DR. D. Y.

PATIL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING, MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH,

AKURDI, PUNE-44

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

2021-2022

LAB MANUAL
Subject – Digital Communication Lab
Subject code: 304186
Class – TE

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 Program Outcomes

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals and E&TC engineering specialization to
the solution of complex E&TC engineering problems
PO1.a – Apply the knowledge of mathematics
PO1.b – Apply the knowledge of science
PO1.c – Apply the knowledge of engineering fundamentals
2. Problem Analysis: Identify and analyze complex engineering problems using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and E&TC
engineering science
PO2.a – Identify the engineering problem
PO2.b – analyze the engineering problem
PO3.c – reaching the conclusion for the problem
3. Design /development of Solution: Design solutions for E&TC engineering problems and design system components for real life
PO3.a – Design solution for engineering problems
PO3.b – Design system components for real life solution
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use Engineering knowledge for analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
PO4.a – analysis of data
PO4.b – Interpretation of data
PO4.c – synthesis of data for valid conclusion
5. Modern tool Usage: select and apply appropriate techniques, using IT tools to model E&TC engineering problems with an understanding
of the limitations.
PO5.a – Select and apply appropriate technique
PO5.b – knowledge of various IT tools
PO5.b – Use IT tools to model E&TC engineering problems
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues
and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional E&TC engineering practice.
PO6.a – ability to identify the problem
PO6.b – assess the problem
PO6.c – apply the engineering solution
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the E&TC engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and
demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO7.a – understand the impact of E&TC engineering solutions
PO7.b – demonstrate the knowledge for sustainable development
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the E&TC engineering practice.
PO8.a – have awareness of ethical principles
PO8.b - be committed to professional ethics
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual , and as a member or leader in a team
PO9.a – ability to function effectively as an individual
PO9.b – ability to function as a leader in a team
10. Communication: Communicate effectively ,comprehend and write effective reports and make effective presentations
PO10.a – ability to communicate effectively
PO10.b – ability to comprehend and write effective reports
PO10.c – ability to make effective presentations
11. Project management and finance: Have knowledge and understanding of the E&TC engineering and management principles and apply
these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects
PO11.a – Ability to have the knowledge and understanding of Engineering and Management principles
PO11.b – apply managerial skills effectively as a leader
PO11.c – Apply the E&TC engineering skills as a team member
12. Life-long learning: Ability of self-education and understand the technological changes PO12.a – Inculcate the habit of self-learning and
understanding
PO12.b – ability to adapt to technological changes

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 Vision:

To impart quality education to produce competent E&TC Engineers

Mission:

1. To equip students with strong basics through excellent blend of theory and
practical knowledge
2. To inculcate creativity and innovation through curricular and co-curricular
activities
3. To give the knowledge about all possible areas of E&TC by interacting with
professional world
4. To develop the students with communication skills and ethical standards to meet
the professional needs

PSOs:
The E&TC engineering graduates should be able to

1) Apply principles of Electronics and communication , digital systems, signal

processing, software programming in the field of Embedded,
Telecommunication & Software services for real world applications
2) Comprehend the technological advancements, demonstrate the proficiency in
the usage of engineering tools to analyze and design systems for variety of
applications.
3) Demonstrate professional ethics , apply communication skills for successful
career and higher studies

PEOs:

1) The graduate shall utilize the basic knowledge to address the Engineering
problems
2) The graduate shall attain the qualities of professional leadership with ethical and
moral standards
3) The graduate shall develop their capabilities for lifelong learning throughout
their professional career and higher education
4) The graduate shall explore engineering capabilities through creativity and
innovation.

Course Outcomes:
Universit
SAR
y
course COURSE OUTCOMES
course
code
Code

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 Ability to generate & detect various digital modulation techniques & observe waveform at
C306.1
different stages
304186 C306.2 Able to modulate & demodulate signals by digital modulation techniques through simulation
C306.3 Ability to understand various source coding and channel coding techniques through simulation.
C306.4 Ability to understand various multiple access techniques through simulation.

CO and PO Mapping for Digital Communication Lab:

University
Course SAR COs (1/2/3 indicates strength of correlation) 3-Strong, 2-Medium, 1-Weak
Code course PO1 PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
Code 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CO1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C306.1
C306.2 CO2 1 1 1 1 1 1
304186
C306.3 CO3 1 1 1 1 1 1

C306.4 CO4 1 1 1 1 1

CO PSO Mapping:

Course Name: Digital Communication Lab (304186)

A. Y. 2021-22 Sem 1
CO PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
C306.1 1 1
C306.2 1 1
C306.3 1 1
C306.4 1 1

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Practical / Oral:

Practical / Oral is to be conducted and assessed jointly by internal and external examiners. The
performance in the Practical / Oral examination shall be assessed by at least one pair of examiners
appointed as examiners by the Savitribai Phule Pune University. The examiners will prepare the mark
/ grade sheet in the format as specified by the Savitribai Phule Pune University and authenticate it.

Guidelines for Laboratory Conduction

• Students are not allowed to touch any equipment or other materials in the laboratory until they are
instructed by Teacher or Technician.
• All the experiments mentioned in the syllabus are compulsory.
• Use of open source software and recent version is to be encouraged.

Guidelines for Student's Lab Journal

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• The laboratory assignments/experiments are to be submitted by student in the form of journal.

• Journal consists of Certificate, table of contents, and handwritten write-up for each experiment.
• Each experiment should consist of:
✔ Assignment No
✔ Title of Assignment
✔ Date of Performance
✔ Date of Submission
✔ Aims & Objectives
✔ Theory
✔ Description of data used
✔ Results
✔ Conclusion.

Guidelines for Lab Assessment:

• Continuous assessment of laboratory work is done based on overall performance.

• Each lab assignment/ experiment assessment will assign grade / marks based on parameters with
appropriate weightage.
• Suggested parameters for overall assessment as well as each lab assignment / experiment
assessment include:
✓ Timely completion.
✓ Performance.
✓ Punctuality and neatness.
• The parameters for assessment are to be known to the students at the beginning of the course

INDEX
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EXP.
List of Laboratory Experiments
NO.

1 Study of BPSK transmitter & receiver using suitable hardware setup/kit.

2 Study of QPSK transmitter & receiver using suitable hardware setup/kit.
3 Study of Error Control Coding using suitable hardware setup/kit.
4 Study of DSSS transmitter and receiver using suitable hardware setup/kit.
5 Simulation Study of performance of BPSK receiver in presence of noise.
6 Simulation study of OFDM transmitter & receiver.
7 Simulation Study of CDMA technique.
8 Simulation Study of Linear Block codes.
9 Simulation study of Source Coding technique.
1 Simulation study of various Entropies and mutual information in a communication
0 system.
1 Virtual Lab: QPSK signal generation.
1 https://www.etti.unibw.de/labalive/index/digitalmodulation/
1
Virtual Lab: BPSK modulation & Demodulation
2

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 Experiment No. 1

Title: Study of BPSK transmitter & receiver using suitable hardware setup/kit.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: To study generation and reception of BPSK & its spectral analysis (DSO).

Objectives:
1. BPSK Generation
2. Observe waveforms ate various points in transmitter & receiver
3. Observe spectrum of BPSK on spectrum analyzer

Requirements:
1. Trainer kit
2. Patch cords
3. DSO/CRO/Spectrum analyser

Theory:
In binary phase shift keying (BPSK) phase of the sinusoidal carrier is changed according to the data bit to be
transmitted, the carrier phase is changed between 0° and 180°.It uses two phases which are separated by 180°
and so can also be termed 2-PSK.

For generation of BPSK first the binary data signal (0s and 1s) is converted into a NRZ signal. The
graphical representation of BPSK is as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1

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Block Diagram:

Transmitter:

Bits x(t)

cos(2π fct)

Receiver:

In our kit we have derived a sinusoid from a crystal clock using IC 4017’s & frequency divider & 2 nd order
butterworth filter & for phase shifted wave we have used OPAMP Inverter.

Also two different bit patterns are also derived from a basic clock. For transmitter section we have used IC
4052[Analog Switch]. A sinusoid & phase shifted sinusoid are two I/p’s to Analog Switch & bit pattern is
connected to I/P of 4052. O/p of 4052 is a required BPSK Output. Also for synchronization purpose a start
signal (Power on Mono) is send. This signal is ORed with bit pattern & then given to transmitter. The carrier

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and the timing pulses used to generate the binary wave are usually extracted from a common clock. The
desired BPSK wave is obtained at the modulator output.

The receiver consist of :-

1) Square law device

2) Band pass filter
3) Frequency divider
4) Synchronous demodulator
At receiver we have to derive carrier frequency from BPSK wave form so this waveform is given to Squaring
circuit(IC 1496 multiplier). At the O/p of 1496 we have 2fc frequency. By using Band pass filter with center
frequency 2fc & frequency divider (Division factor two). We get carrier frequency. For detection of data from
BPSK signal, phase comparator section of PLL(IC 565) is used. One I/p to PLL is BPSK Signal & Other I/P
is recovered carrier. O/p of PLL is then given to filter. O/p of filter is either a digital data or an inverted one.
Then with the help of start signal we get corrected data. We know that at the ‘Power on’ we have send ‘1’ as
digital data. O/p of filter is latched at this instant. If it is ‘1’ then we have get correct data. If its zero then
receiver O/p is inverted & therefore we get correct data.

Procedure:
1) Connect O/P of pattern Gen to I/P of ‘OR’ Gate.
2) Connect O/P of OR gate to I/P of transmitter i.e.(I/P of MULT. Block).
3) Connect O/P of ‘MULT’ Block i.e. BPSK O/P to I/P of 1496 square ckt.
4) Connect O/P of 1496 Sq. ckt to I/P of B.P Filter.
5) Connect O/P of BP Filter to I/P of ÷2 N/W.
6) Connect O/P of ÷2 N/W to I/P 1 of phase comparator.
7) Connect BPSK O/P to I/P of 2 of phase comparator.
8) Switch in the power supply.
9) Observe Signal’s at different points.

Result:
Draw the following waveforms:

1. I/P bit pattern.

2. Carrier signal and PSK O/P.
3. Spectrum of BPSK signal
4. O/P of Square law device, BP Filter and ÷2 NW.
5. O/P of COMP Block and compare with I/P sequence.

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Conclusion:

Experiment No. 2

Title: Study of QPSK transmitter & receiver using suitable hardware setup/kit.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: To study generation and reception of QPSK & its spectral analysis (DSO).

Objectives:
1. QPSK Generation
2. Observe waveforms ate various points in transmitter & receiver
3. Observe spectrum of QPSK on spectrum analyzer

Requirements:
1. Trainer kit
2. Patch cords
3. DSO/CRO/Spectrum analyser

Theory:

To transmit digital data on analog lines or even into space, modulation of analog signal is required. BPSK is a
system in which carrier is transmitted for ‘1’ and inverted carrier is transmitted for digital ‘0’. Here if bit rate is
‘Tb’ then bandwidth required is ‘2Tb’.To reduce this bandwidth requirement QPSK can be used. For QPSK,
bandwidth requirement is ‘Tb’ i.e. half that of BPSK.

Block Diagram:

Transmitter:

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Receiver:

In QPSK two consecutive bits are combined to form a symbol and for resulting 4 combinations, 4
different phases of carrier is transmitted. By using D flip-flop type arrangement type, incoming bit pattern is
divided into different bit pattern viz odd pattern and even pattern. Each symbol is having bit duration of 2Tb
seconds.

Odd bit pattern is converted into PSK using sine wave as a carrier. Even bit pattern is converted into
PSK using cosine wave as a carrier. Both the bit patterns are added to give QPSK signal. Here active edges of
odd or even clocks are separated by time Tb. After each ‘Tb’ period but every bit is there for 2T b period. So in
offset QPSK system the phase changes by 90 degree only.

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 At receiver, carrier is recovered from QPSK signal itself. This is synchronous reception. To recover
carrier, QPSK signal is passed through band pass filters whose centre frequency is adjusted to 4 times carrier
frequency. In this kit IC1496 is used as analog multiplier.

Then QPSK signal is multiplied by sine wave and cosine waves. As a result we get odd and even
pattern after filtering and integrating multipliers outputs. Now these two patterns are combined to get original
bit pattern. This is done by using analog switch.

Procedure:
1. Switch on power supply.
2. Connect clock to input of even and odd clock generator
3. Connect pattern to input of the O & E generator.
4. Connect O.data & E.data to their respective inputs at 1496 mul.

5. Observe QPSK output.

6. Connect sine and cosine inputs to their respective pins at the receiver end.\
7. Observe the regenerated output.

Result:
Draw the following Waveforms:

1. BIT pattern
2. Sine Wave & Cos Wave
3. Odd and Even data.
4. Waveforms at points A and B.
5. QPSK output & it’s spectrum.
6. Output sequence compare with input.

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No. 3

Title: Study of Error Control Coding using suitable hardware setup/kit.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: To develop small circuit for any error coding techniques

Objectives:
1. Develop circuit for any error coding techniques
2. Observe outputs for various input conditions

Requirements:
1. Bread board
2. Patch cords
3. LED
4. Connecting wires
5. Registers, ICs, etc.
6. DSO/CRO/Spectrum analyser

Theory:

Circuit Diagram:

Working:
Result:

Conclusion:
 Experiment No. 4

Title: Study of DSSS transmitter and receiver using suitable hardware setup/kit.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: To study Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum.

Objectives:
1. Generate DSSS signal
2. Observe waveforms at various points
3. Detect original input signal from DSSS.
4. Observe spectrum of DSSS on spectrum analyzer

Requirements:
1. Trainer kit
2. Patch cords
3. DSO/CRO/Spectrum analyzer

Theory:

Spread spectrum techniques are based on signaling schemes which greatly expands the transmitted
spectrum relative to the data rate. Spread spectrum is useful when it is necessary for the system to resist
external interference, to operate at low spectral energy, to provide multiple access capability without
external control & to provide a secure channel inaccessible to the outside listeners.

The main principle of spread spectrum communication is that the bandwidth occupancy is much
higher than usual. Because of this much larger bandwidth, the power spectral density is lower in the
channel, the signal looks like a noise. The spreading is done by combining the data signal with code
signal which is independent of the transmitted data message. The various types of modulation
techniques employed in spread spectrum are

1) Direct Sequencing
2) Frequency Hoping
3) Time Hoping
4) Hybrid Methods
5) CHIRP
Block diagram:

In Direct sequence spread spectrum widening the bandwidth of data sequence involves the use of
modulation. The modulation is achieved by applying the data signal d(t) & PN signal g(t) to a product
modulator or multiplier to obtain spread signal d’(t).

d’(t)= d(t) x g(t)

By this multiplication each information bit is chopped up into small time increments, referred as
chips. The spectrum is spread by ratio fc/fd, where fc is bit rate of g(t) & fd is bit rate d(t).

From Fourier transform theory, the multiplication of two signals produces a signal whose spectrum
equals the convolution of the spectra of the two component signals. Thus, if the message signal is
narrowband & the PN signal is wideband, the product signal will have a spectrum that is nearly the same
as the wideband PN signal. In other words, the PN sequence performs the role of a spreading code.

Procedure:
1. Switch on the power supply.
2. Observe o/p of PN sequence generator, P1, P2 on CRO.
3. Connect o/p of PN sequence generator to PN I/p of transmitter multiplier block.
4. Connect either P1 or P2 to pattern I/p of Trans. Multiplier block.

5. Observe o/p of transmitter multiplier block which looks like a random signal.
6. Connect o/p of transmitter multiplier block to I/p of PSK transmitter.
7. Observe o/p of PSK transmitter together with carrier of PSK transmitter on XY mode of CRO. You can
observe 2 cross lines corresponding to 0 & 180 phases, i.e. BPSK signal.
8. Connect PSK transmitter o/p to I/p of 1496 squaring circuit & I/p2 of PSK receiver.
9. Connect o/p of LPF & comparator to the i/p of receiver multiplier.
10. Connect the o/p of PN sequence generator to i/p of receiver multiplier.
11. O/p of receiver multiplier is same as that of pattern generator o/p.

Observations:

Conclusion:
 Experiment No. 5

Title: Simulation Study of performance of BPSK receiver in presence of noise.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: To study constellation diagram & BER of BPSK in presence of noise.

Objectives:
1. Generate BPSK signal
2. Draw constellation diagram without noise
3. Draw constellation diagram after noise addition
in BPSK.

Requirements:
1. MATLAB
2. PC with OS

Theory:
In any phase modulation scheme, the information is expressed in terms of phase of the carrier. Phase
of the carrier signal is shifted according to the input binary data. Two-state phase shift keying (PSK) is
called BPSK where the phase of the radio carrier is set to 0 or π according to the value of the incoming bit.
Each bit of the digital signal produces a transmit symbol with duration Ts, which is equal to the bit duration
Tb.
Bit error rate (BER) of a communication system is defined as the ratio of number of error bits and
total number of bits transmitted during a specific period. It is the likelihood that, a single error bit will occur
within received bits, independent of rate of transmission. There are many ways of reducing BER. Here, we
focus on channel coding techniques. A channel in mobile communications can be simulated in many
different ways. The main considerations include the effect of multipath scattering, fading and Doppler shift
that arise from the relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver. In our simulations, we have
considered the two most commonly used channels: the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel
where the noise gets spread over the whole spectrum of frequencies and the Rayleigh fading channel.
In Matlab, we focused only on BER performance in terms of signal to noise ratio per bit for PSK,
considering AWGN and Rayleigh channels. PSK signal was created with the help of Matlab function y =
dmod(x, Fc, Fd, Fs, 'psk', M) which performs M-phase shift keying modulation. X denotes values
(modulating signal) of random bits generated with the help of function randint(m, n), which generates an m-
by-n binary matrix, Fc is carrier frequency and Fs is sampling frequency. Such a signal was mixed with
noise and later detected by convolving the distorted signal, and the signal from matched filter-representation
of carrier recovery circuit. This signal was passed through a decision device to get the final data. The bit
error rate measurements were carried out subsequently.

Algorithm:

1
Conclusion:

Experiment No. 6
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Title: Simulation study of OFDM transmitter & receiver.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: To generate & study OFDM transmitter & receiver.

Objectives:
1. Generate OFDM signal
2. Observe it’s spectrum
3. Detect original signal from OFDM.

Requirements:
1. MATLAB
2. PC with OS

Theory:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a digital multi-carrier modulation scheme
that extends the concept of single subcarrier modulation by using multiple subcarriers within the
same single channel. Rather than transmit a high-rate stream of data with a single subcarrier, OFDM
makes use of a large number of closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers that are transmitted in
parallel. Each subcarrier is modulated with a conventional digital modulation scheme (such
as QPSK, 16QAM, etc.) at low symbol rate. However, the combination of many subcarriers enables
data rates similar to conventional single-carrier modulation schemes within equivalent bandwidths.

OFDM is based on the well-known technique of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). In FDM
different streams of information are mapped onto separate parallel frequency channels. Each FDM
channel is separated from the others by a frequency guard band to reduce interference between
adjacent channels.

The OFDM scheme differs from traditional FDM in the following interrelated ways:

1. Multiple carriers (called subcarriers) carry the information stream,

2. The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other, and

3. A guard interval is added to each symbol to minimize the channel delay spread and intersymbol
interference.

The following figure illustrates the main concepts of an OFDM signal and the inter-relationship
between the frequency and time domains. In the frequency domain, multiple adjacent tones or
subcarriers are each independently modulated with complex data. An Inverse FFT transform is
performed on the frequency-domain subcarriers to produce the OFDM symbol in the time-domain.
Then in the time domain, guard intervals are inserted between each of the symbols to prevent inter-
symbol interference at the receiver caused by multi-path delay spread in the radio channel. Multiple
symbols can be concatenated to create the final OFDM burst signal. At the receiver an FFT is
performed on the OFDM symbols to recover the original data bits.

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Orthogonality – The Importance of Orthogonally Spaced Subcarriers?
The OFDM signal can be described as a set of closely spaced FDM subcarriers. In the frequency domain,
each transmitted subcarrier results in a sinc function spectrum with side lobes that produce overlapping
spectra between subcarriers, see "OFDM Signal Frequency Spectra" figure below. This results in subcarrier
interference except at orthogonally spaced frequencies. At orthogonal frequencies, the individual peaks of
subcarriers all line up with the nulls of the other subcarriers. This overlap of spectral energy does not
interfere with the system’s ability to recover the original signal. The receiver multiplies (i.e., correlates) the
incoming signal by the known set of sinusoids to recover the original set of bits sent.

The use of orthogonal subcarriers allows more subcarriers per bandwidth resulting in an increase in spectral
efficiency. In a perfect OFDM signal, Orthogonality prevents interference between overlapping carriers. In
FDM systems, any overlap in the spectrums of adjacent signals will result in interference. In OFDM systems,
the subcarriers will interfere with each other only if there is a loss of orthogonality. For example, frequency
error will cause the subcarrier frequencies to shift so that the spectral nulls will no longer be aligned
resulting in inter-subcarrier-interference

Algorithm:

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Conclusion:

Experiment No. 7

Title: Simulation Study of CDMA technique

2
Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: To study CDMA technique with MATLAB.

Objectives:
1. Generate CDMA signal
2. Detect original signal from CDMA.

Requirements:
3. MATLAB
4. PC with OS

Theory:
Code-division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by
various radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several
transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows
several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). To permit this without undue
interference between the users, CDMA employs spread spectrum technology and a special coding
scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code).
CDMA optimizes the use of available bandwidth as it transmits over the entire frequency
range and does not limit the user's frequency range.
It is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards. IS-95, also called
"cdmaOne", and its 3G evolution CDMA2000, are often simply referred to as "CDMA",
but UMTS, the 3G standard used by GSM carriers, also uses "wideband CDMA", or W-CDMA, as
well as TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA, as its radio technologies.
It can be also used as a channel or medium access technology, like ALOHA for example or as a
permanent pilot/signalling channel to allow users to synchronize their local oscillators to a common
system frequency, thereby also estimating the channel parameters permanently.
In these schemes, the message is modulated on a longer spreading sequence, consisting of
several chips (0es and 1es). Due to their very advantegous auto- and crosscorrelation
characteristics, these spreading sequences are also used for radar applications since many decades,
where they are called Barker-Codes (with a very short sequence length of typically 8 to 32).
For space based communication applications, it is also used since many decades, due to the
large pathloss and Doppler-shift caused by the satellite motion. Typically in those applications,
neither FDMA nor TDMA is used as a single modulation, due to this effect. CDMA is often used
with BPSK in its simplest form, but can be combined with any modulation scheme like in advanced
cases QAM or OFDM, which typically makes it very robust and efficient (and equipping them with
accurate ranging capabilities, which is difficult without CDMA). Other schemes use subcarriers
based on binary offset carrier (BOC), which is inspired by Manchester codes and enable a larger
gap between the virtual center frequency and the subcarriers, which is not the case for OFDM
subcarriers.

Algorithm:

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Conclusion:

Experiment No. 8

Title: Simulation Study of Linear Block codes.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: Study LBC as error correction technique

Objectives:
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1. Study Linear Block Coding with MATLAB

Requirements:
MATLAB
PC with OS

Theory:
Linear block code is a type of error-correcting code in which the actual information bits are linearly
combined with the parity check bits so as to generate a linear codeword that is transmitted through the
channel. Another major type of error-correcting code is convolution code.
In the linear block code technique, the complete message is divided into blocks and these blocks are
combined with redundant bits so as to deal with error detection and correction.

In block coding, the complete message bits are divided into blocks where each block holds the same number
of bits. Suppose each block contains k bits, and each k bits of a block defines a dataword. Hence, the overall
datawords will be 2k. At this particular point, we have not considered any redundancies, thus, we only have
the actual message bitstream converted into datawords.
Now, in order to perform encoding, the datawords are encoded as codewords having n number of bits. We
have recently discussed that a block has k bits and after encoding there will be n bits in each block (of
course, n>k) and these n bits will be transmitted across the channel. While the additional n-k bits are not the
message bits as these are named as parity bits but during transmission, the parity bits act as they are a part
of message bits.
So, structurally, a codeword is represented as:

Hence, the possible codewords will be 2 n out of which 2k contains datawords. During transmission, if errors
are introduced then most probably, the permissible codewords will be changed into redundant words which
can be detected as an error by the receiver.
In reference to the terms, codewords and datawords, a term code rate is used which is defined as the ratio of
dataword bits to the codeword bits. Thus, is represented as:

Algorithm:

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Conclusion:

Experiment No. 9

Title: Simulation study of Source Coding technique.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: Study of Huffman coding as error correction technique

Objectives:
Encode input bits with Huffman coding to improve efficiency of data transmission & reception

2
Requirements:
MATLAB
PC with OS

Theory:
Huffman coding is a lossless data compression algorithm. The idea is to assign variable-length codes to
input characters; lengths of the assigned codes are based on the frequencies of corresponding characters.
The most frequent character gets the smallest code and the least frequent character gets the largest code.
The variable-length codes assigned to input characters are Prefix Codes, means the codes (bit sequences)
are assigned in such a way that the code assigned to one character is not the prefix of code assigned to
any other character. This is how Huffman Coding makes sure that there is no ambiguity when decoding
the generated bitstream.

Let us understand prefix codes with a counter example. Let there be four characters a, b, c and d, and
their corresponding variable length codes be 00, 01, 0 and 1. This coding leads to ambiguity because
code assigned to c is the prefix of codes assigned to a and b. If the compressed bit stream is 0001, the de-
compressed output may be “cccd” or “ccb” or “acd” or “ab”.
Algorithm:

Conclusion:

Experiment No. 10

Title: Simulation study of various Entropies and mutual information in a communication system.
Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: Write a MATLAB code to calculate entropy & mutual information of given input pattern.

Objectives:
Find entropy & average information of given bit stream

Requirements:
MATLAB

2
 PC with OS

Theory:

In information theory, the entropy of a random variable is the average level of "information",
"surprise", or "uncertainty" inherent in the variable's possible outcomes. The concept of information
entropy was introduced by Claude Shannon in his 1948 paper "A Mathematical Theory of
Communication", and is also referred to as Shannon entropy. As an example, consider a biased coin with
probability p of landing on heads and probability 1 − p of landing on tails. The maximum surprise is
for p = 1/2, when there is no reason to expect one outcome over another. In this case a coin flip has an
entropy of one bit. The minimum surprise is for p = 0 or p = 1, when the event is known and the entropy
is zero bits. When the entropy is zero bits, this is sometimes referred to as unity, where there is no
uncertainty at all - no freedom of choice - no information. Other values of p give different entropies
between zero and one bits.

Given a discrete random variable X, with possible outcomes x1,………..,xn, which occur with
probability p(x1),……………,p(xn), the entropy of X is formally defined as:

The entropy was originally created by Shannon as part of his theory of communication, in which
a data communication system is composed of three elements: a source of data, a communication channel,
and a receiver. The "fundamental problem of communication" – as expressed by Shannon – is for the
receiver to be able to identify what data was generated by the source, based on the signal it receives
through the channel. Shannon considered various ways to encode, compress, and transmit messages
from a data source, and proved in his famous source coding theorem that the entropy represents an
absolute mathematical limit on how well data from the source can be losslessly compressed onto a
perfectly noiseless channel. Shannon strengthened this result considerably for noisy channels in
his noisy-channel coding theorem.

Entropy in information theory is directly analogous to the entropy in statistical thermodynamics. The
analogy results when the values of the random variable designate energies of microstates, so Gibbs
formula for the entropy is formally identical to Shannon's formula. Entropy has relevance to other areas
of mathematics such as combinatorics. The definition can be derived from a set of axioms establishing
that entropy should be a measure of how "surprising" the average outcome of a variable is. For a
continuous random variable, differential entropy is analogous to entropy.
.

Algorithm:

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No. 11

Title: Virtual Lab: QPSK signal generation.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: Study QPSK with virtual lab.

Objectives:
Study QPSK with virtual lab

Requirements:
Internet Connection
PC with OS

Theory:
Link: https://www.etti.unibw.de/labalive/index/digitalmodulation
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a form of Phase Shift Keying in which two bits are
modulated at once, selecting one of four possible carrier phase shifts (0, 90, 180, or 270 degrees). QPSK
allows the signal to carry twice as much information as ordinary PSK using the same bandwidth. QPSK is

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used for satellite transmission of MPEG2 video, cable modems, videoconferencing, cellular phone systems,
and other forms of digital communication over an RF carrier.
QPSK Modulator
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator, a 2-bit serial to
parallel converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the block diagram for the same.

At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2nd bit, 4th bit, 6th bit, etc.) and odd bits (i.e.,
1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are separated by the bits splitter and are multiplied with the same carrier to
generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK (called as PSKQ). The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase
shifted by 90° before being modulated.
The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the modulated result for different
instances of binary inputs.

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QPSK Demodulator
The QPSK Demodulator uses two product demodulator circuits with local oscillator, two band pass filters,
two integrator circuits, and a 2-bit parallel to serial converter. Following is the diagram for the same.

The two product detectors at the input of demodulator simultaneously demodulate the two BPSK signals.
The pair of bits are recovered here from the original data. These signals after processing, are passed to the
parallel to serial converter.
Algorithm:

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No. 12

Title: Virtual Lab: BPSK modulation & Demodulation.

Date of Performance:

Date of Submission:

Aim: Study of BPSK modulation & demodulation with virtual lab.

Objectives:
1. Generation of BPSK modulated signal and demodulation of the same after passing through the
channel.
2. Compare the demodulation schemes using:
(a) Squaring loop.
(b) Costa’s loop.
3. Observe the spectrum of BPSK Signal and effect of variation of channel bandwidth
4. Determine the error rates.

Requirements:
Internet connection
PC with OS

Theory:
Link: https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=59&brch=163&sim=262&cnt=970
The block diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying consists of the balance modulator which has the
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carrier sine wave as one input and the binary sequence as the other input. Following is the
diagrammatic representation.

The modulation of BPSK is done using a balance modulator, which multiplies the two signals
applied at the input. For a zero binary input, the phase will be 0° and for a high input, the phase
reversal is of 180°.
Following is the diagrammatic representation of BPSK Modulated output wave along with its given
input.

The output sine wave of the modulator will be the direct input carrier or the inverted
180°phaseshifted input carrier, which is a function of the data signal.

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BPSK Demodulator
The block diagram of BPSK demodulator consists of a mixer with local oscillator circuit, a
bandpass filter, a two-input detector circuit. The diagram is as follows.

By recovering the band-limited message signal, with the help of the mixer circuit and the band pass
filter, the first stage of demodulation gets completed. The base band signal which is band limited is
obtained and this signal is used to regenerate the binary message bit stream.
In the next stage of demodulation, the bit clock rate is needed at the detector circuit to produce the
original binary message signal. If the bit rate is a sub-multiple of the carrier frequency, then the bit
clock regeneration is simplified. To make the circuit easily understandable, a decision-making
circuit may also be inserted at the 2nd stage of detection.

Algorithm:

Conclusion: