CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
General Concept Literature
A development plan is a guide that helps a community grow in an organized and
sustainable way. It is like a big map with a list of goals and rules that show how things like houses,
roads, and public spaces should be built. The plan also explains how these projects will help
people live better lives. Building good roads and other important structures, especially in rural
areas, is very important because it helps communities become stronger and improves their
economy. Across the world, governments have shifted back to comprehensive development
frameworks to address the gaps left by past economic liberalization.
According to the resurgence of national development planning, the need for development
planning has regained importance globally for the growing recognition of the need for structured
economic strategies. (Munro, 2020) In the Philippines, planning takes place at several stages.
Planning occurs at various levels of government, ensuring that development efforts are well-
coordinated and responsive to the needs of different communities. In the national level, the
national government, through agencies such as the National Economic and Development Authority
(NEDA), formulates long-term development plans like the Philippine Development Plan (PDP).
These plans set the overall direction for economic growth, infrastructure development, and social
services across the country.
Development is a multifaceted and evolving concept, shaped by socio-economic context,
priorities, and the perspectives of individuals and communities (Wall, 1997; Todaro, 2000). Over
time, the understanding of development has broadened from a narrow focus on economic growth
to include structural economic transformation, social progress, governance reforms, and
sustainability (Vázquez & Sumner, 2013; Becker, 2023). Various scholars and institutions,
including the United Nations and the World Bank (2024), affirm that development must encompass
human well-being, access to education and healthcare, environmental preservation, and improved
quality of life, not merely increases in GDP per capita.
However, in many developing countries, development continues to be equated primarily
with economic progress. This narrow view, while useful for quantification through indicators like
GDP growth, often overlooks critical social issues such as inequality, unemployment, and access
to basic services (UNDP, 2024). Polukhina et al. (2024) argue that a truly sustainable and inclusive
development model must involve a careful and controlled transformation of governance systems,
economic structures, and human development frameworks—an approach aligned with the
Brundtland Report’s (1987) principle of meeting present needs without compromising future
generations.
The development challenges of emerging and developing countries often reflect a lack of
economic diversification, institutional weaknesses, dependency on primary exports, poor
infrastructure, and underdeveloped human capital systems (Sharpley & Telfer, 2002). These
issues are exacerbated by high population growth and limited access to innovation and
competitiveness mechanisms. Thus, effective development strategies must address not only
economic growth but also social equity, environmental concerns, and institutional capacity
building.
For regional development, the Regional Development Councils (RDCs) are responsible for
creating development plans that align with national goals while addressing the unique needs of
their respective regions. These plans guide investments in infrastructure, agriculture, tourism, and
other sectors critical to regional progress. In the Provincial Level, Provincial governments develop
their own development plans, integrating regional priorities with local needs. These plans focus on
improving provincial roads, health services, education, and disaster preparedness, among other
concerns. Cities and municipalities also create local development plans that directly impact their
communities. These include zoning regulations, infrastructure projects, and social programs
tailored to the specific needs of their residents. Local Development Councils (LDCs) ensure that
these plans align with both provincial and national strategies. At the grassroots level, barangays
(the smallest administrative units) prepare Barangay Development Plans (BDPs). These plans
address immediate concerns such as basic services, livelihood programs, and community safety.
By planning at multiple levels, the Philippines ensures that development is inclusive and
responsive to the diverse needs of its people, from national priorities down to the smallest
communities.
International Literature
One significant international study on development planning is by Friedmann (1987) in his
book Planning in the Public Domain: From Knowledge to Action. Friedmann explores various
development planning models and emphasizes the importance of participatory governance, where
local communities play a key role in decision-making processes. His work highlights that effective
development planning requires a balance between top-down policies and grassroots participation
to ensure that strategies align with the needs of the people.
Similarly, Todaro and Smith (2020) in Economic Development discuss how comprehensive
development planning is crucial for sustainable economic growth. Their research highlights that
development plans should not only focus on infrastructure but also on social and human capital
improvements, including education, healthcare, and livelihood programs.
Another relevant study is by Hall and Tewdwr-Jones (2010) in Urban and Regional
Planning, where they analyze regional and urban development strategies across different
countries. Their study suggests that integrated planning approaches, involving multiple
stakeholders, lead to better governance and resource management. The research further stresses
that local development plans must be flexible and adaptive to accommodate changing economic
and social conditions.
Development Plans have been often used by the Town Planners, as the most important
planning tool to regulate the growth and development of the city. (Kupta, 2024) Development also
remains the most essential in the armory of the Town Planners for defining the future growth and
development of the cities and towns. First Development Plan of Delhi was prepared in the year
1961, where it was used by the town planners as a tool to help their town grow. Allowing them to
look ahead with how their town is moving forward.
Despite the valuable insights provided by international studies on development planning,
several research gaps remain that your study aims to address. Friedmann (1987) presents a
strong theoretical foundation for participatory governance in planning but lacks empirical case
studies, particularly in small-scale governance like barangays. Similarly, Todaro and Smith (2020)
focus on economic development at the national and global levels, with limited discussions on
grassroots planning, leaving a gap in understanding how development initiatives impact local
communities directly. Meanwhile, Hall and Tewdwr-Jones (2010) examine urban and regional
planning in developed countries, yet they do not extensively explore development planning in rural
or small local government units, such as barangays in the Philippines. These gaps highlight the
need for a localized and community-based analysis of development planning, which your study
aims to provide. By focusing on barangay-level planning, your research will integrate governance
and policy implications, ensuring that development strategies align with the actual needs of
constituents. Additionally, it will offer real-world applications of planning theories, filling the gap
between conceptual frameworks and their practical implementation in grassroots governance.
Urban development plans are plans that define the directions and priorities of urban
development and various dimensions of physical-spatial, functional, economic, and social. They
help implement the city's construction projects better, as well as better time and cost management.
(Poursaeid, et al., 2025) These projects under the development plan have undergone major
changes in Iran over the past half century. The current study sample is the city of Mashhad, which,
due to its large size and population, requires the use of the most comprehensive and complete
principles of urban planning to guide and control urban development, and over the past few
decades has witnessed the drafting of three comprehensive plans of khazeni, mehrazan and
farnahad in three different time periods from before the Islamic Revolution to after.
Habibi and Sheikh Ahmadi (1402) conducted a study to examine the content and
effectiveness of urban development plans. Their findings revealed that criteria related to
community participation and orientation were inadequately addressed, reflecting a weak
participatory approach in urban planning. While the formulation of goals and the assessment of the
current situation were given due consideration, the stages of decision-making, implementation,
and post-implementation evaluation were notably lacking. They emphasized that disregarding
foundational concepts in planning does not resolve developmental issues but instead results in
wasted time and resource Similarly, Daneshvar (1402), in evaluating the efficiency of land
use in urban development plans within the Mashhad metropolis, found a stark contrast in
implementation success between central and peripheral areas. Specifically, the proposed land use
in peripheral and newly developed zones had a significantly lower realization rate compared to the
city's central regions, indicating spatial disparities in development execution.
Tavangar and Farhadi (1400) examined the impact of urban development plans on the
cultural and historical fabric of Mashhad. Their research highlighted that policies implemented in
the city's central districts contributed to the degradation of historical sites, resulting in depopulation
and functional decline. This, in turn, led to the erosion of neighborhood identity and community
cohesion in traditional areas. In their diagnostic study of the entire urban development planning
process for Mashhad, Khoshab et al. (1400) identified critical issues undermining plan
effectiveness. These included inter-institutional conflicts, a product-oriented approach to design,
weak policy frameworks, inadequate municipal expertise, and the neglect of social dimensions in
planning. These factors collectively hindered the successful implementation of comprehensive and
detailed development strategies.
Finally, Daneshvar (1400) explored the components shaping the preparation and approval
of urban development plans. His findings underscored the influence of various discursive
structures—political, social, and intellectual capital—operating at both national and local levels.
These structures led to divergent perspectives on planning tools and decision-making methods,
further complicating the planning process in Iran.
A qualitative analysis of Indonesia’s healthy city development plan—especially as it
pertains to the new national capital (Ibu Kota Negara, IKN)—highlights the government’s intent to
adopt international models and best practices for health-centered urban development. The primary
reference frameworks include the World Health Organization’s (WHO) Healthy City Model, along
with strategies adapted from Cardiff and Vancouver (Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 3 of
2022)
These frameworks underscore the necessity of urban planning that prioritizes not only
physical infrastructure but also residents’ well-being through environmental health, access to
healthcare, and inclusive public services. While this model is aspirational, the study reveals
persistent challenges related to air quality, sustainable transport systems, green public spaces,
and equitable healthcare provision. Such issues are especially relevant at the barangay or
community level in the Philippines, where similar problems with resource limitations and
infrastructure deficiencies are often encountered.
Moreover, the study emphasizes the importance of multi-sectoral collaboration, advocating
for partnerships between government, private stakeholders, and civil society to ensure
transparent, efficient, and inclusive implementation of development plans. For local governments
such as barangays, this model of cooperation provides a valuable blueprint for achieving health-
oriented and socially inclusive development, which ultimately contributes to broader socio-
economic progress. This perspective suggests that development planning—whether in a national
capital or a small barangay—must go beyond infrastructure and address health, sustainability, and
community participation. Doing so increases the potential for long-term well-being and resilience,
especially among vulnerable populations.
National Literature
Regional development is a crucial aspect of governance and policymaking, as it focuses
on improving socio-economic conditions through strategic planning and implementation. According
to Chatterjee et al. (2022), regional development involves systematic and analytical approaches,
incorporating innovative methods to measure and model development on a regional scale.
In the context of barangay development planning, this geographical perspective is
significant. Regions serve not only as statistical units for analysis but also as essential spatial units
for management and planning (Chatterjee et al. 2022). By examining various regional
development models and policy prescriptions, policymakers and local leaders can design more
effective and sustainable strategies tailored to their communities.
Furthermore, regional development planning, as practiced in different parts of the world,
particularly South Asia, integrates sustainable management approaches. These insights are
relevant to the development efforts in Barangay Pangi in Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay, where
governance and policy implications directly impact constituents' well-being. The study of regional
development frameworks can inform barangay-level planning, ensuring that policies align with both
local needs and broader sustainable development goals.
This literature serves as a valuable resource for socio-economic planners and
policymakers, offering practical guidance on effective governance strategies at the barangay level.
By understanding the complex processes of regional planning, local leaders can implement data-
driven and community-oriented policies that contribute to long-term development.
In the realm of regional development, regions are conceptualized not merely as
geographic entities but as socio-political and economic units characterized by shared features and
interactions (Tosun & Jenkins, 1996; Smith, 2014). Regional development models emphasize the
importance of localized planning that considers internal dynamics and functional interrelationships.
For instance, Blair (1995) highlights the role of functional regions—areas with high internal
economic interaction—in promoting sustainable local development.
Several theoretical models offer frameworks for regional growth. The Key Stages Model
suggests that as regions mature, they shift from dependence on imports to producing and
exporting diversified goods. The Export-Led Growth Model posits that economic expansion stems
from increasing external inflows through exports, while Supply-Led Growth Models emphasize
enhanced resource availability and efficiency as drivers of development (Sharpley & Telfer, 2002;
Capello & Nijkamp, 2011). These models highlight the need for regions to innovate, diversify, and
strategically manage their resources and institutions to ensure sustainable growth.
Classical regional development theories such as Perroux’s (1988) Growth Pole Theory
remain relevant, especially in contexts where targeted investment in key areas can produce
spillover benefits for surrounding regions. For example, a concentrated cluster of dynamic
industries or a strategic infrastructure project (like a hospital or livelihood program) can stimulate
local economies and attract complementary investments. Porter (1990) further advocates for the
development of competitive regional clusters, emphasizing strong interlinkages within and across
regions to enhance competitiveness and prevent excessive urban migration.
These insights into development and regional planning provide valuable theoretical
grounding for analyzing local development initiatives, such as those implemented in barangays.
They reinforce the need for participatory, multi-sectoral, and context-sensitive planning strategies
to ensure that development efforts are not only economically viable but also socially inclusive and
sustainable.
Local Literature
The Local Government Code of 1991 (Republic Act No. 7160) serves as the primary legal
framework that empowers barangays to plan and implement their own development programs.
This law decentralizes governance, granting local government units (LGUs) the autonomy to
create policies and allocate resources that address the specific needs of their communities.
According to Section 384 of the Local Government Code, barangays are recognized as the basic
political units that serve as the foundation of governance. They are tasked with promoting the
general welfare of their constituents through the preparation and implementation of Barangay
Development Plans (BDPs).
These plans are essential in addressing issues related to infrastructure, public health,
education, and economic development (Republic Act No. 7160, 1991). Section 106 of the Code
mandates the creation of the Barangay Development Council (BDC), which is responsible for
formulating, monitoring, and evaluating development programs. The BDC is composed of the
Punong Barangay (chairperson), members of the Sangguniang Barangay, representatives from
civil society organizations (CSOs), and the Barangay Secretary. This participatory governance
approach ensures that community members are involved in decision-making processes, leading to
more inclusive and effective development strategies.
One of the most critical provisions in the Local Government Code is Section 329, which
outlines the barangay’s authority to generate funds for development projects. Barangays receive
their budget from the Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA), locally generated revenues, and other
government grants. However, studies have shown that financial constraints often limit the full
implementation of barangay development plans. Proper financial management and strategic
planning are necessary to maximize the utilization of resources (Republic Act No. 7160, 1991).
In the context of developing countries, Sharpley and Telfer (2002) observe that socio-
economic progress is often impeded by a narrow production base, weak institutions, and poor
infrastructure. These constraints lead to over-reliance on natural resource extraction, low
competitiveness, and limited innovation. The need for internal resource mobilization becomes
critical, especially in barangay-level planning, where external support is minimal. Local
development must therefore be context-responsive and rooted in the unique strengths and
challenges of the area.
Infrastructure gaps, high unemployment, and limited access to education and healthcare
are common barriers in many developing nations. These challenges mirror those faced by rural
barangays in the Philippines, where development programs must address not only economic
outputs but also basic human needs and service delivery systems. As the UNDP (2024) highlights,
indicators of human development—such as healthcare access and educational attainment—are as
crucial as GDP growth in evaluating progress.
From a spatial planning perspective, regional development theories offer valuable insights
into how local areas like barangays can foster growth. Smith (2014) classifies regions into three
types: political-geographic, homogeneous (with common characteristics), and functional regions
defined by internal interactions. In this context, barangays may be seen as both political and
functional units that can initiate grassroots development when supported by appropriate planning
and stakeholder engagement. Blair (1995) and Perroux (1988) introduce models like growth poles
and internal economic linkages that have practical relevance for rural development. A barangay
that becomes a local hub through targeted investments—such as a healthcare facility or a
livelihood program—can generate positive externalities for surrounding communities. These
growth centers can foster economic activity, strengthen local governance, and enhance
community resilience.
Finally, Porter (1990) underscores the need for competitive clusters that integrate social,
institutional, and economic efforts. In a barangay setting, collaboration among local institutions,
community organizations, and beneficiaries (e.g., farmers, PWDs) is crucial to sustain initiatives
and build capacity. Without such linkages, development programs risk being isolated and
unsustainable.
The success of local development initiatives greatly depends on the presence of strong
institutional linkages that can build capacity at the grassroots level. Without such strategic
connections among stakeholders—government agencies, civil society organizations, private sector
actors, and local communities—development programs run the risk of being isolated, inefficient,
and ultimately unsustainable. The lack of coordination often results in fragmented interventions
that fail to address the multidimensional needs of vulnerable groups, such as Persons with
Disabilities (PWDs), and overlook the potential synergies across sectors that could amplify the
overall impact.
There is a notable gap in the existing body of literature that comprehensively examines not only
how to help PWDs gain access to the labor market but also how to support them in sustaining
long-term, dignified employment. Most existing studies and development programs tend to
concentrate primarily on the initial entry of PWDs into the workforce. These efforts, although well-
intentioned, often fall short of addressing the broader, more complex challenges related to
sustainable livelihood development, particularly in rural and agricultural contexts. The integration
of inclusive, accessible agricultural practices—such as hydroponic farming and backyard
gardening—as a means to empower PWDs economically remains underexplored. As Eissenstat et
al. (2022) emphasize, PWDs confront a unique set of structural and situational barriers, ranging
from physical and cognitive limitations to environmental obstacles, that hinder not only their entry
into employment but also their ability to remain employed in a stable, fulfilling capacity.
Urban-based studies, such as the 2008 Metro Manila Disability Survey, have provided valuable
insights into the urban PWD experience. However, they do not sufficiently capture the lived
realities of those residing in rural and geographically isolated areas. The disparity in data
availability between urban and rural contexts underscores a pressing need for more localized and
granular research. The 2010 survey conducted in Rosario, Batangas, is one of the few endeavors
that attempts to fill this information void. It revealed critical issues such as the widespread lack of
awareness among PWDs regarding available government programs, their underrepresentation in
local disability-focused organizations, and rural-specific obstacles including limited transportation
infrastructure, geographic isolation, and restricted access to health and social services (Reyes,
2011). These findings signal a compelling need for place-based approaches that reflect the
specific socio-economic conditions and challenges of rural barangays.
Health is another foundational pillar in local development planning. The World Health Organization
(WHO, 2017) underscores that achieving universal health coverage is contingent upon the
establishment and support of community-based healthcare systems, especially in marginalized
and rural areas. In the Philippines, the frontline of health service delivery is the Barangay Health
Station (BHS), which serves as the community’s first formal contact with the national healthcare
system. The Department of Health (DOH, 2019) acknowledges that these grassroots institutions
play a vital role in disease prevention, maternal and child healthcare, and general wellness
promotion.
Dizon and Villanueva (2020), in their study on health implementation in Southern Mindanao, found
that barangay-level infrastructure projects, such as the establishment of rural health clinics,
resulted in notable improvements in maternal care accessibility, immunization coverage, and
infectious disease control. However, they also identified significant implementation barriers
including delayed fund releases, human resource shortages, inadequate medical supplies, and
insufficient public health education. In Barangay Pangi, the recent construction of a health facility
under its Barangay Development Plan (BDP) reflects an attempt to localize national priorities and
address community-specific healthcare needs. Yet, it simultaneously mirrors the same
vulnerabilities observed at the national level, pointing to the importance of ensuring proper
resourcing, staffing, and capacity-building for sustainable impact.
The intersection of disability and livelihood development has gained international attention with the
adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD,
2006), which mandates state parties to promote the full economic participation of PWDs. The
Convention highlights the need for targeted training programs, employment opportunities, and
inclusive entrepreneurship support. In the Philippines, the Department of Social Welfare and
Development (DSWD) has initiated Sustainable Livelihood Programs (SLPs) that aim to uplift
marginalized sectors, including PWDs, by providing them with livelihood capital, vocational
training, and access to local and national markets.
Baldo (2018), in a study conducted in rural barangays, identified backyard gardening as one of the
most practical and inclusive livelihood options for PWDs. This form of livelihood not only offers
economic benefits—such as supplemental income and food production—but also contributes to
psychosocial well-being, increased self-worth, and deeper social integration. In line with
Sustainable Development Goal No. 10, which advocates for reducing inequalities through social
inclusion, Barangay Pangi’s backyard gardening program for PWDs presents a replicable model of
inclusive grassroots development that centers on empowerment and community participation.
Participatory governance is increasingly recognized as a cornerstone of effective and inclusive
local planning. As articulated by Friedmann (1987), development planning becomes truly
transformative when people are actively engaged in shaping the decisions that affect their lives.
Arnstein’s (1969) seminal concept—the "Ladder of Citizen Participation"—further categorizes
levels of participation, from tokenism to citizen control, underscoring that genuine participation is
achieved only when communities have actual decision-making power. Cardenas and Ocampo
(2015) found a strong correlation between participatory processes in barangay planning and
successful project outcomes, such as increased transparency, more efficient service delivery, and
higher levels of community satisfaction and trust. The implication is clear: meaningful engagement,
not mere consultation, is crucial to designing and implementing development plans that are both
responsive and accountable.
Nonetheless, the act of planning alone is insufficient if not followed by rigorous and systematic
Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E). The Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS, 2019)
reports that while most barangays formulate development plans, few conduct outcome-based
evaluations. This lack of evaluative rigor compromises the ability of policymakers to make data-
driven adjustments and undermines the learning process essential for continuous improvement.
The Asian Development Bank (ADB, 2018) suggests that effective M&E systems must go beyond
the technicalities of indicators and include institutional commitment and community engagement.
Participatory M&E tools such as community scorecards, household surveys, and focus group
discussions have proven effective in improving transparency, accountability, and trust in local
governance.
The real-world impact of barangay-level projects on socioeconomic conditions has been
substantiated by empirical studies. Reyes and Domingo (2020), for example, concluded that
infrastructure investments and livelihood programs in small rural barangays contributed
significantly to household-level improvements in income, health access, and educational
attainment. The study identified three key success factors: inclusive targeting of beneficiaries,
timely and efficient implementation, and strong, accountable leadership. Likewise, Flores et al.
(2021) documented the transformative effects of localized development initiatives in the
Zamboanga Peninsula. Their research emphasized that projects addressing healthcare and
livelihood, when coupled with active community involvement in planning and execution, yielded the
most substantial and sustainable benefits.
However, development planning in barangays continues to be plagued by persistent challenges.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP Philippines, 2016) has identified several
structural and systemic obstacles, including limited technical capacity among barangay officials,
inconsistent funding mechanisms, lack of reliable data, political interference, and weak inter-
agency collaboration. These constraints often result in delays, inefficiencies, and suboptimal
outcomes. A case study by Gonzales (2022) focusing on Western Mindanao highlights the
importance of capacity-building among local leaders. Even well-conceived development projects
can falter if barangay officials lack project management training or fail to meaningfully engage the
community throughout the project cycle. These insights are especially relevant for Barangay Pangi
as it navigates the implementation of its own development agenda.
In conclusion, inclusive and effective barangay development requires a multi-dimensional,
evidence-based, and participatory approach. Integrating the specific needs of marginalized groups
such as PWDs, ensuring healthcare and livelihood programs are tailored to local contexts, and
fostering community participation from planning to evaluation are essential for achieving
sustainable and equitable outcomes. The experience of Barangay Pangi offers a microcosmic view
of the broader dynamics at play in local development, providing lessons not only in success but
also in the systemic barriers that must be addressed to build resilient, inclusive communities.
