as shown in Fig. 6.8.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY BY MOMENTS
The centre of gravity of a body may also be found out by moments as discussed below:

Consider a body of mass M whose centre of gravity is required to be found out. Divide the
body into small masses, whose centres of gravity are known as shown in Fig. 6.9. Let m1, m2,
m3....; etc. be the masses of the particles and (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), ...... be the co-ordinates
of the centres of gravity from a fixed point O as shown in Fig. 6.9.
Let 𝑥̅ and 𝑦̅ be the co-ordinates of the centre of gravity of the body. From the principle of
moments, we know that
M 𝑥̅ = m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 .....
Σ𝑚𝑥
Or 𝑥̅ = 𝑀
Σ𝑚𝑦
Similarly 𝑦̅ =
𝑀

where M = m1 + m2 + m3 + .....

Axis of Reference
The centre of gravity of a body is always calculated with reference to some assumed axis known
as axis of reference (or sometimes with reference to some point of reference). The axis of
reference, of plane figures, is generally taken as the lowest line of the figure for calculating 𝑦̅
and the left line of the figure for calculating 𝑥̅ .

Centre of Gravity of Plane Figures

The plane geometrical figures (such as T-section, I-section, L-section etc.) have only areas but
no mass. The centre of gravity of such figures is found out in the same way as that of solid
bodies. The centre of area of such figures is known as centroid, and coincides with the centre
of gravity of the figure. It is a common practice to use centre of gravity for centroid and vice
versa.
Let x and y be the co-ordinates of the centre of gravity with respect to some axis of reference,
𝑎1 𝑥1 +𝑎2 𝑥2+𝑎3 𝑥3 +⋯…
then 𝑥̅ = 𝑎1 +𝑎3 +𝑎3 +⋯…
𝑎1 𝑦1 +𝑎2 𝑦2 +𝑎3 𝑦3 +⋯…
And 𝑦̅ = 𝑎1 +𝑎3 +𝑎3 +⋯…

where a1, a2, a3........ etc., are the areas into which the whole figure is divided x1, x2, x3 .....
etc., are the respective co-ordinates of the areas a1, a2, a3....... on X-X axis with respect to
same axis of reference.
y1, y2, y3....... etc., are the respective co-ordinates of the areas a1, a2, a3....... on Y-Y axis with
respect to same axis of the reference.

Centre of Gravity of Symmetrical Sections

Sometimes, the given section, whose centre of gravity is required to be found out, is
symmetrical about X-X axis or Y-Y axis. In such cases, the procedure for calculating the centre
of gravity of the body is very much simplified; as we have only to calculate either x or y. This
is due to the reason that the centre of gravity of the body will lie on the axis of symmetry.
Centre of Gravity of Unsymmetrical Sections
Sometimes, the given section, whose centre of gravity is required to be found out, is not
symmetrical either about X-X axis or Y-Y axis. In such cases, we have to find out both the values
of x and y.
Centre of Gravity of Solid Bodies
The centre of gravity of solid bodies (such as hemispheres, cylinders, right circular solid cones
etc.) is found out in the same way as that of plane figures. The only difference, between the
plane figures and solid bodies, is that in the case of solid bodies, we calculate volumes instead
of areas. The volumes of few solid bodies are given below:
1. Volume of cylinder = 𝜋 × 𝑟2 × ℎ
2𝜋
2. Volume of hemisphere = × 𝑟3
3
𝜋
3. Volume of right circular solid cone = 3 × 𝑟2 × ℎ

Where, r = Radius of the body, and

h = Height of the body.
Note. Sometimes the densities of the two solids are different. In such a case, we calculate the
weights instead of volumes and the centre of gravity of the body is found out as usual.
Centre of Gravity of Sections With Cut Out Holes
The centre of gravity of such a section is found out by considering the main section, first as a
complete one, and then deducting the area of the cut out hole i.e., by taking the area of the cut
out hole as negative. Now substituting a2 (i.e., the area of the cut out hole) as negative, in the
general equation for the centre of gravity, we get
𝑎1 𝑥1 −𝑎2 𝑥2 𝑎1 𝑦1 −𝑎2 𝑦2
𝑥̅ = and 𝑦̅ =
𝑎1 −𝑎2 𝑎1 −𝑎2

Note. In case of circle the section will be symmeterical along the line joining the centres of
the bigger and the cut out circle.
 MOMENT OF INERTIA:
The moment of a force (F) about a point, is the product of the force and perpendicular distance
(d) between the point and the line of action of the force (i.e.M=dF). This moment is also called
first moment of force. If this moment is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance (d)
between the point and the line of action of the force i.e. M (d.d)F d 2F , then this quantity is
called moment of the moment of a force or second moment of force or moment of inertia
(briefly written as M.I. or I). Sometimes, instead of force, area or mass of a figure or body is
taken into consideration. Then the second moment is known as second moment of area or
second moment of mass. But all such second moments are broadly termed as moment of inertia.

AREA MOMENT OF INERTIA- DEFINITION:

Consider a plane area, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out. Split up the whole
area into a number of small elements.
Let a1, a2, a3, ... = Areas of small elements, and
r1, r2, r3, ... = Corresponding distances of the elements from the line about which the
moment of inertia is required to be found out.
Now the moment of inertia of the area,
I = a1 r2 + a2 r2 + a3 r3 + .... = Σ ar2

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF PLANE SECTIONS FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES:

The moment of inertia of an area may also be found out by the method of integration as
discussed below:
Consider a plane figure, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out about X-X axis
and Y-Y axis as shown in Fig.2.72. Let us divide the whole area into a no. of strips. Consider
one of these strips.
Let dA = Area of the strip
x = Distance of the centre of gravity of the strip on X-X axis and
y = Distance of the centre of gravity of the strip on Y-Y axis.
We know that the moment of inertia of the strip about Y-Y axis
= dA . x2
Now the moment of inertia of the whole area may be found out by integrating above equation.
i.e.,
𝐼𝑌𝑌 = Σ𝑑𝐴. 𝑥 2
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = Σ𝑑𝐴. 𝑦 2

THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA:

1. Theorem of parallel axis
2. Theorem of perpendicular axis
1) Theorem of parallel axis:
It states, If the moment of inertia of a plane area about an axis through its centre of gravity is
denoted by IG, then moment of inertia of the area about any other axis AB, parallel to the first,
and at a distance ‘h’ from the centre of gravity is given by:
𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑎. ℎ2
where , IAB = Moment of inertia of the area about an axis AB,
IG = Moment of Inertia of the area about its centre of gravity
a = Area of the section, and
h = Distance between centre of gravity of the section and axis AB.
Proof:
Consider a strip of a circle, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out about a line
AB as shown in Figure.
Let da = Area of the strip,
y = Distance of the strip from the centre of gravity the section and
h = Distance between centre of gravity of the section and the axis AB.
We know that moment of inertia of the whole section about an axis passing through the centre
of gravity of the section
= da. y2
and moment of inertia of the whole section about an axis passing through its centre of gravity,
𝐼𝐺 = Σ𝑑𝑎. 𝑦 2
Moment of inertia of the section about the axis AB,
Now the Σ y.da is the algebraic sum of moments of all the areas about an axis through centre
of gravity of the section and is equal to a.𝑦̅, where 𝑦̅ is the distance between the section and
the axis passing through the centre of gravity, which obviously is zero.

2) Theorem of perpendicular axis

It states, If IXX and IYY be the moments of inertia of a plane section about two perpendicular
axis meeting at O, the moment of inertia IZZ about the axis Z-Z, perpendicular to the plane and
passing through the intersection of X-X and Y-Y is given by:
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 + 𝐼𝑋𝑋

Proof:
Consider a small lamina (P) of area da having co-ordinates as x and y along OX and OY two
mutually perpendicular axes on a plane section as shown in Figure.
Now consider a plane OZ perpendicular to OX and OY.
Let (r) be the distance of the lamina (P) from Z-Z axis such that OP = r.
From the geometry of the figure, we find that
r2 = x2 + y2
We know that the moment of inertia of the lamina P about X-X axis,
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝑦 2 . 𝑑𝑎
Similarly, 𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 𝑥 2 . 𝑑𝑎, and
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧 2 . 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑟 2 . 𝑑𝑎 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ). 𝑑𝑎
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥 2 . 𝑑𝑎 + 𝑦 2 . 𝑑𝑎 = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 + 𝐼𝑋𝑋
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF STANDARD SECTIONS:
1) A rectangular section:

Consider a rectangular section ABCD as shown in Fig. whose moment of inertia b is required
to be found out.
Let b = Width of the section and
d = Depth of the section.
Now consider a strip PQ of thickness dy parallel to X-X axis and at a distance y from it as
shown in the figure
∴ Area of the strip = b.dy
We know that moment of inertia of the strip about X-X axis,
= Area × y2 = (b. dy) y2 = b. y2. Dy
Now the moment of inertia of the whole section may be found out by integrating the above
𝑑 𝑑
equation for the whole length of the lamina i.e. from − 2 to 2 .
2) Circular Section:

Consider a circle ABCD of radius (r) with centre O and XX' and Y-Y' be two axes of reference
through O as shown in Figure.
Now consider an elementary ring of radius x and thickness dx. Therefore area of the ring,
da = 2 𝜋 x.dx
and moment of inertia of ring, about X-X axis or Y-Y axis
= Area × (Distance)2
= 2 𝜋 x.dx × x2
= 2 𝜋 x3.dx
Now the moment of inertia of whole section, about the central axis, can be found out by
integrating the above equation for the whole radius of the circle i.e., from 0 to r.
3) A triangular section:

Consider a triangular section ABC whose moment of inertia is required to be found out.
Let, b = Base of the triangular section and
h = Height of the triangular section.
Now consider a small strip PQ of thickness dx at a distance of x from the vertex A as shown in
Fig. 7.8. From the geometry of the figure, we find that the two triangles
APQ and ABC are similar.
Therefore

Now moment of inertia of the whole triangular section may be found out by integrating the
above equation for the whole height of the triangle i.e., from 0 to h.
We know that distance between centre of gravity of the triangular section and base BC.
ℎ
𝑑=
3
Since, the moment of inertia of the triangular section about an axis through its centre
of gravity and parallel to X-X axis.

Note: The moment of inertia of section about an axis through its vertex and parallel to
the base

Moment of inertia of composite sections:

The moment of inertia of a composite section may be found out by the following steps:
1. First of all, split up the given section into plane areas (i.e., rectangular, triangular, circular
etc., and find the centre of gravity of the section).
2. Find the moments of inertia of these areas about their respective centres of gravity.
3. Now transfer these moment of inertia about the required axis (AB) by the Theorem of Parallel
Axis, i.e.,
𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑎. ℎ2
where
IG = Moment of inertia of a section about its centre of gravity and parallel to the axis.
a = Area of the section,
h = Distance between the required axis and centre of gravity of the section.
4. The moments of inertia of the given section may now be obtained by the algebraic sum of
the moment of inertia about the required axis.
 KINETICS OF PARTICLE
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will do motion analysis of moving particles without taking into account the
forces responsible for the motion. We shall study motion of a particle and get to know terms
like position, displacement, velocity, acceleration and time. These are the parameters by which
we measure motion. We shall study in detail the rectilinear motion and curvilinear motion of a
particle.

RECTILINEAR MOTION
Motion of a particle in a straight line is known as a rectilinear motion. A car moving on a
straight highway, lift traveling in a vertical well, stone falling from the top of a building, is
examples of rectilinear motion.

Position, Displacement and Distance

For a moving particle, the information of its position, at various instants, is a very important
data in motion analysis. Position means the location of a particle with respect to a fixed
reference point. Such fixed point is usually referred to as the origin 'o'. The point 'o' can be
marked anywhere on the particle's straight path. In one direction of the origin, the position is
taken as positive and therefore the other side of origin implies negative position. Fig. (a) Shows
a particle occupying position x = 5 m while in Fig. (b) The particle occupies a position x = -3
m.

Displacement is defined as a change in position of the particle. It is a vector quantity. If a

particle occupies position x1 at some time t1 and a new position x2 at a time t2, then the
displacement during the time (t2 – t1) is given by:
AX = X1-X2 ..[9.1]
Displacement is therefore a straight line vector connecting the initial position to the final
position and has no relation with the actual distance travelled by the particle.
Velocity
How fast' a particle moves is the velocity of the particle in motion. Consider a particle
occupying position x at time t and after a small time interval of At occupies a new position x +
At. 'How fast’ the particle has moved during the time interval A t is known as the average
velocity of the particle.

If the time interval Δt is made smaller and smaller, the average velocity will become
instantaneous velocity, i.e. velocity at a particular instant. Instantaneous velocity is usually
referred to as the velocity of the particle and denote as v.

S.I Unit of velocity v is metres/sec (m/s). The magnitude of velocity is known as the speed of
the particle. A positive value of v indicates that the particle is moving in the positive direction
i.e. the position x increases with time. A negative value of velocity indicates that the particle is
moving in the negative direction i.e. the position x decreases with time.
For example, if vertically upward direction is taken as positive and a stone is thrown vertically
up, it will have +ve velocity during its upward motion till the peak, while it will have -ve
velocity during its return downwards.
Acceleration
A moving particle has velocity at every instant of its motion. If its velocity changes, the rate of
change of velocity with time is the acceleration of the particle.
If a particle has a velocity 'v' at a certain instant and its velocity changes to v+Δv during a time
interval of Δt, the average acceleration of the particle during this time interval is

If the time interval Δt is made smaller and smaller, the average acceleration will become
instantaneous acceleration. Instantaneous acceleration is usually referred to as the acceleration
of the particle is and denoted as ‘a’.

SI unit of acceleration 'a' is m/s2. A positive value of acceleration is indicative of increase in

the magnitude of velocity with time i.e. the body is moving faster in the positive direction. A
negative value of acceleration indicates that the particle is moving more slowly in the +ve
direction or moves more faster in the -ve direction.

DIFFERENT RECTILINEAR MOTIONS

Different types of rectilinear motions possible are
1) Motion with Uniform Velocity
2) Motion with Uniform Acceleration
3) Motion with Variable Acceleration.
Uniform Velocity Motion
For a particle whose velocity remains the same throughout the motion is said to undergo a
uniform velocity motion. For example, motion of sound, a train traveling during a certain
interval at a constant speed, packages moving on a conveyor belt etc. perform uniform velocity
motion.

Uniform Acceleration Motion

A particle is said to perform uniform acceleration motion if its velocity changes at a uniform
rate.
If u is the initial velocity of a particle, v is the final velocity and t is the time interval, then the
acceleration a of the particle is,
Motion Under Gravity (M.U.G)
Any object projected vertically up in the air or projected vertically down towards the earth
performs a rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration. The acceleration is constant and its
magnitude is g = 9.81 m/s2. M. U. G therefore is a special case of uniform acceleration motion.
Consider a ball thrown vertically up with an initial velocity vo from the top of a tower at A and
of height h. The ball would travel vertically up performance rectilinear motion.
The velocity keeps on reducing at a uniform rate of 9.81 m/s every sec. i.e. 9.81 m/s 2 till it
becomes zero at B. This is the maximum height ymax reached by the ball. The downward motion
of the ball now begins and the velocity goes on increasing from zero at a uniform rate of again
9.81 m/s2.

While passing point A it will have the same speed vo but pointing downwards. The ball would
finally land on the ground at c with a velocity vc after time t sec. Knowing vo and h we can find
the maximum height ymax, time of flight t and final velocity of landing v. using equations of
uniform acceleration.
For solving problems on M.U.G follow the guidelines listed below.
1) Take the starting point as the origin and take all directions either ↑ +ve or +ve.
2) By directions, we mean the direction of displacement, velocity and acceleration.
3) With proper sign convention use the three equations of uniform accelerations viz.
VARIABLE ACCELERATION MOTION
Variable acceleration implies that rate of change of velocity is non uniform. Rectilinear
motions are not always uniformly accelerated, but more often undergo variable acceleration.
For example suspend a block from a vertical spring, stretch it and then release. The block would
oscillate up and down undergoing variable acceleration motion. The acceleration here is
variable acceleration is proportional to the deformation of the spring.
Variable acceleration motion is usually defined by acceleration written as a function of time or
velocity or position. For the solution of variable acceleration motion, we make use of the basic
three differential relations of velocity and acceleration given below. Two of them have been
derived earlier as equations 9.3 and 9.5.
 Motion of Projectile
A particle freely projected in the air in any direction other than vertical, follows a curved path
and this motion is referred to as a projectile motion. The path traced by the projectile is known
as its trajectory and is parabolic in nature.
Projectile motion is a curvilinear motion and can be worked using rectangular system i.e.
splitting the motion along horizontal direction and vertical direction Since gravitational force
acts in the vertical direction, it is a uniform accelerated motion in the vertical direction and a
uniform velocity motion in the horizontal direction, assuming the air resistance to be negligible.
Figure shows a projectile fired with an initial velocity v. at an angle 0 with the horizontal from
the top of the tower at A and of height h. The projectile travels along a parabolic trajectory and
reaches the peak at B. Fig. At the peak the vertical components of velocity Vay = 0. The
downward motion now begins and it finally lands with a velocity v. at C on the ground.
Procedure to solve projectile problems [Refer Fig.]

step 1: Draw a kinematic diagram showing kinematic parameters (initial Velocity, angle of
projection, range, time of flight, velocity of landing, vertical displacement) given or asked in
the problem.
step 2: Resolve the initial velocity Va into components Vax and Vay. Resolve landing velocity
Vc into Vcx and Vcy.
step 3: The curvilinear motion is split into horizontal motion (HM) and Vertical motion (VM).
Make a table with two columns as shown. The left column (HM) lists the kinematic terms like
v, s and t for horizontal motion with uniform velocity. The right column (VM) lists the terms
u, v, s, a and t for vertical motion with uniform acceleration of a = 9.81 m/s↓. Take a sign
convention ↑ + ve or ↓ -ve for vertical motion. A sign convention +ve means all vectors like
velocity (u, v), acceleration (a) and displacement (s), acting upwards are + ve.
The following terms, which will be frequently used in this chapter, should be clearly
understood at this stage:
1. Trajectory. The path, traced by a projectile in the space, is known as trajectory.
2. Velocity of projection. The velocity, with which a projectile is projected, is known as the
velocity of projection.
3. Angle of projection. The angle, with the horizontal, at which a projectile is projected, is
known as the angle of projection.
4. Time of flight. The total time taken by a projectile, to reach maximum height and to return
back to the ground, is known as the time of flight.
5. Range. The distance, between the point of projection and the point where the projectile
strikes the ground, is known as the range. It may be noted that the range of a projectile may be
horizontal or inclined.

MOTION OF A PROJECTILE
Consider a particle projected upwards from a point O at an angle α, with the horizontal, with
an initial velocity u m/sec as shown in Fig. 20.4.
Now resolving this velocity into its vertical and horizontal components,
V = u sinα and H = u cosα
We know that the vertical component (u sinα) is subjected to retardation due to gravity. The
particle will reach maximum height, when the vertical component becomes zero. After this the
particle will come down, due to gravity, and this motion will be subjected to acceleration due
to gravity.

The horizontal component (u cos α) will remain constant, since there is no acceleration or
retardation (neglecting air resistance). The combined effect of the horizontal and the vertical
components will be to move the particle, along some path in the air and then the particle falls
on the ground at some point A, other than the point of projection O as shown in Fig. 20.4.

EQUATION OF THE PATH OF A PROJECTILE

Consider a particle projected from a point O at a certain angle with the horizontal. As already
discussed, the particle will move along certain path OPA, in the air, and will fall down at A as
shown in Fig. 20.5.
Let u = Velocity of projection, and
α = Angle of projection with the horizontal.
Consider any point P as the position of particle, after t seconds with x and y as co-ordinates as
shown in Fig. 20.5. We know that horizontal component of the velocity of projection.

\
TIME OF FLIGHT OF A PROJECTILE ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE
It is the time, for which the projectile has remained in the air. Co-ordinates of a projectile after
time t.

HORIZONTAL RANGE OF A PROJECTILE

The horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point, where the projectile
returns back to the earth is called horizontal range of a projectile. Horizontal velocity of a
projectile

MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF A PROJECTILE ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE

We have already discussed that the vertical component of the initial velocity of a projectile
Let H be the maximum height reached by the particle and t be the time taken by the particle to
reach maximum height i.e.,to attain zero velocity from (u sinα). We have also discussed that
time taken by the projectile to reach the maximum height,

Projectile Motion along an Inclined Plane

Up the Plane In this case direction x is chosen up the plane and direction y is chosen
perpendicular to the plane. Hence,

Now, let us derive the expressions for time of flight (T) and range (R) along the plane.
Time of Flight
At point B displacement along y-direction is zero. So, substituting the proper values in
Range
Range (R) or the distance OB can be found by following two methods:
Method 1 Horizontal component of initial velocity is
Example 7.9 A man standing on a hill top projects a stone horizontally with speed v0 as shown
in figure. Taking the co-ordinate system as given in the figure. Find the co-ordinates of the
point where the stone will hit the hill surface.
 Work And Energy
The Work of a Force
A force F will do work on a particle only when the particle undergoes a displacement in the
direction of the force. For example, if the force F in Fig. causes the particle to move along the
path s from position r to a new position r', the displacement is then dr = r' - r. The magnitude
of dr is ds, the length of the differential segment along the path. If the angle between the tails
of dr and F is θ, then the work done by F is a scalar quantity, defined by

Work of a Variable Force

If the particle acted upon by the force F undergoes a finite displacement along its path from r 1
to r2 or s1 to s2, the work of force F is determined by integration. Provided F and θ can be
expressed as a function of position, then

Work of a Constant Force Moving Along a Straight Line

If the force Fc has a constant magnitude and acts at a constant angle θ from its straight-line
path, then the component of Fc in the direction of displacement is always Fccos θ. The work
done by Fc when the particle is displaced from s1 to s2 is determined from, in which case
Work of a Weight
Consider a particle of weight W, which moves up along the path s shown in Fig. from position
s1 to position s2.

Work of a Spring Force

If an elastic spring is elongated a distance ds, then the work done by the force that acts on the
attached particle is dU = -Fsds = -ks ds. The work is negative since Fs acts in the opposite
sense to ds. If the particle displaces from s1 to s2, the work of Fs is then
The Principle of Work and Energy
Consider the particle in Fig. which is located on the path defined relative to an inertial
coordinate system. If the particle has a mass m and is subjected to a system of external forces
represented by the resultant FR = ∑F, then the equation of motion for the particle in the
tangential direction is ∑Ft = mat . Applying the kinematic equation at = (v dv)/ds and integrating
both sides, assuming initially that the particle has a position s = s1 and a speed v = v1, and later
at s = s2, v = v2, we have
If we apply the principle of work and energy to this and each of the other particles in the system,
then since work and energy are scalar quantities, the equations can be summed algebraically,
which gives

Problems involve cases where a body slides over the surface of another body in the presence
of friction considers as special class of problems which requires a careful application. Consider,
for example, a block which is translating a distance s over a rough surface as shown in Fig. If
the applied force P just balances the resultant frictional force µ kN.

Conservation of Energy
When a particle is acted upon by a system of both conservative and non conservative forces,
the portion of the work done by the conservative forces can be written in terms of the difference
in their potential energies , i.e., (∑U1-2)cons. = V1 - V2. As a result, the principle of work and
energy can be written as

Here (∑U1-2)noncons. represents the work of the non conservative forces acting on the particle. If
only conservative forces do work then we have
This equation is referred to as the conservation of mechanical energy or simply the
conservation of energy. It states that during the motion the sum of the particle’s kinetic and
potential energies remains constant. For this to occur, kinetic energy must be transformed into
potential energy, and vice versa. For example, if a ball of weight W is dropped from a height h
above the ground (datum), the potential energy of the ball is maximum before it is dropped, at
which time its kinetic energy is zero. The total mechanical energy of the ball in its initial
position is thus

Note that when the ball comes in contact with the ground, it deforms somewhat, and provided
the ground is hard enough, the ball will rebound off the surface, reaching a new height h', which
will be less than the height h from which it was first released. Neglecting air friction, the
difference in height accounts for an energy loss,
 El = W(h – h')
Which occurs during the collision. Portions of this loss produce noise, localized deformation
of the ball and ground, and heat. If a system of particles is subjected only to conservative forces,
then an equation can be written for the particles. Applying the ideas of the preceding discussion,
(∑T1 + ∑U1-2 = ∑T2) becomes

Here, the sum of the system’s initial kinetic and potential energies is equal to the sum of the
system’s final kinetic and potential energies. In other words, ∑T + ∑V = const. The
conservation of energy equation can be used to solve problems involving velocity,
displacement, and conservative force systems. It is generally easier to apply than the principle
of work and energy because this equation requires specifying the particle’s kinetic and potential
energies at only two points along the path, rather than determining the work when the particle
moves through a displacement. For application it is suggested that the following procedure be
used.
Potential Energy.
 Draw two diagrams showing the particle located at its initial and final points along the path.
 If the particle is subjected to a vertical displacement, establish the fixed horizontal datum
from which to measure the particle’s gravitational potential energy V g.
 Data pertaining to the elevation y of the particle from the datum and the stretch or
compression s of any connecting springs can be determined from the geometry associated with
the two diagrams.
 Recall Vg = Wy, where y is positive upward from the datum and negative downward from the
datum; also for a spring, Ve = 1/2 ks2, which is always positive.
Conservation of Energy.
 Apply the equation T1 + V1 = T2 + V2 .
 When determining the kinetic energy, T = 1/2 mv2, remember that the particle’s speed v must
be measured from an inertial reference frame.
 IMPULSE
Consider a particle acted upon by a force F as shown in Fig. (a), for a duration of t sec.

This force is said to impart an impulse on the particle and the magnitude of this impulse is the
product of the force and the duration for which it acts. If the force F is constant (Fig. (b)),
during the time it acts, then
Impulse = F * t ....[1(a)]
If the force F is variable (Fig. (c)), the impulse between the time interval t 1 and t2 is
𝑡2
Impulse = ∫𝑡1 Fdt ...[1(b)]
Impulse is a vector quantity and its unit is N.s

IMPULSIVE FORCE
A large force when acts far a very small time and which causes a considerable change in a
particle's momentum is called an impulsive force. For example, when a moving particle collides
with another particle, the collision duration is very small, but the particles after collision have
different magnitudes of velocities and in some cases even different directions of velocities,
thereby indicating a considerable change in the momentum.
Other examples of impulsive forces are, when a bat hits a ball, the action and reaction forces
at the contact point are impulsive forces which impart a new momentum to the ball. Also when
a spring loaded toy gun releases the bullet, the spring force is an impulsive force in this case.
Impulsive forces are different from usual forces for the reason that the impulse generated by
the impulsive forces is mainly due to the large force value, which acts for small time, whereas
usual forces also generate impulse, where the duration (time) an equally important parameter,
is large and equally contributes to the impulse generated.

APPLICATION OF IMPULSE MOMENTUM EQUATION

Impulse Momentum liquation is a third equation other than the Newton's Second Law Equation
and Work Energy Principle Equation, using which we can analyse the kinetics of particles.
Impulse Momentum Equation involves parameters viz. force. mass, velocity and time. Thus
the velocity of the particle at the new position may be worked out knowing the forces acting
on the particle and the duration for which they act.
Also, if the initial and final velocities of the particle are known, the duration for which the
particle is in motion can be found out.
This method therefore eliminates the calculation of acceleration and many times use of the
kinematics relations, to give direct results. We will further deduce the Conservation of
Momentum Equation from the Impulse Momentum Equation and apply it to a system of
particles where the momentum is conserved.
To use the method of Impulse and Momentum, we need to draw. Three figures. First figure
would show the initial momentum vector of the particle. The second figure shows the F.B.D.
of the particle. The third. figure shows the final momentum vector of the particle. Drawing of
these figures helps in writing the Impulse Momentum Equation. Since all terms in this equation
are vector quantities, a proper sign convention for the direction need to be chosen before
plugging in the values.

Conservation of Momentum Equation

Figure shows a man (B) standing at the end of a boat (A). The system of man and boat is
initially at rest i.e. vA = 0 and vB = 0

If the man jumps off horizontally in the water with a velocity vb', he induces a backward motion
to the boat, which now starts moving with a velocity V A'.
If the water resistance is neglected the question is, how is the motion of the boat induced?
To jump off from the boat, the man exerts an impulsive force through his feet on the surface of
the boat. This induces a reaction impulsive force to the man, which throws him in the water.
Also since the water resistance is small, it may be neglected. Thus the impulsive force exerted
by the man is the cause of the backward motion of boat.
The interesting part here is that the impulsive force exerted by the man on the boat or the
reaction impulsive force of the boat on the man are nothing but action and reaction forces acting
for the same time interval. Due to this the net impulse in the direction of motion is zero. The
Impulse Momentum Equation thereby reduces to Conservation of Momentum Equation.
Applying this concept to the above example, we have

This relation indicates that knowing the masses of A and B and velocity of man (vb’) as he
jumps, we can find the velocity of boat (va’). The negative sign attached to the magnitude of
the velocity tells us that the boat moves in the opposite direction to that of man.
The conservation of momentum phenomenon takes place in other similar situations such as
when a bullet is fired from the gun and thereby the gun recoils backwards, or during the
collision of two particles, the particles move with different velocities after the collision. In
general we may say "for dynamic situations involving a system of particles, if the net impulse
is zero, the momentum of the system is conserved". The equation of Conservation of
Momentum is therefore expressed as.
Initial Momentum = Final Momentum [3]

Principle of Linear Impulse and Momentum

Using kinematics, the equation of motion for a particle of mass m can be written as

Where a and v are both measured from an inertial frame of reference. Rearranging the terms
and integrating between the limits v = v1 at t = t1 and v = v2 at t = t2, we have

This equation is referred to as the principle of linear impulse and momentum. Each of the two
vectors of the form L = mv in Eq. 1 is referred to as the particle’s linear momentum. The
integral I = ∫F dt in Eq. 1is referred to as the linear impulse. For problem solving, Eq. 1will be
rewritten in the form
equation states that the initial linear momentum of the system plus the impulses of all the
external forces acting on the system from t1 to t2 is equal to the system’s final linear momentum.

When the sum of the external impulses acting on a system of particles is zero, Eq. 2 reduces to
a simplified form, namely,

This equation is referred to as the conservation of linear momentum.

 DEPENDENT MOTION OR CONNECTED BODIES
 Let us first understand independent motion. Vehicles moving on a highway, lifts travelling
in parallel vertical shafts, ships moving in the sea etc. are examples of independent motion of
particles. Motion of independent moving particles are related using relative motion equations.
 In a dependent motion system, the motion of a particle is dependent on motion of
another or several other particles in the system. The particles forming a dependent
motion system are usually connected to each other by one or more ropes/strings.
 In Fig., motion of counter weight W and the lift C form a dependent motion system. In
Fig., blocks A, B and C form a dependent motion system.

 To find a relation between the position, velocities, and acceleration of the dependent
particles, we have a method known as constant string length method (C S L M).
CSLM
 This method is used to relate the position, velocity and acceleration of two or more particles
connected by a common string. This method is based on the principle "The total length of the
connecting string in terms of variable position: of the various particles connected to it is a
constant whatever be the positions”.\
 The following steps are used to establish kinematics relations using CSLM for dependent
motion. Let’s take an example of three moving blocks A, B and C whose position, velocities
and acceleration relations are required to be found out.
 Take a fixed reference axis perpendicular to the direction of motion of the moving particles.
If the particles move in the same direction only one reference axis will do. If they move in
different direction, for every direction a for every direction a reference axis is required.
 In the given example blocks A and B move in the vertical direction hence for them we take
a horizontal fixed reference (1). Block C moves horizontally for which-we have taken a vertical
fixed reference (2).From the horizontal reference (1) mark the variable position xA and xB of
blocks A and B respectively. From the vertical reference (2) mark the variable position x c of
block C.
 Measure the length L of the string in terms of variables x A, xB, and xC Here
L= xA+ 2xB + xC ± constant .........(1)
Note that some constants which are added are string portions wrapped over the pulley, while
some constants are subtracted like constant a and b which are lengths from the centre of pulley
to the reference axis or moving particles.
 correction to equation (1)
In this step a negative sign is attached to the variable which decreases with time during the
motion.
In the example taken up, say if B was moving down, then A would travel up and C would
travel to the left. In the process the variable xB increases with time, while variables xA and xC
decrease with time. We therefore correct equation (1) and get equation (2).
 Differentiate the corrected relation (2) w.r.t. time
0 = -VA +2VB –VC ……. (3)
The above equation (3) is the relation between the velocities of particles A, B and C.
 Differentiate equation (3) again w.r.t time
0 = -aA +2aB –aC ……. (4)
The above equation (4) is the relation between the acceleration of particles A, B and C.
 Note that the position, velocity and acceleration relations developed through equations (2),
(3) and (4) are scalar relations (relating only the magnitude), since the direction of motion of
the particles have already been accounted by correction to equation (1).
 D'ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE
Virtual Work
A virtual diplacement, is an infinitesimal change in the configuration of a system resulting from
any arbitrary infinitesimal change in the coordinates of the system denoted by 𝑟⃑ , at any given
instant of time. This displacement is consistent with all the forces and constraints present in
the system at that instant of time. The displacement is called virtual because it is purely an
imaginary displacement. It has the following properties:
i) the virtual displacement 𝑟⃑ takes place at a fixed instant of time, as opposed to a
real displacement d𝑟⃑ which take place in a time interval dt. Therefore the applied
forces as well the forces of constraint do not change during a virtual
displacement. You can imagine the system is frozen in its motion at an instant of
time, say t, and then moved without violating any of the constraints.
ii) it is infinitesimal.
iii) the time derivatives 𝑟⃗ do not change during a virtual displacement.
iv) there can be a virtual displacement 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 corresponding to each variable ⃗𝑟⃗𝑖 being used
to describe the motion.
v) the virtual displacement obeys the constraints of motion.

Suppose now, that the system we are studying is in equilibrium. Then at any instant of time,
𝐹𝑖  0 where ⃗⃗⃗
the total force acting on each particle must be zero or ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹𝑖 is the force acting on the
ith particle. Therefore we can write:
𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = 0
⃗⃗⃗ 2.12
𝐹𝑖 for the virtual displacement 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 as the quantity:
We now define the virtual work done by force ⃗⃗⃗
𝑊 𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑖 = ⃗⃗⃗ 2.13
⃗⃗⃗𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗)
Note that the virtual work is defined in exactly the same way as the real work (𝐹 𝑖 except

that now we have a virtual displacement in place of a real displacement. Given the condition
expressed in Eq. (2.12), we can sum over all i to write:
∑𝑖 𝑊 𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑖 = ∑𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗ 2.14
Let us now write the force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 as a sum of the applied force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 A and the force of constraint ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 C.
Then Eq. (2.14) can be rewritten as:
𝐴 𝐶
⃗⃗⃗𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 + ∑𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗
∑𝑖 𝐹 𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = 0 2.15
If we now restrict ourselves to systems where the net virtual work done by the forces of
constraint in the system is zero, that is:
𝐶
⃗⃗⃗𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = 0
∑𝑖 𝐹 2.16
The condition for the equilibrium of the system can be rewritten as:
𝐴
⃗⃗⃗𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = 0
∑𝑖 𝐹 2.17
That is to say that, for the static equilibrium of the system, the virtual work done by the applied
forces is zero. This (Eq. 2.17) is called the Principle of Virtual Work. It is stated as follows:
The necessary condition for the static equilibrium of a dynamical system, is that the
virtual work done by all the applied forces on the system is zero, provided that the virtual
work done by all the constraint forces is zero.

D'Alembert’s Principle
Notice that while the principle of virtual work, solves a part of our problem in that it does not
contain the forces of constraint, but it is still only a condition of static equilibrium. We have
yet to arrive at the dynamics of the system. Let us see how that can be done.
The equation of motion for the ith particle, ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗, ⃗⃗⃗𝑖 is the net force acting on the ith
𝑝𝑖 where 𝐹
particle and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝𝑖 is its linear momentum, can also be written as :
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝𝑖 = 0 (2.18)
Eq. (2.18) can also be stated as follows:
Each particle of the system is in equilibrium under the action of the following two forces
acting on it: ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑭𝒊 and −𝒑 𝒊
𝐴 𝐶
While the force acting on each particle ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 , is the sum of the applied and constraint
forces, −𝑝
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑖 may be thought of an effective reverse force, sometimes called the inertial force,
which would bring the system to equilibrium. From Eq. (2.18) we can also write:
∑𝑖 (𝐹 𝑝𝑖 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = 0
⃗⃗⃗𝑖 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗). 2.19

𝐹𝑖 for the virtual displacement 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 is:

We already know that the virtual work done by force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 𝐶
𝑊 ⃗⃗⃗𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑖 = 𝐹 𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 + 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖
As we have already studied in the previous section, the total virtual work is
𝐴 𝐶 𝐴
∑𝑖 𝑊 𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 + ∑𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑖 = ∑𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = ∑𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 2.20
𝐶
𝐹𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = 0 Eq. (2.19) therefore reduces to:
since ∑𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴
∑𝑖 (𝐹 𝑝𝑖 . 𝑟⃗⃗𝑖 = 0
⃗⃗⃗𝑖 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗) 2.21
This is called the D'Alembert’s principle. The physical significance of this principle is that
𝐴 𝐶
⃗⃗⃗𝑖 and not by ⃗⃗⃗
it tells us that the momentum of the particle is determined only by the 𝐹 𝐹𝑖 .
Eq. (2.21) is different from the Principle of Virtual Work, because it includes the dynamics of
the system through the term ⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑝𝑖 In particular,
i) The forces of constraint do not figure in the equation in any way, all you need to
know are the applied forces.
ii) The constraint relation enters the equation only through the term 𝑟⃗⃗,
𝑖 through the

relation between the coordinates.

iii) The only condition required to be satisfied by a dynamical system for the
D'Alembert’s principle to be applicable is that the virtual work done by all the
constraint forces vanishes (Eq. 2.16).