Mobile Computing

Module 1

Wireless/Mobile Computing Technologies

Computing Technologies are the technologies that are used to manage, process, and
communicate the data. Wireless simply means without any wire i.e. connecting with other
devices without any physical connection. Wireless computing is transferring the data or
information between computers or devices that are not physically connected to each other and
having a “wireless network connection”. For example, mobile devices, Wi-Fi, wireless printers
and scanners, etc. Mobiles are not physically connected but then too we can transfer data.

Mobile is a computing device that not require any network connection or any connection to
transfer data or information between devices. For example laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.
Mobile computing allows transferring of the data/information, audio, video, or any other
document without any connection to the base or central network. These computing devices are
the most widely used technologies nowadays.

There are some wireless/mobile computing technologies given below:

1. Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM):

GSM is a Current circuit-switched wireless data communication technology. It is

established in Europe by ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) in the
mid-1980s. GSM network has 4 different parks that who’s functions are different: Mobile
Station, BSS (Base Station Subsystem), NSS (Network Switching Subsystem), OSS
(Operation and Support Subsystem).

As the name suggests, GSM is widely used for the mobile communication system. It
operates in the frequency band 900-MHz, 1800-MHz, and 1900-MHz. GSM is developed
using TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) for better communication using mobile. It
is the most widely used mobile communication system and is mostly required nowadays.
It can achieve maximum data transmission speed or data transmission rate up to 9.6Kbps
(Kilobits per second).

2. Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) :

CDMA is a type of wireless computing technology. It is developed during World War II.
This technology is mostly used as it provides better network quality, more storage
capacity for voice and data communications than TDMA, decreases system noise and
interference using power control, provides more security by encoding the user
transmission data into a unique code.
 CDMA does not provide any user with a specific frequency instead utilizes the entire
frequency spectrum available for transmission. It operates in the frequency range of 800
MHz to 1.9 GHz. It uses Soft Handoff that reduces signal breaks.

3. Wireless in Local Loop (WLL):

WLL is a widely used technology for wireless communication systems. It is also called a
Fixed Wireless Loop. WLL is very easy to develop and less time is required to install,
very cost-effective as wireless systems are less expensive because the cost of cable
installation is not added.

WLL allows users to connect to the local telephone station using a wireless link and
provides advanced features of customer service. It provides high-quality data
transmission and a high data rate. Generally, two types of WLL techniques are available:
Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) and Multichannel Multipoint Distribution
Service (MMDS).

4. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) :

GPRS is a type of Packet-based Wireless communication technology. It is established by

ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute). GPRS can achieve a data
transfer rate of up to 114Kbps. It is very cost-effective, highly stable, can achieve a
maximum data rate of up to 114Kbps (Kilobits per second). It supports Internet Protocol
(IP), X.25 (standard protocol for packet-switched data communication), Point-to-Point
protocol (PPP), and based on Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK) which is a
modulation technique.

The Gateway GPRS Service Node (GGSN) and the Serving GPRS Service Node (SGSN)
are the two core modules required to enable GPRS on GSM network or TDMA network.

5. Short Message Service (SMS):

SMS is originally created for a phone/mobile that uses GSM Global System for Mobile
communication). This service is used to send text messages even without the Internet
connection between two or more mobile devices. This technique is very easy, user-
friendly, comfortable and the most effective means of wireless communication.
 In this service, less time is required for communication. It does not require any Internet
connection for sending text messages. It allows the transmission of short messages i.e. up
to 160 characters in length. SMS uses standardized communication protocols. SMS is
received by Short Message Service Center (SMSC).

Generations of wireless communication

We have made very huge improvements in wireless communication and have expanded the
capabilities of our wireless communication system. We all have seen various generations in our
life. Let’s discuss them one by one.

0th Generation:

 Pre-cell phone mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones some had in cars
before the arrival of cell phones.
 Communication was possible through voice only.
 These mobile telephones were usually mounted in cars or trucks.

1G (1st Generation):

 First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.

 It used analog signals.
 It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
 The coverage area was small.
 No roaming support between various operators.
 Low sound quality.
 Speed: - 2.4 kbps.

2G (2nd Generation):

 Shifted from analog to digital.

 It supported voice and SMS both.
 Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular, Mobile Data,
PCS, WLAN,
 Moderate mobile data service.
 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
 Speed: - 64 kbps.

2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also introduced and mail
services too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in providing services than 2.5G. It
gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps and also used edge connection.
3G (3rd Generation):

 The Internet system was improved.

 Better system and capacity.
 Offers high-speed wireless internet.
 The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
 Speed: - 2mbps.

4G (4th Generation):

 IP-based protocols.
 LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
 Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
 Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable QoS.
 High usability.
 Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
 HD Quality Streaming.
 Speed:-100mbps.

5G (5th Generation):

It is yet to come in many countries but here are some notable points about 5G.

 Higher data rates.

 Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
 Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
 Massive network capacity.
 It is 30 times faster than 4G.
 There would be more flexibility in the network.

Cellular Networks

Cellular Network is formed of some cells, cell covers a geographical region, has a base station
analogous to 802.11 AP which helps mobile users attach to network and there is an air-interface
of physical and link layer protocol between mobile and base station. All these base stations are
connected to Mobile Switching Center which connects cells to wide area net, manages call setup
and handles mobility.

There is certain radio spectrum that is allocated to base station and to a particular region and that
now needs to be shared. There are 2 techniques for sharing mobile-to-base station radio spectrum
are:

1. Combined FDMA/TDMA:
It divide spectrum in frequency channel and divide each channel into time slots.
2. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
It allows reuse of same spectrum over all cells. Net capacity improvement. Two
 frequency bands are used one of which is for forward channel (cell-site to subscriber) and
one for reverse channel (sub to cell-site).

Cell Fundamentals –
In practice cells are of arbitrary shape(close to a circle) because it has the same power on all
sides and has same sensitivity on all sides, but putting up two three circles together may result in
interleaving gaps or may intersect each other so in order to solve this problem we can use
equilateral triangle, square or a regular hexagon in which hexagonal cell is close to a circle used
for a system design.
Co-channel reuse ratio is given by:

DL/RL = Square root of (3N)

Where,
DL = Distance between co-channel cells
RL = Cell Radius
N = Cluster Size

The number of cells in a cluster N determines the amount of co-channel interference and also the
number of frequency channels available per cell.

Cell Splitting –
When number of subscribers in a given area increases allocation of more channels covered by
that channel is necessary, which is done by cell splitting. A single small cell midway between
two co-channel cells is introduced.

Need for Cellular Hierarchy –

Extending the coverage to the areas that are difficult to cover by a large cell. Increasing the
capacity of the network for those areas that have a higher density of users. Increasing number of
wireless devices and the communication between them.

Cellular Hierarchy –

1. Femto cells:
Smallest unit of the hierarchy, these cells need to cover only a few meters where all
devices are in the physical range of the uses.
2. Pico cells:
Size of these networks is in the range of few tens of meters, e.g., WLANs.
3. Microcells:
Cover a range of hundreds of meters e.g. in urban areas to support PCS which is another
kind of mobile technology.
4. Macro cells:
Cover areas in the order of several kilometers, e.g., cover metropolitan areas.
5. Mega cells:
Cover nationwide areas with ranges of hundreds of kilometers, e.g., used with satellites.
Fixed Channel Allocation –
For a particular channel the frequency band which is associated is fixed.
Total number of channels is given by

Nc = W/B
Where,
W = Bandwidth of the available spectrum,
B = Bandwidth needed by each channels per cell,
Cc = Nc/N where N is the cluster size

Adjacent radio frequency bands are assigned to different cells. In analog each channel
corresponds to one user while in digital each RF channel carries several time slots or codes
(TDMA/CDMA). Simple to implement as traffic is uniform.

Global System for Mobile (GSM) Communications –

GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses an 8-slot Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM) system. There is a frequency band which is also fixed. Transmitting and receiving does
not happen in the same time slot because the GSM radios cannot transmit and receive at the same
time and it takes time to switch from one to the other. A data frame is transmitted in 547 micro
seconds, but a transmitter is only allowed to send one data frame every 4.615 micro seconds,
since it is sharing the channel with seven other stations. The gross rate of each channel is 270,
833 bps divided among eight users, which gives 33.854 kbps gross.

Control Channel (CC) –

Apart from user channels there are some control channels which is used to manage the system.

1. The broadcast control channel (BCC):

It is a continuous stream of output from the base station’s identity and the channel status.
All mobile stations monitor their signal strength to see when they moved into a new cell.
2. The dedicated control channel (DCC):
It is used for location updating, registration, and call setup. In particular, each base station
maintains a database of mobile stations. Information needed to maintain this database and
is sent on the dedicated control channel.

Common Control Channel –

Three logical sub-channels:

1. Is the paging channel, which the base station uses to announce incoming calls. Each
mobile station monitors it continuously to watch for call it should answer.
2. Is the random access channel that allows the users to request a slot on the dedicated
control channel. If two requests collide, they are garbled and have to be retried later.
3. Is the access grant channel which is the announced assigned slot.
Electromagnetic Spectrum

The sun is our planet’s principal source of energy, and its energy travels in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic energy moves across empty space at the speed of
light in the form of waves of electric and magnetic fields with a range of frequencies or
wavelengths.

Electromagnetic radiation is a common occurrence in our daily lives. All electromagnetic

waves, from visible light, that our eyes can detect to microwave radiation that heats our meals or
radio waves that power our radios, X-rays that enable doctors to identify any injury in our bones
or UV radiation emitted by a hot surface, are EM waves.

Electromagnetic Waves
Waves created by the interaction of vibrating electric and magnetic fields are known as
electromagnetic waves. An oscillating electric and magnetic field makes up EM waves.

A charged particle, in general, produces an electric field. This electric field exerts a push on
other charged particles. Positive charges accelerate in the field’s direction, whereas negative
charges accelerate in the opposite direction of the field. A travelling charged particle creates the
magnetic field. This magnetic field exerts a push on other moving particles. Because the force
acting on these charges is always perpendicular to their movement, it only affects the direction of
the velocity, not the speed. As a result, a speeding charged particle generates the electromagnetic
field. Electromagnetic waves are nothing more than electric and magnetic fields travelling at the
speed of light c through open space.

When a charged particle oscillates about an equilibrium location, it is said to be accelerating. If

the charged particle’s oscillation frequency is f, it creates an electromagnetic wave of frequency
f. The wavelength of this wave may be calculated using the formula:

λ = c/f

Electromagnetic waves are a type of energy transfer that occurs in space.

Representation of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is a collection of frequencies, wavelengths, and photon energies of

electromagnetic waves spanning from 1Hz to 10 25Hz, equivalent to wavelengths ranging from a
few hundred kilometres to a size smaller than the size of an atomic nucleus. The electromagnetic
spectrum can thus be described as the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation in basic
terms. In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed as light. For different
forms of electromagnetic waves, however, the wavelengths, frequencies, and photon energy will
vary.
Terms related to Electromagnetic Waves

The frequency (f), wavelength (λ), energy (E) of an electromagnetic wave are related to each
other as:

λ=c/f

f=E/h

E=hc/λ

where

 c=3×108m/s represents the speed of light in a vacuum

 h=6.626×10–34J.s represents Planck’s constant.

Electromagnetic Waves in Electromagnetic Spectrum

Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, gamma
rays, and cosmic rays make up the full range (electromagnetic spectrum) in decreasing order of
frequency and rising order of wavelength.

1. Radio Waves
o The rapid travel of charged particles across conducting wires causes these waves.
o Radio, television, and telecom signals are transmitted through them.
o These waves have a frequency range of around 3kHz to 300MHz.
 o In the ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) band, cellular phones employ radio waves to
convey voice communication.
o Radio picks up radio waves that are broadcast by radio stations. Radio waves can
be emitted by gases and stars in space. The majority of radio waves are used for
TV and mobile communication.
2. Microwaves
o Microwaves are a type of electromagnetic radiation that has a frequency of a few
gigahertz (GHz).
o Klystrons, magnetrons, and Gunn diodes are unique vacuum tubes that produce
them.
o Microwaves are commonly utilised in aviation navigation due to their short
wavelengths.
o These rays are employed in microwaves, which aid in the heating of meals in
homes and offices. It’s also used by astronomers to figure out and understand the
structure of surrounding galaxies and stars.
3. Infrared Rays
o Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules and are thus referred to
as heatwaves.
o Infrared rays are near the low-frequency or long-wavelength end of the visible
light spectrum.
o The greenhouse effect caused by these rays is critical for maintaining global
warming and average temperatures.
o Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour trap these radiations
in the earth’s atmosphere.
o Night vision goggles make use of these radiations. Infrared light generated by
objects in the dark can be read and captured by these devices. Infrared light is
used to trace interstellar dust in space. Infrared radiation is emitted by electronic
devices and is commonly employed in remote switches for a variety of household
gadgets.
4. Visible Rays
o Visible rays are electromagnetic waves that can be seen with the naked eye. They
are the most common type of electromagnetic waves.
o These can be found in the frequency range of 4×10 14Hz–7×1014Hz or the
wavelength range of 400nm–700nm.
o The visible light rays reflected or released from the objects around us assist us in
seeing the world, and the range of visible radiation is different for different
creatures.
o Devices that emit light in the visible area of the electromagnetic spectrum include
bulbs, lamps, candles, LEDs, tube lights, and so on.
5. Ultraviolet Rays
o Although the sun is the primary source of ultraviolet radiation on Earth, the ozone
layer absorbs the majority of UV energy before it reaches the atmosphere.
o UV radiation has a wavelength of 400nm–1nm.
o These radiations are emitted by special lamps and extremely hot bodies, and in
big numbers, they can cause significant injury to humans. It tans the skin and
creates burns.
 oBecause these radiations may be focused on tiny beams, they are used in high
precision applications such as LASIK or laser-based eye surgery.
o UV lamps are used in water purifiers to eliminate microorganisms that may be
present in the water.
o When working with UV welding arcs, welders use special goggles to protect their
eyes.
6. X-Rays
o This electromagnetic radiation is found outside of the ultraviolet (UV) region of
the electromagnetic spectrum and is extremely valuable in the medical field.
o The wavelength range of X-ray radiation is 1nm–10–3nm.
o By blasting a metal target with high-energy electrons, X-rays can be produced.
o X-rays are a diagnostic technique in medicine that can be quite helpful in the
treatment of some types of cancer. To find the source of the problem, a doctor
utilises an x-ray scanner to scan our bones or teeth. Overexposure to x-rays can
cause harm or death to the organism’s healthy tissues. As a result, extreme
caution must be exercised when dealing with x-rays.
o At the airport checkpoint, security agents utilise it to search through passengers’
luggage. X-rays are also emitted by the universe’s heated gases.
7. Gamma-Rays
o The universe is the largest gamma-ray generator.
o These rays are in the electromagnetic spectrum’s higher frequency region.
o Gamma rays have wavelengths ranging from 10–12m to 10–14m.
o Radioactive nuclei release high-frequency radiations, which are also created
during nuclear processes.
o Gamma rays have a wide range of medical applications, including the destruction
of cancerous cells. Gamma-ray imaging is a technique used by doctors to examine
the insides of patients’ bodies.

Types of Radiation Frequency range (Hz) Wavelength Range

Gamma-rays 1020-1024 <10-12 m
X-rays 1017-1020 1 nm – 1 pm
15 17
Ultraviolet rays 10 -10 400 nm – 1 nm
14 14
Visible rays 4 x 10 – 7.5 x 10 750 nm – 400 nm
14 14
Near-infrared 1 x 10 – 4 x 10 2.5 μm – 750 nm
Infrared rays 1013 – 1014 25 μm – 2.5 μm
11 13
Microwaves 3 x 10 – 10 11 mm – 25 μm
11
Radio waves < 3x 10 >1 mm
Spectroscopy

In terms of wavelength or frequency, spectroscopy is a method for determining the emission and
absorption of light and other radiation as it interacts with matter.

As a ray of light passes through matter, it is scattered. It interacts with atoms and molecules of
the given substance, and these atoms interact with light waves of similar frequencies based on
their resonance frequencies. When light rays collide with an atom in an excited state, certain
distinctive frequencies are released, resulting in a line spectrum. This line spectrum is made up
of a collection of emission lines that isn’t continuous. The wavelengths of the light produced are
separated. When light with continuous wavelengths is passed through a low-density material, an
absorption spectrum is created. Atoms and molecules with characteristic frequencies similar to
light waves will be absorbed, resulting in a continuous spectrum with a few lines missing.

Applications of Electromagnetic Spectrum

The presence of the full electromagnetic spectrum was originally demonstrated by Maxwell. His
mathematics suggested that electromagnetic radiation may have an endless number of
frequencies. The electromagnetic spectrum is a frequency and wavelength-based organisation of
various radiations. The following are some examples of EM-spectrum applications:

1. Hertz was the first to discover radio waves and microwaves. Wireless television and
radio, as well as mobile communication, arose as a result of these waves.
2. Ultraviolet radiation is useful for the ionisation of atoms, which aids in the initiation of
numerous chemical reactions.
3. The gamma rays were discovered by Paul Villard. These are employed in the
development of nuclear medicine and ionisation experiments.
4. X-rays were invented by Roentgen. These are used to discover problems with the bones
and teeth, as well as abnormalities.
5. The visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum allows us to see the world
around us. This part of the electromagnetic spectrum aids in the perception of all objects,
including colours.

Antenna

Types of WiFi Antenna in Wireless Networks

Mobile phones, laptops, tablets, wireless routers, and other wireless networking equipment all
contain receiving and transmitting antennas that change electric to EM waves and EM waves into
electric signals. The signal’s source is the transmitter, and its destination is the receiver.

The transmitter antenna receives an electric current that causes the electrons to oscillate.
Electromagnetic radiation is produced by these electron vibrations and travels as radio waves.
The waves cause electrons inside the receiving antenna to vibrate when they reach it. The
original signal is recreated by a current flow created by this.

Working Principles of WiFi Antennas:

As different antennas operate over a range of frequencies, the antennas have distinct heights to
accommodate effective radiation and reception in their frequencies. The frequency range
employed for Wi-Fi communications is 2.4 GHz to 5 GHz. Using the formula c = λ / f, the
frequency is used to determine the wavelength, that affects antenna length. The λ stands for
wavelength, c for light speed, and f for frequency. The antenna’s length is inversely proportional
to frequency and thus it is directly proportional to the wavelength. For higher frequencies, the
wavelength is lower and the antenna height is shorter. The radiation pattern of an antenna is also
influenced by its design.

The transmission power of the antenna governs the strength of the network that the antenna is
transmitting; antenna power levels should be sufficient to provide a high-speed network with
adequate range and exposure. An antenna with a 2.4GHz frequency should have a transmission
power of 100mW for high speed and a broad range.

Types of Antennas:

The different types of antennas vary based on the diameter of the region through which the
reception of the signal strength is best, called the beam width. Since the beam width of these
different types of antennas is different therefore the design, orientation, and radio frequency also
vary for all of them.

1. Omni Directional Antenna: Omni directional antennas can provide commensurable power
signals in all directions, covering all 360 degrees, at an equal radial distance. An Omni
directional antenna has the simplest design and it is also called a rod antenna. The Omni
directional type of antenna is used principally in households with preferably a more sophisticated
shape but covering the same directions since large office spaces and companies can work better
with different radiation shapes.

The Omni directional antenna’s general range is given in dBi; the higher the dBi number, the
greater the range. Since more compact models are available, household uses comprise mobile
applications. Some Omni directional antennas involve TV antennas, dipole antennas, quad
antennas, GPS antennas, radio antennas, and many more.
 Design of Omni Directional Antenna

2. Semi Directional Antenna: Semi-directional antennas radiate the signal to a single, particular
direction for communication from one point to another. They can connect both the indoor and
outdoor communication for both small area and large distance coverage, such as in
Hallways/Corridors, Wireless ISPs, PTP & PTMP Bridging, since in all these mentioned spaces
a specific directional coverage is required.
Semi Directional antennas can also be used to radiate 360-degree coverage by arranging multiple
of them into an array. Mainly there are 3 types of semi-directional antennas based on their design
and structure.

1. Patch: These antennas are assembled on a thus can be structured into any shape as
required, on a custom basis, they are used for PCBs most regularly.
2. Yagi: In Yagi antennas, the components even of the size of a fraction of the wavelength
of the antenna are fitted for wireless wavelengths, they are used in TV dishes and where
the single-frequency application is needed.
3. Panel: Panel antennas have a wider beam than Yagi antennas thus a larger coverage, and
the antenna only performs a single task of either sending or just receiving the signal.
3. Highly Directional Antenna:

Highly directional antennas are also used for directing signals from one point to another but they
have a narrow beam with a high focus which is why they can reach much larger distances and
thus are called Highly Directional antennas, and are used in outdoor areas, for example from one
building to another like in a huge office, university area. Highly Directional antennas are of two
types :

1. Parabolic Dish: They have short side lobes, acute radiation angles, and a high front-back
ratio, parabolic antennas have been the most efficient kind of directional antenna.
2. Grid Antenna: Since directional antennas direct signals for large distances outside, the
grid antennas have a grid-like structure so as to let air pass through them so that the signal is
not directed elsewhere during a windy day.
Signal Propagation

Antenna Theory - Types of Propagation

In this chapter, let us go through different interesting topics such as the properties of radio
waves, the propagation of radio waves and their types.

Radio Waves

Radio waves are easy to generate and are widely used for both indoor and outdoor
communications because of their ability to pass through buildings and travel long distances.

The key features are −

 Since radio transmission is Omni directional in nature, the need to physically align the
transmitter and receiver does not arise.
 The frequency of the radio wave determines many of the characteristics of the
transmission.
 At low frequencies, the waves can pass through obstacles easily. However, their power
falls with an inverse-squared relation with respect to the distance.
 The higher frequency waves are more prone to absorption by rain drops and they get
reflected by obstacles.
 Due to the long transmission range of the radio waves, interference between
transmissions is a problem that needs to be addressed.

In the VLF, LF and MF bands the propagation of waves, also called as ground waves follow the
curvature of the earth. The maximum transmission ranges of these waves are of the order of a
few hundred kilometers. They are used for low bandwidth transmissions such as Amplitude
Modulation (AM) radio broadcasting.

The HF and VHF band transmissions are absorbed by the atmosphere, near the Earth's surface.
However, a portion of the radiation, called the sky wave, is radiated outward and upward to the
ionosphere in the upper atmosphere. The ionosphere contains ionized particles formed due to the
Sun's radiation. These ionized particles reflect the sky waves back to the Earth. A powerful sky
wave may be reflected several times between the Earth and the ionosphere. Sky waves are used
by amateur ham radio operators and for military communication.

Radio Wave Propagation

In Radio communication systems, we use wireless electromagnetic waves as the channel. The
antennas of different specifications can be used for these purposes. The sizes of these antennas
depend upon the bandwidth and frequency of the signal to be transmitted.

The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere and in free space may be
divided in to the following three categories −
  Line of sight (LOS) propagation
 Ground wave propagation
 Sky wave propagation

In ELF (Extremely low frequency) and VLF (Very low frequency) frequency bands, the Earth,
and the ionosphere act as a wave guide for electromagnetic wave propagation.

In these frequency ranges, communication signals practically propagate around the world. The
channel band widths are small. Therefore, the information is transmitted through these channels
has slow speed and confined to digital transmission.

Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation

Among the modes of propagation, this line-of-sight propagation is the one, which we commonly
notice. In the line-of-sight communication, as the name implies, the wave travels a minimum
distance of sight. Which means it travels to the distance up to which a naked eye can see. Now
what happens after that? We need to employ an amplifier cum transmitter here to amplify the
signal and transmit again.

This is better understood with the help of the following diagram.

The figure depicts this mode of propagation very clearly. The line-of-sight propagation will not
be smooth if there occurs any obstacle in its transmission path. As the signal can travel only to
lesser distances in this mode, this transmission is used for infrared or microwave
transmissions.

Ground Wave Propagation

Ground wave propagation of the wave follows the contour of earth. Such a wave is called as
direct wave. The wave sometimes bends due to the Earth’s magnetic field and gets reflected to
the receiver. Such a wave can be termed as reflected wave.
The above figure depicts ground wave propagation. The wave when propagates through the
Earth’s atmosphere is known as ground wave. The direct wave and reflected wave together
contribute the signal at the receiver station. When the wave finally reaches the receiver, the lags
are cancelled out. In addition, the signal is filtered to avoid distortion and amplified for clear
output.

Sky Wave Propagation

Sky wave propagation is preferred when the wave has to travel a longer distance. Here the wave
is projected onto the sky and it is again reflected back onto the earth.

The sky wave propagation is well depicted in the above picture. Here the waves are shown to
be transmitted from one place and where it is received by many receivers. Hence, it is an
example of broadcasting.

The waves, which are transmitted from the transmitter antenna, are reflected from the
ionosphere. It consists of several layers of charged particles ranging in altitude from 30- 250
miles above the surface of the earth. Such a travel of the wave from transmitter to the ionosphere
and from there to the receiver on Earth is known as Sky Wave Propagation. Ionosphere is the
ionized layer around the Earth’s atmosphere, which is suitable for sky wave propagation.

Signal Characteristics

Signal is an electric or electromagnetic current carrying data, that can be transmitted or received.

Mathematically represented as a function of an independent variable e.g. density, depth, etc.

Therefore, a signal is a physical quantity that varies with time, space, or any other independent
variable by which information can be conveyed. Here independent variable is time.

Types of time signals:

1. Continuous time signals x(t)- defined at every point in time

2. Discrete time signals x[n] – defined only at a discrete set of values of time (integer).

Multiplexing

Types of Multiplexing in Data Communications

What is Multiplexing?

Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple signals
coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single
communication/physical line.

Types of Multiplexing
There are three types of Multiplexing :

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing:

Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the bandwidth of a
single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller, independent frequency channels.

Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.

In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the fact that in this type of
multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In order to prevent the inter-
channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be placed between each channel. These
unused strips between each channel are known as guard bands.

2. Time Division Multiplexing:

Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM, instead of sharing
a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time is shared. Each connection
occupies a portion of time in the link.

In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency (bandwidth) at
different times.

There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing:

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

2. Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing

Synchronous TDM:

Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the input frame already has a
slot in the output frame. Time slots are grouped into frames. One frame consists of one cycle of
time slots.

Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to send, a slot remains
empty in the output frame.

In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the beginning of each frame.
Statistical TDM:

Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the output frame collects data
from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in Synchronous TDM.

In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the slot that is being
sent to the output frame.

Statistical TDM is a more efficient type of time-division multiplexing as the channel capacity is
fully utilized and improves the bandwidth efficiency.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing:

Wavelength Division Multiplexing is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity of a single
fiber. It is an analog multiplexing technique. Optical signals from the different sources are
combined to form a wider band of light with the help of multiplexers. At the receiving end, the
demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective destinations.
What is Spread Spectrum?

The increasing demand for wireless communications has problems due to limited spectrum
efficiency and multipath propagation. The use of spread spectrum communication has simplified
these problems. In the spread spectrum, signals from different sources are combined to fit into
larger bandwidth.

Most stations use air as the medium for communication, stations must be able to share the
medium without an interception and without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder.
To achieve this, spread-spectrum techniques add redundancy means it uses extended bandwidth
to accommodate signals in a protective envelope so that more secure transmission is possible.
The spread code is a series of numbers that looks random but are actually a pattern. The original
bandwidth of the signal gets enlarged (spread) through the spread code as shown in the figure.

Spread Spectrum

Principles of Spread Spectrum process:

1. To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to each station should
be much larger than needed.
2. The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source.

Conditions of Spread Spectrum are:

1. The spread spectrum is a type of modulation where modulated signal BW is much larger
than the baseband signal BW i.e. spread spectrum is a wide band scheme.
2. A special code (pseudo noise) is used for spectrum spreading and the same code is to be
used to dispread the signal at the receiver.
Characteristics of the Spread Spectrum are:

1. Higher channel capacity.

2. Ability to resist multipath propagation.
3. They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized person.
4. They are resistant to jamming.
5. The spread spectrum provides immunity to distortion due to multipath propagation.
6. The spread spectrum offers multiple access capabilities.

Two types of techniques for Spread Spectrum are:

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies are modulated by
the source signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by the signal. At one moment signal
modulates one carrier frequency and at the subsequent moments, it modulates other carrier
frequencies. The general block diagram of FHSS is shown in the below figure.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

A pseudorandom code generator generates Pseudo-random Noise of some pattern for each
hopping period Th. The frequency corresponding to the pattern is used for the hopping period
and is passed to the frequency synthesizer. The synthesizer generates a carrier signal of that
frequency. The figure above shows the spread signal via FHSS.
Advantages of FHSS:

 Synchronization is not greatly dependent on distance.

 Processing Gain is higher than DSSS.

Disadvantages of FHSS:

 The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in GHz).

 Complex and expensive Digital frequency synthesizers are required.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different technique. Here,
each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code called chips, and the bit rate of the
chip is called as chip-rate. The chip rate is n times the bit rate of the original signal. The below
Figure shows the DSSS block diagram.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

In wireless LAN, the sequence with n = 11 is used. The original data is multiplied by chips
(spreading code) to get the spread signal. The required bandwidth of the spread signal is 11 times
larger than the bandwidth of the original signal.

Advantages of DSSS:

 The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively.

 The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS.
 Interference is minimized against the signals.

Disadvantages of DSSS:

 Processing Gain is lower than DSSS.

 Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS.
 Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the transmitter and receiver.
 Module 2-GSM Mobile services

GSM in Wireless Communication

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital
cellular technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of 850
MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz. It uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA. This
article includes all the concepts of GSM architecture and how it works.

GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM:

1. Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.

2. Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
3. Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
4. Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.

Features of GSM are:

1. Supports international roaming

2. Clear voice clarity
3. Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
4. Spectral / frequency efficiency
5. Low powered handheld devices.
6. Ease of accessing network
7. International ISDN compatibility.

GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.

1. BSS: BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between
a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two components BTS
and BSC.
2. NSS: NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network of
GSM. That carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone present
in network. NSS have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.
3. OSS: OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the network
operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose of OSS is to
offer the customer cost-effective support for all GSM related maintenance services.
Suppose there are 3 Mobile stations which are connected with the tower and that tower is
connected to BTS through TRX, then further connected to BSC and MSC. Let’s understand the
functionality of different components.

1. MS: MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software needed for
communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) +
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are connected to tower and that
tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a transceiver which comprises transmitter and
receiver. Transceiver has two performance of sending and receiving.

2. BTS: BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless communication
between user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.

3. BSC: BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can consider the
BSC as a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and multiple towers have BTS.

4. MSC: MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with communication
switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call tracing, call forwarding all
functions are performed at the MSC level. MSC is having further components like VLR, HLR,
AUC, EIR and PSTN.

 VLR: VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the
exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC. If
you are going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the database
of VLR.
  HLR: HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing pertinent
data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network. If you purchase SIM card
from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof, which
plan you are taking, which caller tune you are using etc.
 OMC: OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain the
performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.
 AUC: AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile subscriber
that wants to connect in the network.
 EIR: EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the record
of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network them you can’t
enter the network, and you can’t make the calls.
 PSTN: PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with
MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. Now almost
entirely digital in its core network and includes mobile and other networks as well as
fixed telephones. The earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but
PSTN.

Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces. Total
three interfaces are there:

1. Air Interface: Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS and
BTS is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of ISDN.
2. Abis Interface: It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
3. A interface: It provides communication between BSS and MSC.

Hence, this is the complete architecture and functionalities of GSM components.

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

GPRS is an expansion Global System for Mobile Communication. It is basically a packet-

oriented mobile data standard on the 2G and 3G cellular communication network’s global system
for mobile communication. GPRS was built up by European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI) because of the prior CDPD, and I-mode packet switched cell advances.

GPRS overrides the wired associations, as this framework has streamlined access to the packet
information’s network like the web. The packet radio standard is utilized by GPRS to transport
client information packets in a structured route between GSM versatile stations and external
packet information networks. These packets can be straightforwardly directed to the packet
changed systems from the GPRS portable stations.

History Of GPRS:

GPRS was one of the main advances that empowered a cell system to interface with Internet
Protocol systems, accomplishing across the board reception in the mid-2000s. The capacity to
peruse the web from a telephone whenever through “dependably on” data networking, while
underestimated in a great part of the world today, was as yet an oddity when it was introduced.
Indeed, even now, GPRS keeps on being utilized in parts of the world where it has been too
expensive even to consider upgrading cell organize framework to move up to newer alternatives.

According to a study on the history of GPRS development Bernhard Walke and his student, Peter
Decker, are the inventors of GPRS – the first system providing universal mobile Internet access.

Goals Of GPRS:

1. Consistent IP services
2. Leverage industry investment in IP
3. Open Architecture
4. Service innovation independent of infrastructure

Services Offered:

1. SMS messaging and broadcasting

2. Push-to-talk over cellular
3. Instant messaging and presence
4. Multimedia messaging service
5. Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint services

Protocols supported:

1. Internet Protocol (IP)

2. Point-To-Point Protocol (PPP)

Benefits Of GPRS:

 Mobility:
The capacity to keep up consistent voice and information interchanges while moving.
 Cost Efficient:
Communication via GPRS is cheaper than through the regular GSM network.
 Immediacy:
Allows customers to obtain connectivity when needed, regardless of location and without
a lengthy login session.
 Localization:
Enables customers to acquire data applicable to their present area.
 Easy Billing:
GPRS packet transmission offers an easier to use billing than that offered by circuit
switched administrations.

GPRS is an innovation that numerous GPS beacons are using to get up to the minute data with
tracking. When the GPS gadget records the information, it would then be able to be transmitted
through GPRS to another central location, for example, a PC or through an email. It is the GPRS
innovation that takes into consideration ongoing updates to GPS following frameworks. It is this
direct GPRS association that gives the client of the GPS system the most reliable information
available today.

GPRS architecture in wireless communication

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service. It is the modified version of GSM architecture
service. In GSM architecture we can only transport the voice signal. But if signal consists of the
data then only GSM architecture cannot use. For that there are two more software components
are used, SGSN (Serving GPRS supporting Node) and GGSN (Gateway GPRS supporting
Node).

Architecture:

GPRS Architecture

In GSM architecture there is one component called BSC. But in GPRS there is one component is
added to BSC called PCU. PCU stands for Packet Control Unit. If signal comes to BSC and that
signal contains data, then PCU routes to the SGSN. Interface is used between BSC and PCU is
FRI interface. After signal comes to SGSN, it delivers the data packet to the GGSN. GGSN
routes the data packet to the data network (PDN- Predefined Data Network).

Task of SGSN:

1. Packet Delivery
2. Mobility management
o apply/ sign off of terminals
o localization
3. LLC (Logical Link Control) management
4. Authentication
5. billing
Task of GGSN:

1. Mediator between GPRS between backbone and external data networks.

2. Saves current data for the SGSN address of the participant as well as their profile and
data for authentication and invoice.

Handover

Handoff in Cellular Telecommunications

In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refers to the process of

transferring ongoing call or data connectivity from one Base Station to other Base Station. When
a mobile moves into the different cell while the conversation is in progress then the MSC
(Mobile Switching Center) transfer the call to a new channel belonging to the new Base Station.

When a mobile user A moves from one cell to another cell then BSC 1 signal strength loses for
the mobile User A and the signal strength of BSC 2 increases and thus ongoing calls or data
connectivity for mobile user goes on without interrupting.
Types of Handoff:

Hard Handoff:
When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base Station to
another Base Station. There is no burden on the Base Station and MSC because the switching
takes place so quickly that it can hardly be noticed by the users. The connection quality is not
that good. Hard Handoff adopted the ‘break before make’ policy.

Soft Handoff:
In Soft Handoff, at least one of the links is kept when radio signals are added or removed to the
Base Station. Soft Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy. Soft Handoff is more costly
than Hard Handoff.
 GSM Security Principles

Security Goals & Concerns

Security mechanisms should have some features to become efficient. First of all,
security concerns can be defined in two side; operator side and customer side.

Operators;
 Should bill the right person
 Should provide systems to avoid fraud
 Should protect their services against attacks

Customers;
 Should have privacy, nobody should be able to detect their identification or their
location
 Communication on the air should be encrypted to avoid eavesdropping
 Should be able to change mobile equipment independently

Security mechanisms;

 Shouldn’t add much load to the voice calls or data communication

 Shouldn’t need to increase the channel bandwidth
 Shouldn’t increase the bit error rate
 Shouldn’t bring expensive complexity to the system
 Should be useful and cost efficient
 Should be able to detect suspicious mobile equipment

Security Mechanisms

GSM has a lot of security systems to build safe communication. It includes a lot of
different types of algorithms and different type of devices.
The main security measurements of GSM security can be written in 4 principles;
Authentication of a user; it provides the ability for mobile equipment to prove that it has
access to a particular account with the operator.
Ciphering of the data and signaling; it requires that all signaling and user data (such as text
messages and speech) are protected against interception by means of ciphering.
Confidentiality of a user identity; it provides IMSI’s (international mobile subscriber
identity) security. GSM communication uses IMSI rarely, it uses TMSI (Temporary Mobile
Subscriber Identity) to provide more secure communication and to avoid disclosing of user’s
identity.
This means someone intercepting communications should not be able to learn if a
particular mobile user is in the area.
Using SIM as security module;
In case SIM card was taken by opponent, there is still PIN
code measurement.
A3 and A8 Algorithms
A3 and A8 algorithms are A3 and A8 algorithms are symmetric algorithms which the
encryption and decryption use the same key. Both of the algorithms are one way function, it
means that output can be found if the inputs are known but it is mostly impossible to find
inputs incase the output is known. A3 and A8 algorithms are kept and implemented in SIM card.
Many users of GSM will be familiar with the SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) the small
smartcard which is inserted into a GSM phone as you can see in the figure 3.
Figure 3: Sample SIM Card
The SIM itself is protected by an optional PIN code. The PIN is entered on the
phone’s keypad, and passed to the SIM for verification. If the code does not match with the
PIN stored by the SIM, the SIM informs the user that code was invalid, and refuses to perform
authentication functions until the correct PIN is entered. To further enhance security, the SIM
normally “locks out” the PIN after a number of invalid attempts (normally 3). After this, a
PUK (PIN Unlock) code is required to be entered, which must be obtained from the operator.
If the PUK is entered incorrectly a number of times (normally 10), the SIM refuses local
access to privileged information (and authentication functions) permanently, rendering the
SIM useless.
Typical SIM features can be lined as below:
 8 bit CPU
 16 K ROM
 256 bytes RAM
 4K EEPROM
 Cost: $5-50
On its own, the phone has no association with any particular network. The appropriate
account with a network is selected by inserting the SIM into the phone. Therefore the SIM
card contains all of the details necessary to obtain access to a particular account. It contains 4
important information; IMSI, Ki, A3 and A8 algorithms. [9]
IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity): Unique number for every
subscriber in the world. It includes information about the home network of the subscriber and
the country of issue. This information can be read from the SIM provided there is local access
to the SIM (normally protected by a simple PIN code). The IMSI is a sequence of up to 15
decimal digits, the first 5 or 6 of which specify the network and country.
Ki: Root encryption key. This is a randomly generated 128-bit number allocated to a
particular subscriber that seeds the generation of all keys and challenges used in the GSM
system. The Ki is highly protected, and is only known in the SIM and the network’s AuC
(Authentication Centre). The phone itself never learns of the Ki, and simply feeds the SIM the
information it needs to know to perform the authentication or generate ciphering keys.
Authentication and key generation is performed in the SIM, which is possible because the
SIM is an intelligent device with a microprocessor.
A3 Algorithm: It provides authentication to the user that it has privilege to access the
system. The network authenticates the subscriber through the use of a challenge-response
method.
Firstly, a 128 bit random number (RAND) is transmitted to the mobile station over the
air interface. The RAND is passed to the SIM card, where it is sent through the A3
authentication algorithm together with the KI. The output of the A3 algorithm, the signed
response (SRES) is transmitted via the air interface from the mobile station back to the
network. On the network, the AuC compares its value of SRES with the value of SRES it has
received from the mobile station. If the two values of SRES match, authentication is
successful and the subscriber joins the network. The AuC actually doesn’t store a copy of
SRES but queries the HLR or the VLR for it, as needed.
Figure 4: A3 Algorithm
Figure 4 illustrates working principle of A3 algorithm.
Figure 5: A3 Algorithm Request Order
Figure 5 shows the request order between mobile station and operator network in A3
algorithm. This figure can be explained as;
1) Some connection is attempted between the phone and the network.
2) The phone submits its identity. All potential messages used at the start of a connection
contain an identity field. Where possible, it avoids sending its IMSI in plaintext (to
prevent eavesdroppers knowing the particular subscriber is attempting a connection).
Instead, it uses its TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity). This will be
discussed later in this article.
3) The network sends the AUTHENTICATION REQUEST message containing the
RAND.
4) The phone receives the RAND, and passes it to the SIM, in the RUN GSM
ALGORITHM command.
5) The SIM runs the A3 algorithm, and returns the SRES to the phone.
6) The phone transmits the SRES to the network in the AUTHENTICATION
RESPONSE message.
7) The network compares the SRES with its own SRES. If they match, the transaction
may proceed. Otherwise, the network either decides to repeat the authentication
procedure with IMSI if the TMSI was used, or returns an AUTHENTICATION
REJECT message.

A8 Algorithm: GSM makes use of a ciphering key to protect both user data and
signaling on the vulnerable air interface. Once the user is authenticated, the RAND (delivered
from the network) together with the Ki (from the SIM) is sent through the A8 ciphering key
generating algorithm, to produce a ciphering key (Kc). The A8 algorithm is stored on the SIM
card. The Kc created by the A8 algorithm, is then used with the A5 ciphering algorithm to
encipher or decipher the data. The A5 algorithm is implemented in the hardware of the mobile
phone, as it has to encrypt and decrypt data on the air.
Whenever the A3 algorithm runs to generate SRES, the A8 algorithm is run as well
The A8 algorithm uses the RAND and Ki as input to generate a 64-bit ciphering key, the Kc,
which is then stored in the SIM and readable by the phone. The network also generates the Kc
and distributes it to the base station (BTS) handling the connection.
Figure 6 shows A8 algorithm working principle;
Figure 6: A8 Algorithm
 What is UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System)?

UMTS or Universal Mobile Telecommunications Framework, is the 3G successor to the GSM

family of measures counting GPRS and EDGE. 3G UMTS employments a completely diverse
radio interface based around the utilize of Coordinate Grouping Spread Range as CDMA or Code
Division Multiple Access. Although 3G UMTS employments a completely distinctive radio get
to standard, the center arrange is the same as that utilized for GPRS and EDGE to carry
partitioned circuit exchanged voice and bundle data.

UMTS employments a wideband adaptation of CDMA possessing a 5 MHz wide channel. Being
more extensive than its competition CDMA2000 which as it was utilized a 1.25MHz channel, the
tweak conspire was known as wideband CDMA or WCDMA/W-CDMA. This title was regularly
utilized to allude to the total framework. It could be a frame of media transmission utilized for
remote gathering and transmission. It is an advancement in speed boost from the more seasoned
2G standard of transmission speed and can increment information transmission times between
gadgets and servers.

UMTS Applications

 Streaming / Download (Video, Audio)

 Videoconferences.
 Fast Internet / Intranet.
 Mobile E-Commerce (M-Commerce)
 Remote Login
 Background Class applications
 Multimedia-Messaging, E-Mail
 FTP Access
 Mobile Entertainment (Games)

Features of UMTS

 UMTS could be a component of IMT-2000 standard of the Universal Broadcast

communications Union (ITU), created by 3GPP.
 It employments wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) discuss interface.
 It gives transmission of content, digitized voice, video and multimedia.
 It gives tall transmission capacity to portable operators.
 It gives a tall information rate of 2Mbps.
 For High-Speed Downlink Parcel Get to (HSDPA) handsets, the data-rate is as tall as 7.2
Mbps within the downlink connection.
 It is additionally known as Flexibility of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA).

Advantages of UMTS

 UMTS could be a successor to 2G based GSM advances counting GPRS and EDGE .
Gaining a 3rd title 3GSM since it could be a 3G relocation for GSM
 Support 2Mbit/s information rates.
  Higher Information rates at lower incremental costs.
 Benefits of programmed universal wandering also necessarily security and charging
capacities, permitting administrators emigrate from 2G to 3G whereas holding numerous
of their existing back-office frameworks
 Gives administrators the adaptability to present unused mixed media administrations to
trade clients and buyers
 This not as it were gives client a valuable phone but moreover deciphers higher incomes
for the administrator.

Disadvantages of UMTS

 It is more expensive than GSM.

 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System has poor video experience.
 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System still not broadband.

Difference between UMTS and GSM

1. Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) :

UMTS stands for Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, developed based on 3GPP
standards. Its network composed of three main parts UE (User Equipment), Radio Access
Network (RAN) and Core Network. There are various technologies which fall under UMTS
based on different releases from 3GPP community. It is also referred as 3G.

2. Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) :

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication. It is majorly used mobile
communication system in the world. It uses time division multiple access i.e TDMA to send
down the digitized and reduced data through a channel with two different streams of client
data, each in its own particular time slot.

Difference between UMTS and GSM:

S.No. UMTS GSM

1. UMTS is already 3G. GSM is 2G and 2.5G.
2. It is mainly CDMA-based. It is typically based on TDMA .
There channels are divided into
There channels are divided into traffic
logical, transport and physical based
3. channel and control channel based on
on where they are used along with their
functionality of use in the system.
functions.
4. Its frame duration is about 10ms, Its frame duration is about 4.615ms,
5. It is newer. It is a rather old technology.
It has various bands from Band-I to It has various bands, the major among
6. Band-VI, Each band specifies them are 850MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz
frequency and UARFCN. and 1900MHz.
 It has various releases such as
It has various documents specified by
7. R99(WCDMA), R5 (HSDPA),
ETSI and 3GPP, 3GPP™TS 45-series.
R6(HSUPA) etc.
The modulation efficiency is 1.0 The modulation efficiency is 1.35
8.
b/s/Hz . b/s/Hz.

UMTS UTRA / UTRAN: radio network subsystem RNS

UMTS radio access network, UTRA or UTRAN was the name for the radio access
network elements of the 3G UMTS mobile phone system.

With the introduction of 3G UMTS there were many new terms that appeared for the network
elements. Two common ones were UTRA and UTRAN.

UTRA standards for UMTS radio access and UTRAN for UMTS radio access network and they
cover the elements of the radio access network including elements like what used to be called the
base transceiver station and the Base station controller, etc.

Sometimes the UTRAN, UMTS terrestrial access network was also referred to as the Radio
Network Subsystem, or RNS.

A base station antenna part of the UMTS RNS / UTRAN

UMTS radio access network, UTRAN

The UMTS Radio Access Network, UTRAN, or Radio Network Subsystem, RNS comprises
two main components:

 Radio Network Controller, RNC: This element of the UTRAN / radio network
subsystem controls the Node Bs that are connected to it, i.e. the radio resources in its
domain.. The RNC undertakes the radio resource management and some of the mobility
management functions, although not all. It is also the point at which the data encryption /
decryption is performed to protect the user data from eavesdropping.
 Node B: Node B is the term used within UMTS to denote the base station transceiver.
This part of the UTRAN contains the transmitter and receiver to communicate with the
UEs within the cell. It participates with the RNC in the resource management. NodeB is
the 3GPP term for base station, and often the terms are used interchangeably.

In order to facilitate effective handover between Node Bs under the control of different RNCs,
the RNC not only communicates with the Core Network, but also with neighbouring RNCs.

UTRAN / RNS interfaces

The UMTS standards are structured in a way that the internal functionality of the different
network elements is not defined. Instead, the interfaces between the network elements is defined
and in this way, so too is the element functionality.

There are several interfaces that are defined for the UTRAN elements:

 Iu : The Iu interface connects the UTRAN to the core network.

 Iub : The Iub connects the NodeB and the RNC within the UTRAN. Although when it
was launched, a standardisation of the interface between the controller and base station in
the UTRAN was revolutionary, the aim was to stimulate competition between suppliers,
allowing opportunities like some manufacturers who might concentrate just on base
stations rather than the controller and other network entities.
 Iur : The Iur interface allows communication between different RNCs within the
UTRAN. The open Iur interface enables capabilities like soft handover to occur as well
as helping to stimulate competition between equipment manufacturers.

Having standardised interfaces within various areas of the network including the UTRAN allows
network operators to select different network entities from different suppliers.

UTRA uplink & downlink

When looking at the radio air interface and its associated properties, it is necessary to define the
directions in which the transmissions are occurring. Being a full duplex system, i.e. transmitting
simultaneously in both directions, it is necessary to be able to define which direction is which.
  Downlink; This may also sometimes be known as the forward link, and it is the link
from the Node B or base station to the User Equipment (UE).
 Uplink; This may also sometimes be known as the reverse link, and it is the link from
the User Equipment (UE) to the Node B or base station.

The terms Uplink and Downlink are the terms that are used with UMTS, and especially within
Europe. The terms forward link and reverse link are more commonly used with the CDMA2000
technologies and also within North America.

Uplink and downlink directions

Frequency division and time division duplex

In view of the fact that transmissions have to be made in both directions, i.e. in both uplink and
downlink. It is necessary to organise the way these transmissions are made. Two techniques are
used to ensure concurrent or near concurrent transmissions in both directions: frequency division
duplex and time division duplex.

 UTRA-FDD: The frequency division duplex version of UTRA uses a scheme whereby
transmissions in the uplink and downlink occur on different frequencies. Although this
requires double the bandwidth to accommodate the two transmissions, and filters to
prevent the transmitted signal from interfering with the receiver. Even though there is a
defined split between uplink and downlink, effective filters are required.
 UTRA-TDD: The time division version of the UTRA uses uplink and downlink
transmissions that use the same frequency but are timed to occur at different intervals.

Both UTRA-FDD and UTRA-TDD have their own advantages and disadvantages and therefore
tend to be used in different areas.

While the UTRA-FDD and UTRA-TDD both belong to 3G UMTS and are contained within the
3GPP standards, they may have some slightly different parameters for their transmissions.