Mitosis

 It is process where a single cell divides into two

identical daughter cells.

Prophase
 Condensation of Chromatids
 Formation of Spindle fibers

Metaphase
 Line-up of Chromosomes
 Attachment to Spindle fibers

Anaphase
 Sister Chromatids Pull Away
 Contraction of Spindle fibers

Telophase
 Reformation of Nucleus
 Disappearance of Spindle fibers

Meiosis
 Two divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II)

Males
 spermatogenesis and produces sperms

Females
 oogenesis and produces ova
Homologous Chromosomes
 the members of a chromosome pair that is identical
in the arrangement of genes
Synapsis
 the intimate association of homologous
chromosomes
 a process: when hom. chrom.
come together, pair up, form a tetrad

Crossing-over
 a term describing the process of reciprocal
chromosomal interchange by which recombinants
arise
Prophase I
• The longest phase. This phase can be divided into 5
stages;
a) Leptotene
b) Zygotene
c) Pachytene
d) Diplotene
e) Diakinesis
Plasma Membrane
 is a physical barrier that separates a cell from its
surrounding environment
 exchange of materials inside the cell with its
surroundings and gets rid of the wastes

Fluid Mosaic Model

 is the currently accepted concept describing the
structure of plasma membrane
 describes the plasma membrane as a mosaic of
protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of
phospholipids

Phospholipid
 Head – Hydrophilic
 Tail – Hydrophilic

Integral Protein
 embed in the lipid bilayer while peripheral proteins
are loosely attached to the membrane surface

Peripheral Proteins
 not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all, instead they
are loosely bound to the surface of the membrane

Carbohydrates

1. Glycoproteins
 attached to protein
2. Glycolipids
 Attached to lipids

Cholesterol
 are often found stuck between phospholipid
molecules in the plasma membranes of animal cells\
 They have a role in maintaining the fluid consistency
of the plasma membrane

Transport Mechanism of a Cell

2 types of Transport Mechanism

1. Passive
 does not require to expend energy to occur
2. Active
 needs to use energy in the cell

Diffusion
 movement of particles from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
 leading to equalization of the concentration
throughout the area of diffusion
 defined as the spreading of the particles of one
substance among the particles of another substance
following a concentration gradient (or “downhill”
movement of the substance).

Osmosis
 diffusion of water across a semi-permeable
membrane.
 two important requirements for osmosis to take place
are
  presence of a semi-permeable membrane
 presence of a concentration gradient.
 These two affects the cell’s ability to gain or lose
water called as tonicity (isotonic, hypertonic, and
hypotonic).

Isotonic
 there is the same concentration of water and solutes
thus there is no net movement of water in plasma
membrane

Hypertonic
 there is more solute molecules and lesser water
concentration outside the cell causing the water to
move outside, thus the cell loses water, shrivel, and
probably dies.

Hypotonic
 there is fewer solute molecules and more water
concentration outside the cell causing the water to
enter the cell causing it to gain water, expand, and
could even burst.

Facilitated Transport
 known as facilitated diffusion. Ions (sodium and
chloride) and molecules like glucose and amino acids
cannot pass readily the cell membrane
 enter the cells / the help of special proteins called
transporters / channel proteins.
 Channel proteins / permeases are like corridors w/c
allow specific molecules to cross the phospholipid
bilayer.

2 kinds of facilitated transport mechanisms

1. facilitated diffusion
 the permease assists the molecule to diffuse through
the membrane that it cannot otherwise penetrate.
The movement is in a “downhill” direction and does
not expend energy.
2. active transport
 energy is used when molecules move against the
concentration gradient (“uphill” movement).

Endocytosis
 known as ingestion of material by a cell
 There are three similar types:
o Phagocytosis
o Pinocytosis
o receptor- mediated endocytosis

1. Phagocytosis
 cell eating
 an area of the cell membrane extends around the
macromolecule and forms a pocket that engulfs the
material. The membrane-enclosed vesicle then
detaches from the cell surface and moves into the
cytoplasm where its contents are digested by
intracellular enzymes. This process is exhibited by
amoeba engulfing bacteria and white blood cells.

2. Pinocytosis
 cell drinking
 small areas of the surface membrane invaginate to
form tiny vesicles to “gulp” or take in fluids
constantly.
 nonspecific for the substance it transports.
 occurs in cells of the intestinal wall & root cells.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 form of pinocytosis.
 specific process for acquiring bulk molecules in the
cell
  Any molecule of the plasma membrane specifically
binds to receptor molecules called ligands forming a
pit or caveolae.
 This pit is coated w/ a protein called clathrin; hence,
they are described as clathrin-coated pit.
 Clathrin picks specific molecules outside the cell,
closes, and pinches off forming vesicle to the
cytoplasm.
 This process is exhibited by human cells to take in
cholesterol and steroids.

Exocytosis
 opposite of endocytosis
 process of exporting substances from the cell
 membrane of the transport vesicle fuses w/ the
plasma membrane w/ the help of specific proteins
w/c rearrange the phospholipids layers of the 2
membranes.
 material in the vesicle is released to the extracellular
environment.
 This process is exhibited by cells in the pancreas w/c
transport insulin, nerve cells when releasing
neurotransmitters, and plant cells exporting proteins
& carbohydrates

Enzymes and Oxidation-Reaction Reactions

Enzymes
 Cells in our body contain biological molecules
(proteins / RNA) that catalyze chemical reactions
called enzymes.
 Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the
rate of reaction bet. substances w/in cells w/out
being changed /destroyed in a chemical reaction.
 They are made up of a. a. linked together via amide
(peptide).
 Some enzymes consist of only protein, while most of
them consist of both protein & nonprotein
components (Fig. 1).
 They can be reused over again for the same chemical
reaction in bodily processes.

 When the chemical reaction between the enzyme

and the substrate is complete, the enzyme remains
the same and is ready to do another reaction while
the substrate is changed into a product (Fig. 2).

 Enzyme names usually end in “ase” and named after

the affected substrate, e.g., proteases for proteins,
lipases for lipids, amylases for starch.
  Enzymes are highly specific for a reaction and only
catalyze substrates which can fit inside its active site.
 In the previous activity, the key serves as the
substrate while the lock serves as the enzyme.
 Only correctly sized key (substrate) will fit perfectly
into the lock (enzyme) and cause a reaction.
 Enzymes are all around us and even within us.
Factors

1. pH (acidity and basicity)

 pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) and
hydroxide ion (OH-) concentrations.
 It ranges from pH1 to pH14.
 Acid solutions have pH values below 7, while basic
solutions (alkalis are bases) have pH values above 7.
 Different enzymes have different optimum pH values.
 Any change in pH above or below the optimum will
quickly cause a decrease in the rate of reaction.
 Extreme changes in pH can cause denaturation of
enzymes, permanently losing their function.

2. Temperature
 Increasing temperature increases the rate of
reaction.
 Random collision of enzymes with substrate
molecules results to more products.
 The rise in temperature increases the chances of a
successful collision and so the rate increases.
  However, there is a certain temperature at which an
enzyme's catalytic activity is at its greatest (optimum
temperature).
 Different enzymes function in different organisms in
different environments.
 For the enzymes in the human body cells, the
optimum temperature is 37°C.
 Above this temperature, the enzyme structure begins
to denature (breaking of weaker bonds).’

3. Substrate
 Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate
of reaction.
 More substrate molecules will be colliding with
enzyme molecules and, thus, more products will be
formed.
 However, any increase in concentration will have no
effect on the rate of reaction since substrate
concentration will no longer be the limiting factor.
 Enzymes will become saturated and will be working
at their maximum possible rate.

Oxidation and Reduction

 The transfer of electrons between molecules is
important because most of the energy stored in
atoms and used to fuel cell functions is in the form of
high energy electrons.
 The transfer of energy in the form of electrons allows
the cell to transfer and use energy incrementally,
that is, in small packages rather than a single,
destructive burst.
 Reactions that remove electrons from donor
molecules, leaving them oxidized, are oxidation
reactions; those that add electrons to acceptor
molecules, leaving them reduced, are reduction
reactions.
 Because electrons can move from one molecule to
another, oxidation and reduction occur in tandem.
  They are complementary processes which occur
together.
 Thus, these reactions are now called oxidation-
reduction reactions or redox reactions.
 The more general definition of oxidation is the loss of
electrons and of reduction, the gain of electrons.

Redox Enzymes
 Redox enzymes are a general term for enzymes that
catalyze the redox between two molecules.
 Among them, oxidase can catalyze the oxidation of
substances by oxygen, and dehydrogenase can
catalyze the removal of hydrogen from material
molecules.
 Numerous redox enzymes in organisms require
coenzyme NAD or NADP as well as FAD or FMN when
reacting.
 Of course, some enzymes do not require a coenzyme
or a prosthetic group, and directly use oxygen as a
carrier of electrons, such as glucose oxidase.
 The process of redox reaction in a living body has a
movement of a pair of hydrogen atoms, the transfer
of electrons, or an oxygen atom addition.
 A substance giving electrons or H to oxidize is called
an electron donor or a hydrogen donor.
 A substance that acts as an oxidant and accepts
electrons or hydrogen and is itself reduced is called
an electron acceptor or a hydrogen acceptor.