Robert Sobot

π √
II 2 j I y = + r 2 − x2 A
z2
B r
c y
b
π 0◦
−1 1 a x
−π −π
√
4
b= c2 − a2
z1
√
III 3π −j IV y = − r 2 − x2
2

Engineering
Mathematics
by Example
Vol. I: Algebra and Linear Algebra
Third Edition
Engineering Mathematics by Example
Robert Sobot

Engineering Mathematics by
Example
Vol. I: Algebra and Linear Algebra

Third Edition 2025

Robert Sobot
ETIS-ENSEA
Cergy-Pontoise, France

ISBN 978-3-031-81075-6 ISBN 978-3-031-81076-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021, 2023,
2025

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adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
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even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and
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à Jeanne
Preface

Preface to the Third Edition

This third edition of mathematical problems collection, published in three volumes under the title
of Engineering Mathematics by Example as Vol. I: Algebra and Linear Algebra, Vol. II: Calculus,
and Vol. III: Special Functions and Transformations, is intended for undergraduate level students
in science and engineering programs. In addition, practicing engineers and scientists may use the
collection as the source for self study and refreshing the basic techniques in mathematics.
Second edition of this volume is thoroughly reviewed to refine its existing book structure, to correct
the errors, to improve explanation to the given solutions, and to add more problems and solutions.
All that with the hope to minimize (if not avoid completely) the new errors. Actually, this third
edition of Vol. I has grown up from 588 problems on approximately 300 pages to 869 problems on
approximately 525 pages. The choice of problems was motivated by desire to present classic problem
forms and applicable solving techniques. Each problem is used as a tutorial example to present typical
ideas that have general usability. With no exceptions, all solutions are given with all details and steps,
including the inline reminders of applied ideas and formulas. In addition, problems are organized in
progressively increased difficulty while, occasionally, multiple methods are used to solve the same
problem so that they could be compared.
It is highly recommended that the first attempt to solve each given problem should be without
reading its solution beforehand. Then, if not successful in the first attempt, the second attempt to solve
the same problem should be done after reading its solution and closing the book again. Normally,
each subsequent problem in this collection is a slight advancement of ideas learned in the previous
problems. For that reason, it may be frustrating if too many problems are skipped without actually
solving them. Probably the best results are achieved if the same problem is solved by multiple
techniques learned in other examples, as it is said, all roads must lead to Rome. Thus, the gradual
competence development should be result of a daily routine. Long breaks between working on the
problems, for example if working only one day per week, naturally result in forgetting already used
ideas and increased frustration by the need to re-learn again and again “what was the trick here ?!?”. In
my humble opinion and experience, sporadic and irregular work on mathematical problems inevitably
results in increased frustration and eventual surrender.
My hopes are that my students and readers will find this third edition to be much closer to what
they asked me for. By all means, I will welcome both positive and negative constructive critiques and
possible recommendations for the future editions.

Île-de-France, France Robert Sobot

October 05, 2024

vii
viii Preface

Preface to the Second Edition

It is inevitable that first edition of any type of textbook, and especially textbooks for mathematics,
includes quite a few errors that slipped by all preproduction reviews. In this second edition, errors are
thoroughly reviewed and corrected, with hopes that not many new ones are created.
As the original volume doubled, this second edition is split into three separate books, Vol. I, II,
III. In order to reinforce natural development in the study, best effort is put to logically organize the
presented examples and techniques so that subsequent problems reference the once already solved.

Île-de-France, France Robert Sobot

June 27, 2023

Preface to the First Edition

This tutorial book resulted from my lecture notes developed for undergraduate engineering courses in
mathematics that I teach over the last several years at l’École Nationale Supérieure de l’Électronique
et de ses Applications (ENSEA), Cergy in Val d’Oise department, France.
My main inspiration to write this tutorial type collection of solved problems came from my
students who would often ask “How do I solve this? It is impossible to find the solution.” while
struggling to logically connect all the little steps and techniques that are required to combine together
before reaching solution. In the traditional classical school systems mathematics used to be thought
with the help of systematically organized volumes of problems that help us develop “the way of
thinking”. In other words, to learn how to apply the abstract mathematical concepts to everyday’s
engineering problems. Same as for music, it is also true for mathematics that in order to reach high
level of competence one must put daily effort into studying of typical forms over long period of time.
In this tutorial book I choose to give not only the complete solutions to the given problems, but also
to give guided hints to techniques being used at the given moment. Therefore, problems presented
in this book do not provide review of the rigorous mathematical theory, instead the theoretical
background is assumed, while this set of classic problems provides a playground to play and to adopt
some of the main problem solving techniques.
The intended audience of this book are primarily undergraduate students in science and engineer-
ing. At the same time, my hope is that students of mathematics at any level will find this book to be
useful source of practical problems to practice.

Île-de-France, France Robert Sobot

November 30, 2020
Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge all those classic wonderful collections of mathematical problems that
I grew up with and used as the source of my knowledge, and I would like to say thank you to
their authors for providing me with thousands of problems to work on. Specifically, I would like to
acknowledge classic collections written in ex-Yugoslavian, Russian, English, and French languages,
some are listed in the bibliography. Hence, I do want to acknowledge their contributions that are
clearly visible throughout this book, which are now being passed on to my readers.
I would like to thank all of my former and current students who I had opportunity to tutor in mathe-
matics since my student years. Their relentless stream of questions posed with unconstrained curiosity
forced me to open my mind, to broaden my horizons, and to improve my own understandings.
I want to acknowledge Allen Sobot for reviewing and verifying some of the problems, for very
useful discussions and suggestions, as well as his work on technical redaction of this book.
Sincere gratitude goes to my publisher and editors for their support and making this book possible.

ix
Contents

Part I Algebra
1 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Problems ........................................................................ 4
1.1 Number Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Basic Number Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Fractional Powers and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Indeterminate Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Absolute Numbers and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1 Number Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Basic Number Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Fractional Powers and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Indeterminate Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5 Absolute Numbers and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Problems ........................................................................ 30
2.1 Polynomial Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3 Binomial Theorem (Pascal’s Triangle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5 Difference of Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6 Quadratic Polynomial: Viète Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.7 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.8 Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3 Binomial Theorem (Pascal’s Triangle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4 Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.5 Difference of Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6 Quadratic Polynomial: Viète Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

xi
xii Contents

2.7 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

2.8 Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3 Linear Equations and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Problems ........................................................................ 85
3.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2 System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3 Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4 System of Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2 System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.3 Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.4 System of Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4 Irrational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1 Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.2 Irrational Equations Basic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.1 Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.2 Irrational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Problems ........................................................................ 137
5.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.3 Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.4 Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.5 Exponential-Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.6 Exponential Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.7 Logarithmic Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3 Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.4 Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.5 Exponential-Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.6 Exponential Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.7 Logarithmic Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Part II Trigonometry and Complex Algebra

6 Elements of Analytic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.1 Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Contents xiii

6.2 Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

6.3 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.4 Intersects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.1 Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.2 Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.3 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.4 Intersects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Problems ........................................................................ 276
7.1 Trigonometric Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.2 Basic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.3 Basic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
7.4 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.5 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.1 Trigonometric Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.2 Basic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
7.3 Basic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
7.4 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
7.5 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
8 Complex Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Problems ........................................................................ 318
8.1 Basic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.2 Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
8.3 Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
8.4 Euler Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
8.5 Rational Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
8.6 Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
8.1 Basic Complex Number Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
8.2 Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
8.3 Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.4 Euler Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
8.5 Rational Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
8.6 Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
9 Bode Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
9.1 Basic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
9.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
9.1 Basic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
9.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
xiv Contents

Part III Linear Algebra

10 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Problems ........................................................................ 423
10.1 Vector Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.2 Vector Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
10.3 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
10.4 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
10.5 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
10.6 Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
10.8 Matrix Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
10.1 Vector Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
10.2 Vector Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
10.3 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
10.4 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
10.5 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
10.6 Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
10.8 Matrix Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

A Algebraic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

B Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Acronyms

f (x), g(x) Functions of x

f  (x), g  (x) First derivatives of functions of f (x), g(x)
f (g(x)) Composite function
sin(x) Sine of x
cos(x) Cosine of x
tan(x) Tangent of x
arctan(x) Arctangent of x
sinc (t) Sine cardinal of t
log(x) Logarithm of x, base 10
ln(x) Natural logarithm of x, base e
logn (x) Logarithm of x, base n
x∗y Convolution product
i Imaginary unit, i 2 = −1
j Imaginary unit, j 2 = −1
Im (z) Imaginary part of a complex number z
Re (z) Real part of a complex number z
F (x(t)) Fourier transform of x(t)
X(ω)  Fourier transform of x(t)
L f (t) Laplace transform of f (t)
F (s) Laplace transform of f (t)
F −1 (X(ω))
  Inverse Fourier transform of X(ω)
L −1 F (s) Inverse Laplace transform of F (s)
F
−
→ Apply Fourier transform
LT
−→ Apply Laplace transform
=
l’H
Apply l’Hôpital rule
=
def
By definition equals
= Calculated at t = 0
t=0

DF T Discrete Fourier transform

FFT Fast Fourier transform
δ(x) Dirac distribution
(x) Triangular distribution
(x) Square (rectangular) distribution
XT Dirac comb whose period is T
(t) Heaviside step function of t
u(t) Heaviside step function of t
r(t) Ramp function of t

xv
xvi Acronyms

sign (t) Sign function of t

(a, b) Pair of numbers
(a, b) Open interval
A : (x, y) Point in the space at (x, y) coordinates
AB Line segment AB
AB Line segment AB
x = x2 − x1
def
Another way to write difference between two numbers
≡ Equivalence
{a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . } List of elements, vector, series
{an } List of elements, vector, series
R The set of real numbers
C The set of complex numbers
N The set of natural numbers
Q The set of rational numbers
a∈C Number a is included in the set of complex numbers
a∈R Number a is included in the set of real numbers
∀x For all values of x
 Angle, argument
⇒ It follows that
dy
dx
Derivative of y relative to x
ux Partial derivative of u(x, y, z, . . . ) relative to x
ux,y Second partial derivative of u(x, y, z, . . . ), relative to x then to y
∗
z Complex conjugate of number z
|x| Absolute value of x
< x >, x Average value of x
Am,n Matrix A whose size is m × n
In The identity square matrix whose size is n × n
|A| Determinant of matrix A
AT Transpose of matrix A
 Difference between two variables
 Main determinant of a matrix
x Cramer’s sub-determinant relative to variable x
a Vector a
∞
i=0 ai Sum of elements {a0 , a1 , . . . , a∞ }

S(n) = Sn = ni=1 ai Notations for finite sum of n elements
dB Decibel
dBm Decibel normalized to “10−3 ”, i.e., “milli”
H (j x) Transfer function
x→ a Limiting to a from its right side (x-axis)

x→ a Limiting to a from its left side (x-axis)

x → a Limiting to a from above (y-axis)
x → a Limiting to a from below (y-axis)
a · b, a × b Multiplication operation of a and b
hint In-line hints
∴ Reads as “therefore,” “thus,” etc.
⇒ Reads as “it follows that,” “by consequence,” etc.
 Part I
Algebra
Numbers
1

Basic number operations and rules, assuming a ∈ R and a = 0,

a 0 = 1, (a = 0)
def 1
a −n = , (a = 0)
def

an
a1 = a
def

(a b)n = a n bn
a n = a · a ·
def
a · · · a a n an
= n = a n b−n , (b = 0)
n times b b
n def √
a n+1 = a · a ·
a · · · a = a · a ·
a · · · a · a = a n · a
def
a m = a n , (a ≥ 0)
m

(n+1) times n times  

f (x) ; f (x) ≥ 0
|f (x)| =  
def
a n+m = a · a ·
a · · · a = a · a ·
a · · · a · a · a ·
a · · · a = a n a m
def
−f (x) ; f (x) < 0
(n+m) times n times m times
 n m def n n  n
a = a · a· · · an = a · a· · · a = a n m = a m
m times (n×m) times

Fundamental theorem of arithmetic: Every integer greater than 1 can be decomposed into a product
of prime numbers. A prime number is an integer greater than 1 that cannot be decomposed into a
product of two smaller positive integers.

Prime factorization: is the decomposition of a positive integer into a product of primes.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 3

R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_1
4 1 Numbers

Problems

1.1 Number Factorization

Factorize into prime numbers the integers in P.1.1 to P.1.15.

1.1. 16 1.2. 64 1.3. 4096

1.4. 9 1.5. 243 1.6. 2187

1.7. 5 1.8. 125 1.9. 3125

1.10. 49 1.11. 343 1.12. 2401

1.13. 2310 1.14. 900 1.15. 1925

1.2 Basic Number Operations

Calculate expressions in P.1.16 to P.1.23.

0
1
1.16. 20 1.17.
2

0
√
3 1.19. ( 3 + π − 1)0
1.18. −
8

 3 0
1.20. (cos x)0 , (x = ±π/2) 1.21. e

0 0 0 2
3 π 4 7π 3 π 4 22
1.22. + − − 1.23. + − − 3
2 6 27 9 2 6 27 3

Calculate expressions in P.1.24 to P.1.37.

1.24. (−1)−3 1.25. (−1)125

1.26. (−1)64 1.27. (−1)−2024

1.3 Fractional Powers and Radicals 5

−2
1
1.28. (−2)−3 1.29.
2

−2 −1 −3
1 1 (−2)−3 − (−3)−2 2
1.30. + 1.31.
2 2 (−4)−1 3

−2
(−2)−1 + (−3)−1 900
1.32. 1.33.
(−3)−1 − (−6)−1 1575

−1 −2
343 225
1.34. 1.35.
3773 1225

1.36. −4 × 104 + 2.5 × 105 1.37. 0.5−1 + 0.25−2 + 0.125−3 + 0.0625−4

Calculate expressions in P.1.38 to P.1.41.

1.38. 23000 × 32000 1.39. 3200 × 4−300

1.40. 5−2000 × 23000 1.41. 2187−300 × 81300 × 27300

1.3 Fractional Powers and Radicals

Calculate expressions in P.1.42 to P.1.53.

1.42. 8− 3 1.44. 2401− 4

1 1 1
1.43. 125 3

1
− 43 3
16 2 1 1 2
1.45. 1.46. 1.47.
25 27 2−6

− 25 1.49. 3 1 0.375
1
1 −2
2
1.48. 8 3 1.50.
1024 + 256
4 27

1.51. 0.25−0.5 1.52. 25− 2 1.53. 0.001− 3

3 1
6 1 Numbers

Convert fractional into the equivalent root forms of expressions given in P.1.54 to P.1.65.

1.54. x − 5 1.55. x − 20 y − 15
2 3 7

x− 2 y 4
1 2 1 3
1.56. x 8 y 25
1.57.
z− 8 v 3
7 5

x− 2
5  −0.75
z− 12
7 2 5
1.58. 3
1.59. x 3 y 12
y 4

  2 1
1.61. x 3 x 4 x −1
2 3
1 n−1
1.60. x n x n−1 ÷ x n

 5 2 7
3 4 5
1.62. x 2 y 5 z 6 ÷ x 4 y 3 z 12  3 2 − 13  1 − 23
1.63. x4 ÷ x −1 2

 3 − 13  
2  12 − 23  1 6 − 26  − 23
1.64. x4 ÷ x −1 1.65. x− 4 ÷ x− 2
1

Calculate expressions in P.1.66 to P.1.73.

√
3
√
4
1.66. 27 1.67. 256

√
3

3
1.68. 216 1.69. 27,000

  
√
1.71. x x x √ √
2
1.70. 3
4a 2 b 3 3
x x x

√ √ √
√ √
x x x

1.72.
1.73. a 3x−4 a 1−x a 3−x
xn ÷ xa
a n

1.4 Indeterminate Forms

Calculate and/or discuss expressions in P.1.74 to P.1.82.

1.74. 1∞ 1.75. 00 1.76. 0 · ∞

1.5 Absolute Numbers and Expressions 7

1.77. ∞0 1.78. ∞ − ∞ ∞
1.79.
∞

1.80.
0 27(23 − 8) 1.82.
1.81. 1 1
0 1 − 27 · 3−3 (−2)−3 +
8 64 − 26

1.5 Absolute Numbers and Expressions

Calculate expressions in P.1.84 to P.1.92.

1.83. |x| = 5 1.84. |x − 3| = 7

|x| 1.86. |3 − x| > 4

1.85.
x

1.87. |x 2 − 1| = 1 1.88. ||x| − 5| > 4

|x| + x |x| + 2x
1.89. 1.90. + |x| + x
2 3

|x − |2x|| |x − 2| x−2+|x−2| 2
x−2−|x−2| 2
1.91. − >0 1.92. +
|x| + x |x| + 1 2 2
8 1 Numbers

Answers

The basic number theory, starting with the multiplication/division table, is the first prerequisite for
any work in mathematics. Mastering mental numerical calculations is the very first step in developing
practical sense for the abstract structures in mathematics that are eventually associated with the
physical world. Prime numbers are the basic building blocks of all integers, and there are many
different ways to decompose (factorize) an integer into its prime factors. The list of prime numbers
that are less than 100 should be familiar to all engineers/scientists. Most basic factorization technique
is to apply the divisibility rules by 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, and 11. That is, an integer number is divisible

(a) by 2 if it is even, i.e., its last digit is 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8.

(b) by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
(c) by 5 if its last digit is 0 or 5.
(d) by 7; there are many rules. For example, subtracting two times the last digit from the rest gives a
multiple of 7, i.e., 224 is divisible by 7 because 22 − (2 × 4) = 14, and 14 = 2 × 7 is divisible
by 7.
(e) by 10 if the last digit is 0.
(f) by 11; there are many rules, such as subtract the last digit from the rest and the result is divisible
by 11. For example, 1452 is divisible by 11 because 145−2 = 143, then 14−3 = 11 is obviously
divisible by 11.

The prime decomposition of a given integer may be done by systematically applying these rules until
the factorization product contains only prime numbers.

Reminder: Within the first hundred integers, the following are prime:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97

Note that number 1 is considered special and not included in the prime numbers list.

1.1 Number Factorization

1.1. The last digit is 6; thus, 16 is divisible by 2, then the systematic iterative application of
the division rules leads into:

16 = 2 × (8) = 2 × (2 × 4) = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 24

The only prime factor is 2, and evidently, 16 is the fourth power of 2, or, equivalently, 2 is the
fourth root of 16.

1.2. The last digit is 4 (which is an even number); thus, 64 is divisible by 2, then the
systematic iterative application of the division rules leads into:
1.1 Number Factorization 9

64 = 2 × (32) = 2 × (2 × 16) = 2 × 2 × (2 × 8)
= 2 × 2 × 2 × (2 × 4) = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
= 26

The only prime factor of 64 is 2, and evidently, 64 is the sixth power of 2, or, equivalently, two
is the sixth root of 64.

1.3. The last digit is 6 (which is an even number); thus, 4096 is divisible by 2, then the
systematic iterative application of the division rules leads into:

4096 = 2 × 2048 = 2 × 2 × 1024 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 512

= 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 256 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 128
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 64 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 32
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 8
=2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×4=2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2
×2×2×2
= 212

The only prime factor of 4096 is 2, and evidently 4096 is the 12th power of 2, or, equivalently,
2 is the 12th root of 4096.

1.4. Simple multiplication table contains the product 3 × 3 = 9, that is, 9 = 32 . Thus, the
only prime factor of 9 is 3, and evidently 9 is the square of 3, or, equivalently, 3 is the square
root of 9.

1.5. The last digit of 243 is not even; thus, 243 is not divisible by 2. The sum of its digits is
2 + 4 + 3 = 9 = 3 × 3 which is evidently divisible by 3. Thus, iterative application of the
division rules gives
 
243 = 3 × 81 again, not even but 8 + 1 = 9 = 3 × 3 × 27 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 9
= 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 35

The only prime factor of 243 is 3, and evidently, 243 is the fifth power of 3, or, equivalently, 3
is the fifth root of 243.

1.6. The last digit of 2187 is not even; thus, 2187 is not divisible by 2. The sum of its digits
is 2 + 1 + 8 + 7 = 18 = 3 × 6 which is evidently divisible by 3. Thus, iterative application of
the division rules gives
 
2187 = 3 × 729 again, not even but 7 + 2 + 9 = 18 = 3 × 6
10 1 Numbers

= 3 × 3 × 243 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 81 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 27 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 9
= 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 37

The only prime factor of 2187 is 3, and evidently 2187 is the seventh power of three , or,
equivalently, 3 is the seventh root of 2187.

1.7. Number 5 is a prime number, and therefore its only prime factor as 5 = 5 × 1.

1.8. The last digit of 125 is 5; thus, 125 is divisible by 5. Iterative application of the division
rules gives
 
125 = 5 × 25 again, the last digit is five = 5 × 5 × 5 = 53

The only prime factor of 125 is 5, and evidently, 125 is the third power of 5, or, equivalently,
5 is the third root of 125.

1.9. The last digit of 3125 is 5; thus, 3125 is divisible by 5. Iterative application of the division
rules gives
 
3125 = 5 × 625 again, the last digit is 5 = 5 × 5 × 125 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 25
=5×5×5×5×5
= 55

The only prime factor of 3125 is 5, and evidently 3125 is the fifth power of 5, or, equivalently,
5 is the fifth root of 3125.

1.10. Simple multiplication table contains the product 7 × 7 = 49, that is, 49 = 72 . Thus,
the only prime factor of 49 is 7, and evidently 49 is the square of 7, or, equivalently, 7 is the
square root of 49.

1.11. The last digit is 3 (which is an odd number); thus, 343 is not divisible by 2. The sum of
its digits is 3 + 4 + 3 = 10, which is not divisible by 3. The last digit is neither 0 nor 5; thus,
343 is not divisible neither by 5 nor by 10. Subtracting two times the last digit from the rest
gives 34 − (2 × 3) = 28 = 4 × 7, which is to say that 343 is divisible by 7. Then the systematic
iterative application of the division rules leads into:

343 = 7 × 49 = 7 × 7 × 7 = 73

The only prime factor of 343 is 7, and evidently, 343 is the cube power of 7 or, equivalently, 7
is the cube root of 343.
1.1 Number Factorization 11

1.12. The last digit is 1 (which is an odd number); thus, 2401 is not divisible by 2. The sum
of its digits is 2 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 7, which is not divisible by 3. The last digit is neither 0 nor 5;
thus, 2401 is not divisible neither by 5 nor by 10. Subtracting two times the last digit from the
rest gives 240 − (2 × 1) = 238 = 7 × 34, which is to say that 2401 is divisible by 7. Then the
systematic iterative application of the division rules leads into:
 
2401 = 7 × 343 = see A.1.11 = 7 × 73 = 74

The only prime factor of 2401 is 7, and evidently 2401 is the fourth power of 7, or, equivalently,
7 is the fourth root of 343.

1.13. The last digit is 0 (which is an even number); thus, 2310 is divisible by 2, by 5, and
consequently by 10 (whose prime factors are 2 and 5). Then the systematic iterative application
of the division rules leads into:

2310 = 10 × 231 = 2 × 5 × 231

 
2 + 3 + 1 = 6 = 3 × 2, which is divisible by three
= 2 × 5 × 3 × 77
 
see multiplication table
= 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 11

The five unique prime factors of 2310 are 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11.

1.14. The last digit is 0 (which is an even number); thus, 900 is divisible by 2, by 5, and
consequently by 10 (whose prime factors are 2 and 5). Then the systematic iterative application
of the division rules leads into:

900 = 10 × 9 = 2 × 5 × 3 × 3
= 2 × 32 × 5

The three unique prime factors of 900 are 2, 3, and 5, where 32 is the only duplicity among the
three factors.

1.15. The last digit is 5 (which is an odd number); thus 1925 is not divisible by 2. The sum
of its digits is 1 + 9 + 2 + 5 = 17, which is not divisible by 3. The last digit is 5; thus, 1925 is
divisible by 5. Then the systematic iterative application of the division rules leads into:
 
1925 = 5 × 385 = again, divisible by 5 = 5 × 5 × 77 = 52 × 7 × 11

The three unique prime factors of 1925 are 5, 7, and 11, where 52 is the only duplicity among
the three factors.
12 1 Numbers

1.2 Basic Number Operations

1.16. By definition, as long as the base not equal zero nor infinity, zero powers equal one, as
20 = 1

0
1
1.17. See P.1.16, thus =1
2

0
3
1.18. − =1
8

√
1.19. ( 3 + π − 1)0 = 1

1.20. Excluding the case 00 , i.e.(x = ±π/2), then (cos x)0 = 1

 3 0  m 
1.21. e = an = a n m = e3 · 0 = e0 = 1

0 0
3 π 4 7π
1.22. + − − =1−1=0
2 6 27 9

0 2
3 π 4 22
1.23. + − − 3 = 1 − 02 = 1
2 6 27 3

1.24. Powers of negative numbers are negative if the exponent is odd (because of non-
complete pairs of negative signs in the total product), and positive of the exponent is even
(because of complete pairs of negative signs in the total product)
 
−3 1 1 1 1
(−1) = a −n = n , (a = 0)
def
= = = = −1
a (−1)3 (−1)(−1)(−1) −1

1.25. Powers of negative numbers are negative if the exponent is odd; thus
 
(−1)125 = the exponent is odd = −1

1.26. Powers of negative numbers are positive if the exponent is even; thus
 
(−1)64 = the exponent is even = 1
1.2 Basic Number Operations 13

1.27. Powers of negative numbers are positive if the exponent is even; thus

1  
(−1)−2024 = 2024
= the exponent is even = 1
(−1)

  1 1
1.28. (−2)−3 = (−1 · 2)−3 = (a b)n = a n bn = (−1)−3 (2)−3 = (−1) 3 = −
2 8

−2  
1 −n 1
1.29. = a = n = 22 = 4
2 a

−2 −1
1 1
1.30. + = 22 + 2 = 6
2 2

1.31. While respecting the priority of arithmetic operations, double fractions, sign and parity
of the exponents, it follows that

−3
(−2)−3 − (−3)−2 2 (−1/2)3 − (−1/3)2 3 3
= ×
(−4)−1 3 −1/4 2
−1/8 − 1/9 27 1 1 27
= × = + × 4
×
−1/4 8 8 9 8
2
17 27 17 × 3 × 9A 51
= × = =
72 2 9A × 8 × 2 16

1.32. Negative exponent identity: a −n ≡ 1/a n , thus

(−2)−1 + (−3)−1 1 1 1 1 5 1
−1 −1
= − − ÷ − + =− ÷ −
(−3) − (−6) 2 3 3 6 6 6
 
a c ad 5
÷ = = × 6A = 5
b d bc 6A

1.33. Fractions with large numbers are very much simplified after prime factorization, as

−2 2
900 1575
=
1575 900

where

1575 = 5 × 315 = 5 × 5 × 63 = 5 × 5 × 3 × 21 = 5 × 5 × 3 × 3 × 7
 
900 = see A.1.14 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 5
14 1 Numbers

so that
 2
1575 2
32 × 5A × 5 × 7 5×5×7×7   352
= = = as simple as possible =
900 2 × 32 × 5A 2×2 4

1.34. Given fraction,

−1
343 3773
=
3773 343

as 377 − (2 × 3) = 371 = 7 × 51 prime factorization leads to

 
3773 = 7 × 539 = 53 − (2 × 9) = 35 = 7 × 5 = 7 × 7 × 77 = 7 × 7 × 7 × 11 = 73 × 11

and see A.1.11, 343 = 73 , so that

3773 7
73
× 11
= = 11
343 73

1.35. Given fraction

−2 2
225 1225
=
1225 225

as,

1225 = 5 × 245 = 5 × 5 × 49 = 5 × 5 × 7 × 7
225 = 5 × 45 = 5 × 5 × 9 = 5 × 5 × 3 × 3

then,
 2
2 4
1225 52 × 72 7
= =
225 52 × 32 3

1.36. Numbers with the equal powers are easier to operate with

−4 × 104 + 2.5 × 105 = −4 × 104 + 2.5 × 10 × 104

= −4 × 104 + 25 × 104 = 21 × 104 = 2.1 × 105

1.37. Fractions are often easier to use then decimal, so that

−1 −2 −3 −4
1 1 1 1
0.5−1 + 0.25−2 + 0.125−3 + 0.0625−4 = + + +
2 4 8 16
1.3 Fractional Powers and Radicals 15

= 2 + 42 + 83 + 164 = 2 + (22 )2 + (23 )3 + (24 )4

= 2 + 24 + 29 + 216 = 2 + 16 + 512 + 65536
= 66066 (note the powers of two)

1.38. Exceedingly, large powers may surpass limits of calculators (try you phone calculator
app here). Instead they are simplified, for example, by converting to the same exponent as

23000 × 32000 = (23 )1000 × (32 )1000 = 81000 × 91000 = 721000

1.39. Following the same idea as in A.1.38,

200
3200 3200 3200 3200 3
3200 × 4−300 = 3 100
= 100 = 2 100 = 200 =
(4 ) 64 (8 ) 8 8

1000
(23 )1000 8
1.40. 5−2000 × 23000 = =
(52 )1000 25

1.41. Given product

2187−300 × 81300 × 27300

may be simplified by prime factorization as

81300 × 27300 (34 )300 × (33 )300 (37 )300 

32100

= = = =1
2187300 (37 )300 (37 )300 32100


1.3 Fractional Powers and Radicals

Fractional powers are equivalent to roots, and they obey the same rules as “ordinary” powers.

1.42. Given fractional power is resolved in the root form as

 n √  1 1
8− 3 = a m
1
= a n , (a ≥ 0) = √ =
def m
3
8 2

because 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23 or, equivalently, as

 
− 13 −n 1 1 1  n m  n  1 1
8 = a = n , (a = 0)
def
= = = a = an m = am = H =
a 8
1
3 (23 ) 3
1
H1
23/3 2
16 1 Numbers

1.43. Given fractional power is resolved as

 n m  n 
= 5H
H1 = 5
1 1 1
125 3 = (5 × 5 × 5) 3 = (53 ) 3 = a = an m = am 3/3

1.44. Given fractional power is resolved as

 
1 1   1 1
2401− 4 =
1
−n = = see A.1.12 = =
= n , (a = 0)
def
a 1 1
a 2401 7
4
(74C ) 4C

1.45. Given fractional power is resolved in the root form as

1  √
16 2 16 16 4
= =√ =
25 25 25 5

1.46. Given fractional power is resolved as

− 43
1 4  4 
3× 4

= 27 3 = 33 3 = 3 3 = 34 = 81
27

1.47. Given fractional power is resolved as

3
 3  m 
= a n m = 2  2 = 29 = 512
1 2 63 3
= 26 2 = a n
2−6

1.48. Given fractional power is resolved as

− 25
1 2  2 10 2 × 2
= 1024 5 = 210 5 = 2 5 = 24 = 16

1024

1.49. Given fractional power is resolved as

2
− 32 
2 2
1 8 3 3 23 3  3 2 3×
 2
 = 2 2×
3
3
4
+ =4 + 2 = 22 2 +  +
4 27 33 3 9
4 8×9+4 76 2 × 38 2
× 2
× 19
=8+ = = = = = 19
9 9 4 2×2 2
× 2

1.50. Decimal numbers are transformed into fractions as

375 5 × 75 5
× 3 × Z
Z
25 3
0.375 = = = =
1000 10 × 100 2 × 5
× 4 × Z
Z 8
25
1.3 Fractional Powers and Radicals 17

as well as,
256 = 2 × 128 = 2 × 2 × 64 = 2 × 2 × 26 = 28

so that,


3 3
0.375 8×
1 1 8 1  =1
8
= =
256 28 2 8

1.51. A simple rational to root form transformation leads into

− 12 √
−0.5 1 1
0.25 = = 42 = 4=2
4

1.52. A simple rational to root form transformation leads into

 − 3  2
2× −3
1 1
25− 2 = 52 2 = 5 −3
3
 =5 = 3 =
5 125

1.53. Fractional power of decimal numbers are straightforward to convert by following the
number of zeros and/or decimal places

 − 1 −3 1 −1
0.001− 3 = 10−3 3 = 10
1
 = 10 = 101 = 10
3 (−1)(−1)

Mastering “engineering prefixes” (e.g., milli, micro, kilo, mega, etc.) and the corresponding
powers of ten are one of basic prerequisites in engineering mathematics.

1.54. Fractional powers to root form transformations may be done as

1
 − 1 1 5 1 1
x− 5 = x2 5 =
2
=  1 = √
x2 x 2 5
5
x2

1.55. Fractional powers to root form transformations and their products may be done as
1 1
 − 1  − 1 1 20 1 15 1 1 1
x − 20 y − 15 = x 3 20 y 7 15 =
3 7
=  1  1 = √ 
x3 y7 x 3 20 y 7 15
20
x 3 15 y 7

1.56. Fractional powers to root form transformations and their products may be done as
1 2 √ 
x 8 y 25 = 8
x 25 y 2
18 1 Numbers

1.57. Fractional powers to root form transformations and their products or ratios may be done
as

1  1
− 12 √ 4 y3 3 √  √ 
8 7 4
x y x 4 x 4 y3 z y3
5 = = √ = √ √
z− 8 v 3
7
1 √3 1 3 v5 3
x v5
√
8 7
v 5 √
8 7
z z

1.58. Fractional powers to root form transformations and their products or ratios may be done
as

x− 2
5
1 1 1 1
z− 12 =
7
3 5 3 7 =√  √
y 4 x 2 y 4 z 12 x 5 4
y 3 12 z7

1.59. Fractional or decimal powers to root form transformations and their products or ratios
may be done as

 −0.75  2 5 − 34 − 2 
31
− 5

3
1
= x − 2 y − 16 = √ 
2 5 1 5
= x 3 y 12 =x
4
x 3 y 12 
3 42 y

12 4

x 16 y 5

1.60. Fractional powers may be resolved as

  2 1  a    2 − n−1
1

= a ÷ b = = a b−1 = x n x n−1 x n
1 n−1 1
x n x n−1 ÷ x n
b

n m
a a = a m+n n2
= x n+ n−1 x − n−1
1
=  m
a n
=a nm

  − 1
x − n−1 = a n a m = a m+n = x
n−1
= x 
(n−1)
n2 −n+1 n2 n2 −n+1−n2
=x n−1 
n −1

1
= x −1 =
x

1.61. Simple fractional power transformations lead into

  √
x 3 x 4 x −1 = a n a m = a m+n = x 3 + 4 −1 = x 12 = x 5
2 3 2 3 5 12

1.62. Simple fractional power transformations lead into

  
3 4 5 5 2 7
−n 1 a c a d
x y z ÷ x y z
2 5 6 4 3 12 = a = n, ÷ =
a b d b c
√  √
= x 2 − 4 y 5 − 3 z 6 − 12 = x 4 y 15 z 4 =
3 5 4 2 5 7 1 2 1
4
y 15 y 2 4 z
1.3 Fractional Powers and Radicals 19

1.63. Simple fractional power transformations lead into

 2 − 13   12 − 23  3 − 23   12 2

x −1 x −1 = x − 12 x − 6 = x − 2 − 3
3 3 6 2 1 1
x4 ÷ = x4

1
= x− 6 = √
5

6
x5

1.64. Simple fractional power transformations lead into

 − 13   
2  12 − 23 a c a d
x −1 C 4C 2 ) 2C (−1/3) C (2/3)
C x (−1) (1/2) C
3
x4 ÷ = ÷ = = x (3/
b d b c
1
= x− 2 − 3 = x− 6 = √
1 1 5

6
x5

1.65. Given expression is gradually simplified as

 

 − 2 

 
 − 231  1 1

 x− 4 2 C C ÷  x− 2
1 6 6 1 1 2
1 1 1 2
  = x2 ÷ x3 = x2 ÷ x3

 1 1

= x 4 ÷ x 12 = x 4 x − 12
1 4 1 1 1 1
= x4 ÷ x3

C 21
√
4 − 12
1 1 1 1 1 1
=x = xA = x6 = x2 3 =
12 6 x3 = 6
x

where the final result is shown in a few equivalent forms.

1.66. Simple roots are resolved by the multiplication table, as

√ √ √  n √   1

27 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 33 = a m = m a n , (a ≥ 0) = 33C 3C = 31 = 3
3 3 3 def

1.67. Power of two sequences are other structures to keep in mind, (see A.1.1 to A.1.3)

√ √4
 n √ 

16 2

256 = 28 = a m = m a n , (a ≥ 0) = 2 8 = 22 = 4
4 def

or, equivalently
√ √  1    1  1

28 = 24+4 = 24+4 4 = a m+n = a n a m = 24 4 24 4 = 2 · 2 = 4

4 4
=
20 1 Numbers

1.68. Factorizations are used to decompose numbers and rearrange the products as
√ √ √ √ √
216 = 2 × 108 = 2 × 2 × 54 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 27 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3
3 3 3 3 3

√ √ √3 C
31

= 2 × 3 × 2 × 3 × 2 × 3 = 6 × 6 × 6 = 63 = 6 3C = 6
3 3

Note that divisibility by 3 and 2 means also divisibility by 6. That is true because 2 and 3 are
prime factors of 6. In general, if a number is divisible by a non-prime number, then it is also
divisible by the factors of that non-prime number.

1.69. Powers of 10 are straightforward; follow the number of zeros as

 √    √3
√3
27,000 = 27 × 1000 = 27 × 103 = (a b)n = a n bn = 33 103 = 3 × 10 = 30
3 3 3

1.70. Often, only partial simplification is possible as

√ 2 √ √  √
3
=
3
24 a 4 b2 = 2 · 23 a 3 a b2 = 3 2(2a)3 a b2 = 2a 2ab2
3 3
4a 2 b

1.71. Roots are easier to handle in the form of fractional powers; thus, starting from most
inner roots, these nested structures are resolved as
    
  n 
√ √ √ 1 3 1
x x x x x x = a m = a , (a ≥ 0) = x x x x
3 3 def m
n 3 xx2
  
 n m  4 3 3
= a a = a n+m = x x x 3 x 2

 n m  C
42 1

3 1

= a = a n m = x xx 3 2C x 2 3



14 7

= x x 3 x 2 = x x 3 2 x 2 = x 1+ 6 + 2 = x 6 3
5 1 5 1 1 5 1

7 1 1 √
= x 3 = x 2+ 3 = x 2 x 3 = x 2 3 x

1.72. Basic power rules are applied in general as

√ √ n2 −a 2
x n ÷ x a = x a ÷ x n = x a x − n = x an = x an
a n n a n a (n−a)(n+a)

1.73. Basic power rules are applied in general as

√ √ √  n √  3x−4 1−x 3−x
a 3x−4 a 1−x a 3−x = a m = m a n , (a ≥ 0) = a x a x a x
x x x def
1.4 Indeterminate Forms 21

  C
x

= a n a m = a n+m = a  x  = a xC = a, (x = 0)
3x−4+1−x+3−x

1.4 Indeterminate Forms

1.74. Strictly speaking, there is ∞ term in the expression; thus, one argument may be that
therefore 1∞ is not defined. However, equally valid argument is that this case is special
because number one is the neutral element for multiplication, thus 1∞ = 1 · 1 · 1 · · · = 1. The
answer depends on the context. In the higher level mathematical theory, rigorous comparing
of infinities is still in the research domain, thus not considered here.

1.75. Any number to the power of zero is assumed equal one, that is to say including 00 = 1.
However, again, depending on the context, this expression may be declared undefined.

1.76. Expression 0 · ∞ is not defined. That is to say, this product may produce any arbitrary
number as the result. For example, consider the following two cases:

(10) · (10) = 100 (2) · (3) = 6

10 2
(10 · 100) = 100 (3 · 200) = 6
100 200
10 2
(10 · 1000) = 100 (3 · 2000) = 6
1000 2000
(· · · ) (· · · ) = 100 (· · · ) (· · · ) = 6
10 2
(10 · ∞) = 100 (3 · ∞) = 6
∞ ∞
(0) (∞) = 100 (0) (∞) = 6

Which is to say that by starting with any arbitrary product of two numbers, it is possible to
show that limit of 0 · ∞ product does not change, for example, 100 or 6 or anything else.
This is because any nonzero number divided by infinity equal zero and any nonzero number
multiplied by infinity equal infinity.

1.77. The form of “∞0 ” is assumed undefined. Through the properties of logarithmic
function, this power form may be converted into 0/0 or 0 · ∞, thus normally declared
undefined.

1.78. Difference of two infinite terms “ ∞ − ∞” is undetermined. Comparing different

infinites is still in the research domain.

1.79. Ratio of two infinite terms “∞/∞” is a classic undefined form. With simple algebra, it
can be converted into “0/0” form, because 1/0 = ∞ and vice versa.
22 1 Numbers

1.80. Ratio of two 0 terms “0/0” is a classic undefined form. With simple algebra, it can be
converted into “∞/∞” form. (Recall that 1/0 = ∞ and 1/∞ = 0.)

1.81. Often, after following the priorities of operations, the result is in undermined form

27(23 − 8) 27(0) 0
−3
= = (undefined)
1 − 27 · 3 1 − 27/27 0

1.82. Often, after following the priorities of operations, the result is in undermined form

1 1 1 1 1
(−2)−3 + = − + = 0 · ∞ (undefined)
8 64 − 26 8 8 0

1.5 Absolute Numbers and Expressions

1.83. By definition, the absolute value of a number is simply its distance to the origin point.
That is to say, there are always two numbers with that property, one on the left (i.e., negative)
and one on the right (i.e., positive) side of 0. For example,

x<0 ⇒ x = −5
|x| = 5 ⇒
x≥0 ⇒x=5

because both “+5” and “−5” are five units distance from zero. In practice, for each absolute
value term within the given expression, there are two distinct equations to solve.

1.84. As same as for the simple numbers, any expression within the absolute value is resolved
by two equations. First, on the negative side, the absolute brackets are replaced with the
ordinary brackets with the negative sign in front. Then, on the positive side, the absolute
brackets are simply replaced with the ordinary brackets as
 
f (x) < 0 : |f (x)| = − f (x)
|f (x)| =  
def

f (x) ≥ 0 : |f (x)| = f (x)

which gives two equations to solve. In this example, f (x) = x − 3, so that two interval
conditions are found as

x−3<0⇒x <3 ∴ |x − 3| = −(x − 3)

|x − 3| ∴
x−3≥0⇒x ≥3 ∴ |x − 3| = x − 3

then, two equations are solved as

1.5 Absolute Numbers and Expressions 23

Fig. 1.1 P.1.84, two distinct solutions of |x − 3| = 7 equation, one assuming x < 3 and one assuming x ≥ 3

Fig. 1.2 P.1.85, sign (x) is

a piecewise linear function
with one discontinuity at
x=0

x<3: −(x − 3) = 7 ∴ x − 3 = −7 ∴ x1 = −4
|x − 3| = 7 ∴
x≥3: x − 3 = 7 ∴ x2 = 10

Therefore, there are two discrete solutions, x1 = −4 if (x < 3), and x2 = 10 if (x ≥ 3); see
Fig. 1.1. In both cases, the |x − 3| = 7 is correct, as

| − 4 − 3| = 7 ⇒ | − 7| = 7 
|10 − 3| = 7 ⇒ |7| = 7 

1.85. Given expression may be simplified as follows. Once two equations are separated, the
possible indefinite forms must be respected and the list of conditions updated, as, for example,
division 0 by 0,
⎧ ⎫
⎪ |x| x ⎪
⎪
⎪ x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x ∴ = = 1 (x = 0) ⎪
⎪
|x| ⎨ x x ⎬
= = sign (x)
x ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ x < 0 :⇒ |x| = −x |x| −x ⎪
∴ = = −1 (x = 0) ⎭
x x

Indeed, this |x|/x = x/|x| = ±1 ratio is known as sign (x) function. By convention sign (0) =
0, see Fig. 1.2.

1.86. An inequality with abs function is split into two inequalities, thus two intervals as the
solutions,

3−x ≥0⇒x ≤3 ∴ |3 − x| = 3 − x ∴ 3 − x > 4 ∴ x < −1

|3 − x| > 4
3−x <0⇒x >3 ∴ |3 − x| = −(3 − x) ∴ −(3 − x) > 4 ∴ x > 7

Therefore, instead of unique numbers, there are two intervals x ∈ [−∞, −1] and x ∈ [7, +∞]
that satisfy given inequality; see Fig. 1.3. That is to say, any number inferior than “−1” or
superior to “+7” is valid solution.
24 1 Numbers

Fig. 1.3 P.1.86, inequality

solutions are intervals
where determined by
constrains of the problem

Fig. 1.4 P.1.88—graphical interpretations of inequality

1.87. Higher-order functions have multiple zeros; thus, there are multiple solutions for the
two equations to be solved. In this example, f (x) = x 2 − 1 by itself has two zeros, and
therefore the interval conditions are resolved as
√
x2 − 1 < 0 ⇒ x < 1 ∴ |x 2 − 1| = −(x 2 − 1)
|x − 1| ∴
2
x2 − 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 3 ∴ |x 2 − 1| = x 2 − 1

then, in each case, the quadratic equation is solved as

√
x< 1: ∴ −(x 2 − 1) = 1 ∴ x 2 + 1 = −1 ∴ x1,2 = 0
|x − 1| = 1 ∴
2
√
x≥3 ∴ x 2 − 1 = 1 ∴ x3,4 = ± 2

Therefore, one within each interval, there √ are two sets of discrete solutions, x1,2 = 0
(multiplicity of two) if (x < 3) and x3,4 = ± 2 (two unique roots) if (x ≥ 3).

Reminder: The fundamental theorem of algebra states that every n order polynomial
has exactly n roots in total, complex or real. Thus, second-order polynomial must have
two roots, counting for multiplicity.

1.88. There are two nested abs functions: |x| and ||x| − 5|; thus, in total, there are four
possible cases in

||x| − 5| > 4

systematically decomposed as follows starting with the inner abs function:

1.5 Absolute Numbers and Expressions 25

Fig. 1.5 P.1.89, ramp

function equals 0 for the
negative arguments and
follows linear x for
positive arguments

x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x

x − 5 < 0 ⇒ |x − 5| = −(x − 5) ∴ −x + 5 > 4 ∴ x<1

∴ |x − 5| > 4
x − 5 ≥ 0 ⇒ |x − 5| = x − 5 ∴ x − 5 > 4 ∴ x>9

x < 0 ⇒ |x| = −x

− x − 5 < 0 ⇒ | − x − 5| = −(−x − 5) ∴ x + 5 > 4 ∴ x > −1

∴ | − x − 5| > 4
− x − 5 ≥ 0 ⇒ | − x − 5| = −x − 5 ∴ −x − 5 > 4 ∴ x < −9

These four resulting inequalities must be satisfied at the same time; thus, the three intervals
where x is located are summarized as (see Fig. 1.4a)

x ∈ [−∞, −9] and x ∈ [−1 ≤ x ≤ 1] and x ∈ [9, +∞]

Note that the solution is not unique number, instead the intervals of solutions. This conclusion
may be verified by plotting ||x| − 5| vs. ”4.” The three regions where ||x| − 5| > 4 is satisfied
are clearly visible; see Fig. 1.4b. Any number inferior than “−9,” or within (−1, 1) interval,
or superior than “+9” satisfies given inequality.

1.89. Given function is simplified as

⎧ ⎫
⎪ |x| + x x+x 2Ax
⎪
⎨ x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x
⎪ ∴ = = =x⎪
⎪
⎪
⎬
|x| + x 2 2 2A
= = ramp (x)
2 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ x < 0 ⇒ |x| = −x |x| + x −x + x 0 ⎪
∴ = = = 0⎭
2 2 2

This is one of possible definitions for the function known as the ramp (x); see Fig. 1.5.

1.90. Given expression may be simplified as follows:

26 1 Numbers

Fig. 1.6 P.1.90, piecewise

linear function that
changes its slope at the
origin, thus that is a point
where limits (and by
extension, derivatives) are
not defined

⎧
⎪ |x| + 2x x + 2x
⎪
⎪ x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x|=x ∴ + |x| + x= + x + x=3x
|x| + 2x ⎨ 3 3
+ |x| + x=
3 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ x < 0 ⇒ |x|= − x |x| + 2x −x + 2x x
∴ + |x| + x= − x + x=
3 3 3

This result is an example of a general “piecewise linear” function; see Fig. 1.6.

1.91. Given inequality

|x − |2x|| |x − 2|
− >0
|x| + x |x| + 1

may be systematically decomposed as follows:

x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x ∴ |x| + x = x + x = 2x and, |2x| = 2x

⎧
⎪
⎨ (x − 2x) ≥ 0 ⇒ | − x| ≥ 0 ∴ x≥0 
∴ (x − 2x) < 0 ⇒ | − x| < 0 ∴ n.a.
⎪
⎩
(an absolute value is always positive)

∴
|x − |2x|| |x − 2x| | − x| x1 1
= = =
=
|x| + x x+x 2x 2 xA 2
|x − |2x|| |x − |2x||
x < 0 ⇒ |x| = −x ∴ |x| + x = −x + x = 0 ∴ = = ∞ ∴ n.a.
|x| + x 0

and,

x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x ∴ |x| + 1 = x + 1

(x − 2) ≥ 0 ⇒ |x − 2| = x − 2 ∴ x≥2
|x − 2| =
(x − 2) < 0 ⇒ |x − 2| = −(x − 2) ∴ x<2

In summary, as x ≥ 0, (otherwise, inequality is not defined due to infinity term) then

1.5 Absolute Numbers and Expressions 27

Fig. 1.7 P.1.91, solution

interval where given
function is strictly positive
is in x ∈ (1, 5)

(a) 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 : note that within given interval (x + 1) > 0

|x − |2x|| |x − 2|
− >0
|x| + x |x| + 1
1 −(x − 2)
− >0
2 x+1
(x + 1) + 2(x − 2)
>0
2(x + 1)
3(x − 1)
>0 ⇒ x>1
2(x + 1)

(b) x ≥ 2 : note that within given interval (x + 1) > 0

|x − |2x|| |x − 2|
− >0
|x| + x |x| + 1
1 x−2
− >0
2 x+1
(x + 1) − 2(x − 2)
>0
2(x + 1)
5−x
>0 ⇒x<5
2(x + 1)

These sub-inequalities must be satisfied at the same time; see Fig. 1.7.

|x − |2x|| |x − 2|
− >0 ∴ x ∈ (1, 5)
|x| + x |x| + 1

1.92. Given expression

2 2
x − 2 + |x − 2| x − 2 − |x − 2|
+
2 2
28 1 Numbers

may be simplified as follows. Absolute function |x − 2| term is decomposed into two cases as

(a) x − 2 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 2 ⇒ |x − 2| = (x − 2)

2 2
x − 2 + |x − 2| x − 2 − |x − 2| x − 2 + (x − 2) 2 x − 2 − (x − 2) 2
+ = +
2 2 2 2
$ %2 $ %2
2A(x−2) x−2A−x+ A0

2
= +
= (x − 2)2
2A 2

(b) x − 2 < 0 ∴ x < 2 ⇒ |x − 2| = −(x − 2)

2 2
x − 2 + |x − 2| x − 2 − |x − 2| x − 2 − (x − 2) 2 x − 2 + (x − 2) 2
+ = +
2 2 2 2
$ %2 $ %2
x−2A−x+

2A0 2A(x−2)
=
+ = (x−2)2
2 2A

In summary,

2 2
x − 2 + |x − 2| x − 2 − |x − 2|
+ = (x − 2)2 , ∀x
2 2
Polynomials
2

Polynomial forms, identities, and terminology

1. A monomial: basic single term in the form of ax n , where a is multiplying coefficient, x is variable,
and n is its nonnegative integer power (a.k.a “degree of monomial”), for example, 3x 2 is a second-
degree (quadratic) monomial.
2. A polynomial: sum of monomials. The highest exponent of a monomial within the sum defines the
degree of that polynomial, for example, 3x 3 − 2x 2 + x − 1 is third-order polynomial that consists
of four monomials. 0 monomial whose coefficient equals zero, for example, 0x n = 0, which is
true for any power n.
3. A constant: monomial whose power equals zero, for example, −2x 0 = −2, which is true for any
coefficient a, often referred to as “zero–degree term.”
4. A binomial: a sum of two monomials, one first-order and one zero-degree monomial, for example,
x 1 − x 0 = x − 1, −2x + 3 x 0 , x + 2 x 0 , are binomials. Similar to prime numbers, binomials are
basic factors of any higher-order polynomial.
5. A trinomial: polynomial that consists of zero-, first- and second-order monomials, for example,
x 2 − 2x + 1, 2x 2 − x − 1, −x 2 − 3x + 5 are trinomials, also known as quadratic polynomials.
6. Factorized form: any n order polynomial may be transformed into its factorized form, i.e., product
of n binomials, for example:

(x − 1)(x + 2) → x 2 + x − 2
(x + 3)(x − 5)(x − 1) → x 3 − 3x 2 − 13x + 15

are factored and developed forms of quadratic and cubic polynomials, respectively. The constant
term x0 in each (x − x0 ) binomial factor is referred to as the root of the given polynomial. Note
that the minus sign is mandatory, while x0 may be either positive or negative.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 29

R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_2
30 2 Polynomials

Problems

2.1 Polynomial Expansion

Simplify polynomial expressions in P.2.1 to P.2.4

2.1. (x − 1) + (2x + 1) 2.2. (2x 2 − 3x − 1) − (2x − 1)

2.3. −2x 2 − 3 + 7x 3 − x + x 2 2.4. −(x − x 4 + 2) − (x 2 − 2)

Multiply polynomials in P.2.5 to P.2.18

2.5. x(x − 1) 2.6. (x − 1)(x − 1)

2.7. (x − 1)(x + 1) 2.8. −(x − 1)(x + 2)

2.9. (x − 2)(x + 2) 2.10. −(x + 2)(x − 3)

2.11. −x(x + 2)(x − 3) 2.12. (1 − x)(x + 2)(x − 3)

2.13. (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) 2.14. (x − 3)(x 2 + 3x + 9)

2.15. (3x 2 − 5x + 6)(2x − 7) 2.16. (x 4 + x 3 + 2)(x 2 − 3x + 4)

2.17. (3y 2 +2x−6xy)(2x 2 +4xy−2y 3 ) 2.18. (x − y)(y − z)(z − x)

Given P (x) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q(x) = x 3 − 1 in P.2.19 to P.2.21, calculate

2.19. P (x) + Q(x) 2.20. P (x) − Q(x)

2.21. 2xP (x) − 2Q(x) 2.22. −x P (x)Q(x)

Calculate parameters a, b, c so that P (x) = Q(x) in P.2.23 to P.2.24, if

2.23. P (x) = x 3 − 2x 2 + 3, Q(x) = (x + 1)(ax 2 + bx + c)

2.24. P (x) = 2x 3 − x 2 + x + 4, Q(x) = (x − 2)(ax 2 + bx + c)

2.2 Factorization 31

2.2 Factorization

Factorize polynomials in P.2.25 to P.2.36 by extracting simple common factors

2.25. 5a + 5x 2.26. 2a − 2 2.27. 7a − 14

2.28. 3a 2 + 9 2.29. 3a + 6b + 9 2.30. 6x + ax + bx

2.31. 9a 2 − 6a + 12 2.32. a 2 − a 3 2.33. 3a 2 − 6a

2.34. x 3 a 2 − x 3 2.35. 3a 3 + 2a 2 + a 2.36. 4x 2 − 2x + xy

Factorize polynomials in P.2.37 to P.2.48 by extracting the factors and by grouping similar terms

2.37. x 3 y 3 − x 3 y + x 4 y 3 2.38. x 3 y 3 − x 2 y 8

2.39. 6x 2 y 2 − 4xy 3 2.40. 5x 3 − 15x 2 y 3

2.41. 6x 3 y − 9x 2 y 2 + 3x 3 y 2 2.42. x 3 − x 7 − 2x 5

2.43. a 3 b2 + 2a 4 b2 − 4ab5 2.44. 3a 3 b3 − 9a 2 b4 + 12a 5 b4

2.45. a(m + n) + b(m + n) 2.46. m(a − b) + n(a − b)

2.47. 7q(p − q) + 2p(q − p) 2.48. 3(x + y) + (x + y)2

Factorize polynomials in P.2.49 to P.2.54 by finding and grouping the common terms

2.49. am − an + bm − bn 2.50. am − an − bm + bn

2.51. an − ab − mn + mb 2.52. 5ax + 5ay − x − y

2.53. 2x 2 + 2xy − x − y 2.54. 4ym − 4yn − m + n

Factorize polynomials in P.2.55 to P.2.60

2.55. ax 2 − bx 2 − bx + ax − a + b 2.56. 6by − 15bx − 4ay + 10ax

2.57. 2x 2 − 2xy + xz − yz 2.58. 5ax 2 − 10ax − bx + 2b − x + 2

2.59. xyz + x 2 y 2 − 3x 4 y 5 − 3x 3 y 4 − xy − z 2.60. m2 x 4 −mnx 3 +2mx 2 −2nx+n−mx

32 2 Polynomials

2.61. (x + y + z)3 − x 3 − y 3 − z3 2.62. (x 2 + x + 1)(x 3 + x 2 + 1) − 1

Factorize polynomials in P.2.63 to P.2.67 by following the rules of powers

2.63. a 2n + a n 2.64. a 3x − 2a 2x bx

2.65. 2x m+n + 6x n 2.66. a 3x + 3a 2x + 5a x

2.67. x 2n+2 − 2x n+1 + 1 2.68. x 3n − 4x

Simplify expressions in P.2.69 to P.2.71

x n+2 x 3n+2 + x 3n+1 x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn

2.69. 2.70.
2x x n x 2 x 3n 2.71. 1 1 1 1
+ 2 + 3 + ··· + n
x x x x

2.3 Binomial Theorem (Pascal’s Triangle)

Reminder: Formal expression for binomial expansion is

n  
 n  

n n
(a + b)n = a n−k bk = a k bn−k
k=0
k k=0
k

Due to their symmetry, the polynomial coefficients are arranged in the form of Pascal’s triangle,
Fig. 2.1.
Each row lists polynomial coefficients of the corresponding n-th binomial power. Note that
each row coefficient is calculated as the sum of two neighboring coefficients left and right in
the row above.
For example, binomial square form is

(ax)2 ± 2abx + b2 = (ax ± b)2

By using Pascal’s triangle, develop binomial powers in P.2.72 to P.2.80

Fig. 2.1 Pascal’s triangle

showing the development
of binomial coefficients.
For example, coefficients
of (a + b)n for n = 4 are
1, 4, 6, 4, 1
2.5 Difference of Squares 33

2.72. (x + 1)2 2.73. (1 − x)2 2.74. (2x − 3)2

2.75. (a + b)3 2.76. (−a − bc)4 2.77. (2x + 1)4
2.78. (xy − z)5 2.79. (x + 2)5 2.80. (x − 1)6

With the help of Pascal’s triangle, factorize quadratic and biquadratic polynomials given in P.2.81 to
P.2.86

√
2.81. x 2 − 2x + 1 2.82. x 2 − 6x + 9 2.83. x 2 − 2 2x + 2

2.84. 4x 2 − 12x + 9 2.85. x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 2.86. x 2n+2 − 2x n+1 + 1

2.4 Long Division

Divide polynomials in P.2.87 to P.2.94

2.87. (x 2 − 2x + 1) ÷ (x − 1) 2.88. (x 2 − 6x + 9) ÷ (x − 3)

2.89. (x 2 + x − 5) ÷ (x + 3) 2.90. (2x 2 − 5x + 3) ÷ (2x − 3)

2.91. (4x 3 − 7x 2 − 11x + 5) ÷ (4x + 5) 2.92. (2x 3 −7x 2 +8x −3)÷(x 2 −2x +1)

2.93. (x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x − 3) 2.94. (6x 3 + 10x 2 + 8) ÷ (2x 2 + 1)

2.5 Difference of Squares

Reminder: Difference of two squares identity is used in many practical situations

a 2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)

Factorize polynomials in P.2.95 to P.2.110

2.95. x 2 − 49 2.96. a 2 − 36 2.97. 16x 2 − 9

2.98. 9x 2 − 49 2.99. 25 − x 2 2.100. 81 − x 4

1 x2 4 9x 2 4y 2
2.101. x 2 − 2.102. − 2.103. −
49 4 9 4 9
34 2 Polynomials

49x 2 2.105. x 2 − 0.36 2.106. x 2 − 0.0009

2.104. − 9y 2
25
2.107. 0.04x 2 − 0.25 2.108. 0.01x 2 − 0.04y 2 2.109. x 4 y 2 − 0.01

2.110. 0.25x 2 y 2 − 0.0001 2.111. 0.0625x 4 y 2 − (ab)2 2.112. a 8 b6 c2 − 4b2 c4

Factorize expressions in P.2.113 to P.2.124

2.113. (x − 3)2 − 4 2.114. (a + 5)2 − 9

2.115. y 2 − (x − y)2 2.116. x 2 − (x + y)2

2.117. (x + 2)2 − 4x 2 2.118. 9x 2 − (x − 1)2

2.119. (x − y)2 − 16(x + y)2 2.120. (x + 2y)2 − 9(x − 2y)2

2.121. 4(x − y)2 − 25(x + y)2 2.122. 36(x − 2)2 − 25(x + 1)2

2.123. (x + y − z)2 − (x − y + z)2 2.124. (x + y − 3)2 − 25(x + 2)2

Calculate products in P.2.125 to P.2.133 without using a calculator nor by direct multiplication

2.125. 98 × 102 2.126. 99 × 101 2.127. 83 × 77

2.128. 79 × 81 2.129. 18 × 22 2.130. 201 × 199

2.131. 1.05 × 0.95 2.132. 1.01 × 0.99 2.133. 9.9 × 10.1

2.6 Quadratic Polynomial: Viète Formulas

Formulas attributed to François Viète relate the coefficients of a polynomial to sums and products of
its polynomial roots. They are rather practical, among other applications in mathematics, for rapid
factorization of polynomials.

Quadratic polynomial: a general trinomial whose roots are x1 and x2 may be factorized as
 
b c  
ax 2 + bx + c = a x 2 + x + = a x 2 + a1 x + a2 = 0
a a

where a = 0, and written in terms of its roots as

x 2 + a1 x + a2 = (x − x1 )(x − x2 ) = 0
2.6 Quadratic Polynomial: Viète Formulas 35

 
∴ and developed as
(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) = x 2 − x x2 − xx1 + x1 x2 = x 2 − (x1 + x2 ) x + x1 x2 = 0

then, by the polynomial equivalence, it follows that

a1 = −(x1 + x2 ) and a2 = x1 x2

which is to say that the negative sum of roots equal a1 and that x1 , x2 are factors of a2 coefficient.

Cubic polynomial: a general third-order polynomial whose roots are x1 , x2 , x3 may be written in its
factorized form as

x 3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3 = 0
(x − x1 )(x − x2 )(x − x3 ) = 0
x 3 − x3 x 2 − x2 x 2 + x2 x3 z − x1 x 2 + x1 x3 z + x1 x2 z − x1 x2 x3 = 0
x 3 − (x1 + x2 + x3 ) x 2 + (x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3 ) z − x1 x2 x3 = 0

which is to say by the polynomial equivalence that

a1 = −(x1 + x2 + x3 )
a2 = x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3
a3 = −x1 x2 x3

Often, at least one of the simple a3 factors is therefore equal to one of the three roots, which then
may be used to derive the other two roots by the long division. Evidently, Viète formulas may be
developed for all higher-order polynomials.

Factorize quadratic polynomials in P.2.134 to P.2.142

2.134. x 2 − 6x + 5 2.135. x 2 − 9x + 14 2.136. x 2 − 6x + 8

2.137. 2x 2 + 3x + 1 2.138. 3x 2 − 14x + 8 2.139. −2x 2 + x + 3

√ √ √
2.140. −x 2 + 5x − 4 2.141. −6x 2 + 5x + 4 2.142. x 2 + ( 2 + 3)x + 6

A general form ax 2n + bx n + c is known as biquadratic polynomial as in P.2.143 to P.2.148 and can

be factorized by using techniques for quadratic polynomials after change of variable.

2.143. x 4 − 13x 2 + 36 2.144. x 4 − 10x 2 + 9 2.145. x 6 − 2x 3 + 1

2.146. x 6 + 3x 3 + 2 2.147. x 6 − 9x 3 + 8 2.148. 2x 2m+2 − 11x m+1 + 9

36 2 Polynomials

2.7 Completing the Square

Reminder: Technique of completing the square helps to convert a quadratic polynomial of the
form

ax 2 + bx + c to the form a(x − m)2 + n

where m and n some suitable constants. That is to say, completing the square creates a square
trinomial inside of a quadratic expression.

Factorize polynomials in P.2.149 to P.2.152

2.149. x 4 + 4 2.150. x 4 + x 2 + 1
2.151. x 5 + x + 1 2.152. (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) + 15

Solve quadratic equations in P.2.153 to P.2.158 by completing the squares.

2.153. x 2 + 6x − 7 = 0 2.154. 2x 2 −10x −3 = 2.155. −x 2 − 6x + 7 =

0 0
2.156. x 2 + 3x = 0 2.157. 2x 2 +6x+2 = 0 2.158. x 2 − x − 6 = 0

2.8 Factor Theorem

Reminder: Given n-th order polynomial

Pn (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 = (x − xn )(x − xn−1 ) · · · (x − x1 )

where xn , xn−1 , . . . , x1 are zeros of Pn (x) (in total, there are n zeros).

1. Factorization of polynomials takes advantage of fundamental theorems in algebra (very

loosely interpreted as):
(a) The total number of polynomial roots n (i.e., both real and complex) is equal to the
polynomial degree n, where the complex roots come in pairs, i.e., each complex root
is accompanied by its complex conjugate pair. Consequently, in odd order polynomials,
there must be at least one real root (i.e., the one that does not have its pair).
(b) Polynomial roots may be found among the factors of the (an a0 ) product.
(c) If (x −x0 ) is one of Pn (x) factors, that is to say x0 is one of Pn (x) zeros, then Pn (x0 ) = 0.

(continued)
2.8 Factor Theorem 37

(continued)
2. The factor theorem states that (x − n) is binomial factor of a polynomial P (x) if and only if
P (n) = 0, that is to say n is one of the P (x) roots. Otherwise, if the value P (n) = r = 0, it
is said that R = r/(x − n) is the reminder of division P (x) ÷ (x − n).

Given P (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, calculate parameters a, b, c, so that P (x) is divisible by binomials given

in P.2.159 to P.2.162:

2.159. (x − 1) and (x + 1) 2.160. (x − 1) and (2 − x)

2.161. −(x − 1) and − (x − 1) 2.162. −(3x − 1) and (2 − x)

Given P (x) = ax 3 +bx 2 +cx +d calculate parameters a, b, c, d so that P (x) is divisible by binomials
given in P.2.163 to P.2.166:

2.163. x, (x − 1) and (x − 2) 2.164. (x + 1), (x − 1) and (x − 2)

2.165. (x + 1), (x − 2) and (x + 3) 2.166. (2x − 5), (2 − x) and (x + 4)

By applying the factor theorem, factorize polynomials in P.2.167 to P.2.173

2.167. x 3 − 1 2.168. x 3 − y 3 2.169. x 3 + 1

2.170. x 3 + x + 2 2.171. x 3 + y 3

2.172. x 6 −14x 4 +49x 2 −36 2.173. x 3 +x 2 −4x−4

Calculate the reminder of polynomial divisions in P.2.174 to P.2.177 without doing the actual
division.

2.174. (x 4 −2x 3 +3x 2 −4x +1)÷(x −1) 2.175. (x 3 + 1) ÷ (x + 1)

       
2.176. x 1965 −256x 1961 +1 ÷ x 2 −4x 2.177. x 2024 − 2x 2023 −1 ÷ x 2 −3x+2

Given polynomials in P.2.178 to P.2.179, calculate parameter k so that P (x, k) is divisible by Q(x).

2.178. P (x, k) = 4x 5 + k x 4 + 8x 3 + 5x 2 + 3x + 2, Q(x) = x + 2.

2.179. P (x, k) = x 3 − 3k x + 4(k 2 + 1)x − (k 3 + 5), Q(x) = (x − 1)

38 2 Polynomials

2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition

Reminder: Partial fraction form of a rational function is very useful for calculating its integral.
A general case of rational expression of two polynomials, for example, k-th order Pk (x) and
m-th order Qm (x), where m > k, may be written as

Pk (x) P (x)
=
Qm (x) (x − x1 )(x − x2 )(x − x3 )n (ax 2 + bx + c)
α β γ1 γ2 γn δx + η
= + + + + ··· + +
x − x1 x − x2 (x − x3 )1 (x − x3 )2 (x − x3 )n (ax 2 + bx + c)

where α, β, γ , . . . are the coefficient constants to be calculated and partial decomposition

rational forms are created as follows:

1. For each unique zero of Q(x), such as x1 , x2 , there is one rational term.
2. For zeros with n multiplicity, such as x3 , there is a series of n rational terms.
3. When quadratic term (ax 2 + bx + c) has complex zeros, then its corresponding numerator
must be linear binomial.

Derive the partial fraction form of rational functions in P.2.180 to P.2.181

x 1 x−1
2.180. 2.181. 2.182.
(x + 1)(x − 4) (x + 1)(x + 2) x2 + x
1 x+2 1
2.183. 2.184. 2.185.
x2 −1 x3 − 2x 2 x3 −1
x3 + x − 1 2x 2 2.188.
4
2.186. 2.187.
(x 2 + 2)2 x4 − 1 x4 +1

1 2.190. 2.191.
2.189. 1 x 3 + x 2 − 16x + 16
x 3 (x − 1)2
x 3 (x 2 − x + 1)2 x 2 − 4x + 3
2.1 Polynomials 39

Answers

2.1 Polynomials

2.1. Polynomial addition is done by adding monoms of the same order.

(x − 1) + (2x + 1) = 2x + x − 1
+ 1
= 3x

2.2. Rearrange the expression, and add monoms of the same orders, and respect negative
signs before brackets as

(2x 2 − 3x − 1) − (2x − 1) = 2x 2 − 3x − 1 − 2x + 1 = 2x 2 − 3x − 2x + 1
− 1

= 2x 2 − 5x = x (2x − 5)

Writing a polynomial in its factorized form is good practice, so that the polynomial roots are
obvious.

2.3. Organizing a polynomial in its descending order is good practice, as

−2x 2 − 3 + 7x 3 − x + x 2 = 7x 3 −2x 2 +x 2 − x − 3 = 7x 3 − x 2 − x − 3

2.4. Organizing a polynomial in its descending order is good practice, and respecting all
negative signs, as

−(x − x 4 + 2) − (x 2 − 2) = −x + x 4 − 2 − x 2 + 2 = x 4 − x 2 − x − 2
+ 2

= x(x 3 − x − 1)

2.5. As oppose to factorization, polynomial development is done by systematically multiply-

ing individual monoms, as

x(x − 1) = x · x + x · (−1) = x 2 − x

2.6. Polynomial development of binomial square, as

(x − 1)(x − 1) = x · x + x · (−1) − 1 · x − 1 · (−1) = x 2 − x − x + 1 = x 2 − 2x + 1

which is well known high school identity, the square of a binomial.

2.7. Polynomial development of two binomes

(x − 1)(x + 1) = x · x + x · (1) − 1 · x − 1 · (1) = x 2 + x
− x
− 1 = x 2 − 1

40 2 Polynomials

which is well known high school identity, the difference of two squares.

2.8. Managing negative signs is important, as

 
−(x − 1)(x + 2) = − x 2 + 2x − x − 2 = −x 2 − x + 2

2.9. Compare with A.2.7, the difference of two squares, as

−
(x − 2)(x + 2) = x 2 + 
2x  − 4 = x 2 − 4 = x 2 − 22
2x

2.10. Negative sign within a product is equivalent to multiplication by “−1,” as

 
−(x + 2)(x − 3) = − x 2 − 3x + 2x − 6 = −x 2 + x + 6

2.11. It is important to work out systematically all term products, for example, as
   
−x(x + 2)(x − 3) = −x x 2 − 3x + 2x − 6 = −x x 2 − x − 6 = −x 3 + x 2 + 6x

or in some other order, as multiplication is a commutative operation.

2.12. For example, starting with the left side product,

(1 − x)(x + 2)(x − 3) = (x + 2 − x 2 − 2x)(x − 3) = (−x 2 − x + 2)(x − 3)

= −x 3 − x 2 + 2x + 3x 2 + 3x − 6 = −x 3 + 2x 2 + 5x − 6

Although equivalent, this example also illustrates the advantage of factorized form (i.e.,
product) versus developed form of a polynomial. In its factorized form, three roots of this
cubic polynomial are obvious, x1 = 1, x2 = −2, x3 = 3.

2.13. (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) = x 3 + x 2 + x
− x 2 − x
− 1 = x 3 − 1

3x2 + 
2.14. (x − 3)(x 2 + 3x + 9) = x 3 +  −
9x 3x2 − 
 − 27 = x 3 − 27 = x 3 − 33
9x

2.15. (3x 2 − 5x + 6)(2x−7) = 6x 3 − 21x 2 −10x 2 + 35x + 12x−42 = 6x 3 −31x 2 + 47x−42

2.16. (x 4 + x 3 + 2)(x 2 − 3x + 4) = x 6 − 3x 5 + 4x 4 = +x 5 − 3x 4 + 4x 3 = +2x 2 − 6x + 8

= x 6 − 2x 5 + x 4 + 4x 3 + 2x 2 − 6x + 8
2.1 Polynomials 41

2.17. (3y 2 + 2x − 6xy)(2x 2 + 4xy − 2y 3 )

= 6x 2 y 2 + 12xy 3 − 6y 5 + 4x 3 + 8x 2 y − 4xy 3 − 12x 3 y − 24x 2 y 2 + 12xy 2
= −18x 2 y 2 + 8xy 3 − 6y 5 + 4x 3 + 8x 2 y − 12x 3 y + 12xy 4

2.18. (x − y)(y − z)(z − x) = (xy − xz − y 2 + yz)(z − x)

=  − xz2 − y 2 z + yz2 − x 2 y + x 2 z + xy 2 − 
xyz 
xyz
= x 2 z + yz2 + xy 2 − xz2 − y 2 z − x 2 y

2.19. Given P (x) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q(x) = x 3 − 1

P (x) + Q(x) = (x 2 + x + 1) + (x 3 − 1) = x 3 − 1
+ x 2 + x + 1
= x(x 2 + x + 1)

2.20. Given P (x) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q(x) = x 3 − 1

P (x) − Q(x) = (x 2 + x + 1) − (x 3 − 1) = −x 3 + 1 + x 2 + x + 1 = −x 3 + x 2 + x + 2

2.21. Given P (x) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q(x) = x 3 − 1

2x3 + 2x 2 + 2x − 
2xP (x) − 2Q(x) = 2x(x 2 + x + 1) − 2(x 3 − 1) =  2x3 + 2
= 2x 2 + 2x + 2 = 2(x 2 + x + 1)

2.22. Given P (x) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q(x) = x 3 − 1, then polynomial development gives

−x P (x)Q(x) = −x(x 2 + x + 1)(x 3 − 1) = (−x 3 − x 2 − x)(x 3 − 1)

= −x 6 − x 5 − x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + x = −x(x 5 + x 4 + x 3 − x 2 − x − 1)

2.23. Two polynomials are equal if each of their corresponding monomials are equal. First,
product of (x + 1) and parametric quadratic polynomial are

Q(x) = (x + 1)(ax 2 + bx + c) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + ax 2 + bx + c
= ax 3 + (a + b)x 2 + (b + c)x + c ∴
if, Q(x) = P (x) ⇒ ax 3 + (a + b)x 2 + (b + c)x + c = x 3 − 2x 2 + 3
x 3 terms: ∴ a=1
x 0 terms: ∴ c=3
x 2 terms: a + b = −2 ∴ 1 + b = −2 ∴ b = −3
x 1 terms: b + c = 0 ∴ −3 + 3 = 0 
42 2 Polynomials

In conclusion, P (x) = Q(x) ∴ x 3 − 2x 2 + 3 = (x + 1)(x 2 − 3x + 3)

2.24. Similarly to A.2.23,

Q(x) = (x − 2)(ax 2 + bx + c) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx − 2ax 2 − 2bx − 2c ∴

if, Q(x) = P (x) ⇒ ax 3 + (b − 2a)x 2 + (c − 2b)x − 2c = 2x 3 − x 2 + x + 4
∴
x 3 terms: ∴ a=2
x 0 terms: − 2c = 4 ∴ c = −2
x terms: b − 2a = −1 ∴ b − 4 = −1 ∴ b = 3
2

x 1 terms: c − 2b = 1 ∴ −2 − 6 = 1 

In conclusion, there is no Q(x) that satisfies this P (x) = Q(x) equation.

2.2 Factorization

2.25. 5 a + 5 x = 5 (a + x)

2.26. 2a − 2 = 2(a − 1)

2.27. 7a − 14 = 7(a − 2)

2.28. 3a 2 + 9 = 3(a 2 + 3)

2.29. 3a + 6b + 9 = 3(a + 2b + 3)

2.30. 6x + ax + bx = x(6 + a + b)

2.31. 9a 2 − 6a + 12 = 3(3a 2 − 2a + 4)

2.32. a 2 − a 3 = a 2 (1 − a)

2.33. 3a 2 − 6a = 3a(a − 2)
2.2 Factorization 43

2.34. x 3 a 2 − x 3 = x 3 (a 2 − 1) = x 3 (a + 1)(a − 1)

2.35. 3a 3 + 2a 2 + a = a(3a 2 + 2a + 1)

2.36. 4x 2 − 2x + xy = x(4x − 2 − y)

2.37. x 3 y 3 − x 3 y + x 4 y 3 = x 3 y y 2 − x 3 y + x 3 x y y 2 = x 3 y (y 2 − 1 + xy 2 )

2.38. x 3 y 3 − x 2 y 8 = x 2 y 3 (x − y 5 )

2.39. 6x 2 y 2 − 4xy 3 = 2xy 2 (3x − 2y)

2.40. 5x 3 − 15x 2 y 3 = 5x 2 (x − 3y 3 )

2.41. 6x 3 y − 9x 2 y 2 + 3x 3 y 2 = 3x 2 y(2x − 3y + xy)

2.42. x 3 − x 7 − 2x 5 = x 3 (1 − x 4 − 2x 2 )

2.43. a 3 b2 + 2a 4 b2 − 4ab5 = ab2 (a 2 + 2a 3 − 4b3 )

2.44. 3a 3 b3 − 9a 2 b4 + 12a 5 b4 = 3a 2 b3 (a − 3b + 4a 3 b)

2.45. a(m + n) + b(m + n) = (m + n)(a + b)

2.46. m(a − b) + n(a − b) = (a − b)(m + n)

2.47. 7q(p − q) + 2p(q − p) = (p − q)(7q − 2p)

2.48. 3(x + y) + (x + y)2 = (x + y)(3 + x + y)

2.49. a m − a n + b m − b n = a (m − n) + b (m − n) = (m − n) (a + b)

2.50. am − an − bm + bn = a(m − n) − b(m − n) = (m − n)(a − b)

44 2 Polynomials

2.51. an − ab − mn + mb = a(n − b) − m(n − b) = (n − b)(a − m)

2.52. 5ax + 5ay − x − y = 5a(x + y) − (x + y) = (x + y)(5a − 1)

2.53. 2x 2 + 2xy − x − y = 2x(x + y) − (x + y) = (x + y)(2x − 1)

2.54. 4ym − 4yn − m + n = 4y(m − n) − (m − n) = (m − n)(4y − 1)

2.55. ax 2 − bx 2 −bx + ax − a + b = x 2 (a−b) + x(a − b)−(a − b) = (a − b)(x 2 + x−1)

2.56. 6by − 15bx − 4ay + 10ax = 2y(3b − 2a) − 5x(3b − 2a) = (3b − 2a)(2y − 5x)

2.57. 2x 2 − 2xy + xz − yz = 2x(x − y) + z(x − y) = (x − y)(2x + z)

2.58. 5ax 2 − 10ax − bx + 2b − x + 2 = 5ax(x − 2) − b(x − 2) − (x − 2)

= (x − 2)(5ax − b − 1)

2.59. xyz + x 2 y 2 − 3x 4 y 5 − 3x 3 y 4 z − xy − z = xy(xy + z) − 3x 3 y 4 (xy + z) − (xy + z)

= (xy + z)(xy − 3x 3 y 4 − 1)

2.60. m2 x 4 − mnx 3 + 2mx 2 − 2nx + n − mx = mx 3 (mx − n) + 2x(mx − n) − (mx − n)

= (mx − n)(mx 3 + 2x − 1)

2.61. As some prerequisite work is already done in the previous examples,

(x + y + z)3 −x 3 − y 3 − z3 = (x + y + z)3 − x 3 − (y 3 + z3 )

a 3 − b3 = (a − b)(a 2 + ab + b2 ) see P.2.168

=
a 3 + b3 = (a + b)(a 2 − ab + b2 )
 
= (x
+ y + z − x)

(x + y + z) + (x + y + z) x + x −(y + z)(y −yz + z )
2 2 2 2

 
= (y + z) (x + y + z)2 + (x + y + z) x + x 2 − y 2 + yz − z2
 
+y2 + 2yz
= (y + z) 2xy + 2xz + x 2 +z2 + x 2 + xy + zx + x 2 −z2
−y2 + yz
 
= (y + z) 3xy + 3xz + 3yz + 3x 2 = 3(y + z) xy + xz + yz + x 2
 
= 3(y + z) x(x + y) + z(x + y) = 3(y + z)(x + y)(x + z)
2.2 Factorization 45

2.62. By algebraic transformations,

  
x 2 + x + 1 x 3 + x 2 + 1 − 1 = (x 2 + 1 + x )(x 3 + x 2 + 1 ) − 1
   
first, expand by x 2 + 1 left to right as,
    
= x2 + 1 x3 + x2 + 1 x2 + 1
 
then, expand by x as,
 
+ x x 3 + x x 2 + 1 −1
 4 
x − 1, use difference of squares identity
   2     
= x2 + 1 x3 + x2 + 1 + x2 + 1 x + x2 − 1 x2 + 1
 
     
= x 2 + 1 x 3 + x 2  + x + x 2
+1 −1
     
= x 2 + 1 x 3 + 2x 2 + x = x x 2 + 1 x 2 + 2x + 1
 
= x x 2 + 1 (x + 1)2

2.63. a 2n + a n = a n a n + a n = a n (a n + 1)

2.64. a 3x − 2a 2x bx = a 2x (a x − 2bx )

2.65. 2x m+n + 6x n = 2x n (x m + 3)

2.66. a 3x + 3a 2x + 5a x = a x (a 2x + 3a x + 5)

 2    2
2.67. x 2n+2 − 2x n+1 + 1 = x 2(n+1) − 2x n+1 + 1 = x n+1 − 2 x n+1 + 1 = x n+1 − 1

 
2.68. x 3n − 4x = x(x 2n − 1) = x (x n )2 − 1 = x(x n − 1)(x n + 1)

x n+2 
x n+1
x x
2.69.
n
= 
n+1
=
2x x 2
x 2

x 3n+2 + x 3n+1   (x + 1)
x 3n+1 x+1
2.70. =  =
2
x x 3n xx 3n+1
x
46 2 Polynomials

2.71. Double fractions may be resolved in respect to the principal division line as
 
x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn xn
= n−1 = n−1
1 1 1 1 x + x n−2 + x n−3 + · · · + 1 x + x n−2 + x n−3 + · · · + 1
+ 2 + 3 + ··· + n
x x x x xn
 ((( (
1 +( +(
x 2( x 2(+(· (
· · + x n−1 x n+1
=( ( ( = x n+1
(
n−2((n−3 ((((
x n−1
+( x( +x + ··· + 1
(((

2.3 Binomial Theorem (Pascal’s Triangle)

2.72. Binomial powers are elegantly developed with the help of Pascal’s triangle; see
Fig. 2.1. Each row shows polynomial coefficient, while powers of the two terms in the given
binomial are systematically written in descending and ascending order, respectively. Given
binomial (x + 1) and its power n = 2, the polynomial coefficients are 1, 2, 1. The two terms
making the binomial are x and 1; thus, the quadratic polynomial is developed as

(x + 1)2 = 1 × x 2 × 10 + 2 × x 1 × 11 + 1 × x 0 × 12

Obviously, powers of 1 are trivial, and x is in descending powers order starting with n = 2.
After cleaning the above result,

(x + 1)2 = x 2 + 2x + 1

which is well-known high school identity.

2.73. Given binomial (1−x) and its power n = 2, the polynomial coefficients are 1, 2, 1. The
two terms making the binomial are 1 and (−x). Note how the negative sign of x is accounted
for

(1 − x)2 = 1 × 12 × (−x)0 + 2 × 11 × (−x)1 + 1 × 10 × (−x)2

One way to thing about the development order is to think which term is “first” and which
is “second” within the binomial. In addition, each term keeps its sign at all time. Obviously,
powers of 1 are trivial, and (−x) is in ascending powers order starting with n = 0. After
cleaning the above result,

(1 − x)2 = 1 − 2x + x 2 = x 2 − 2x + 1

which is well known high school identity.

2.3 Binomial Theorem (Pascal’s Triangle) 47

2.74. Given binomial (2x − 3) and its power n = 2, the polynomial coefficients are 1, 2, 1.
The two terms making the binomial are 2x and (−3). Note how the negative sign of 3 is
accounted for

(2x − 3)2 = 1 × (2x)2 × (−3)0 + 2 × (2x)1 × (−3)1 + 1 × (2x)0 × (−3)2

One way to thing about the development order is to think which term is “first” and which is
“second” within the binomial. In addition, each term keeps its sign at all time. Powers of 2x
are descending starting with n = 2, and powers of (−3) are ascending powers order starting
with n = 0. After cleaning the above result,

(2x − 3)2 = (2x)2 + 2(2x)(−3) + (−3)2 = 4x 2 − 12x + 9

This development may be verified by direct multiplication as

(2x − 3)2 = (2x − 3)(2x − 3) = (2x)(2x) − 3(2x) − 3(2x) + (−3)(−3) = 4x 2 − 12x + 9

2.75. Given (a + b)3 , coefficients of the third-order binomial power are listed in Pascal’s
triangle as 1, 3, 3, 1. Then, the powers of a and b are systematically written in the descending
and ascending orders, respectively, as

(a + b)3 = 1 a 3 b0 + 3 a 2 b1 + 3 a 1 b2 + 1 a 0 b3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab2 + b3

2.76. Given (−a − bc)4 , coefficients of the fourth-order binomial power are listed in Pascal’s
triangle as 1, 4, 6, 4, 1. Then,

(−a − bc)4
= 1 (−a)4 (−bc)0 + 4 (−a)3 (−bc)1 + 6 (−a)2 (−bc)2 + 4 (−a)1 (−bc)3 + 1 (−a)0 (−bc)4
= a 4 + 4a 3 bc + 6a 2 b2 c2 + 4ab3 c3 + b4 c4

2.77. Given (2x + 1)4 , coefficients of the fourth-order binomial power are listed in Pascal’s
triangle as 1, 4, 6, 4, 1. Then,

(2x + 1)4 = 1 (2x)4 10 + 4 (2x)3 11 + 6 (2x)2 12 + 4 (2x)1 13 + 1 (2x)0 14

= 16x 4 + 32x 3 + 24x 2 + 8x + 1

2.78. Given (xy − z)5 , coefficients of the fifth-order binomial power are listed in Pascal’s
triangle as 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1. Then,

(xy − z)5
= 1 (xy)5 (−z)0 + 5 (xy)4 (−z)1 + 10 (xy)3 (−z)2 + 10 (xy)2 (−z)3
48 2 Polynomials

+ 5 (xy)1 (−z)4 + 1 (xy)0 (−z)5

= x 5 y 5 − 5zx 4 y 4 + 10z2 x 3 y 3 − 10z3 x 2 y 2 + 5z4 xy − z5

2.79. (x + 2)5 = 1 x 5 20 + 5 x 4 21 + 10 x 3 22 + 10 x 2 23 + 5 x 1 24 + 1 x 0 25
= x 5 + 10x 4 + 40x 3 + 80x 2 + 80x + 32

2.80. (x − 1)6 = 1 x 6 (−1)0 + 6 x 5 (−1)1 + 15 x 4 (−1)2 + 20 x 3 (−1)3 +

15 x 2 (−1)4 + 6 x 1 (−1)5 + 1 x 0 (−1)6
= x 6 − 6x 5 + 15x 4 − 20x 3 + 15x 2 − 6x + 1

2.81. Immediately after the common terms factorization, the binomial development is one
of the first ideas to try when attempting to factorize a polynomial, that is to say, to verify
if the given polynomial may be written in the form driven by Pascal’s triangle coefficients.
Given quadratic polynomial has x 2 and 1 terms. Therefore, one idea is to verify if (x ± 1)2
is identical to the given polynomial. Of course, for such a low polynomial order, one could
always apply trial and error by direct multiplication. However, the objective is to develop the
general idea that may be used in the case of higher-order polynomials.

In order to be binomial development, the second-order polynomial, i.e., n = 2 and 1, 2, 1

coefficients, after noting the negative sign of the middle term, should be in the form
 
x 2 − 2x + 1 = 1 x 2 (−1)0 + 2 x 1 (−1)1 + 1 x 0 (−1)2 = n = 2 = (x − 1)2 

Indeed, given x 2 − 2x + 1 is identical to the binomial square (x − 1)2 .

2.82. x 2 −6x + 9 = 1 x 2 (−3)0 + 2 x 1 (−3)1 + 1 x 0 (−3)2 = (x − 3)2

√ √ √ √
2.83. x 2 − 2 2x + 2 = x 2 − 2 2x + ( 2)2 = (x − 2)2

2.84. 4x 2 − 12x + 9 = (2x)2 − 2 · (3 · 2x) + 32 = (2x − 3)2

2.85. x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 = (x 2 )2 − 2x 2 + 1 = (x 2 − 1)2 = (x + 1)2 (x − 1)2

 2  
2.86. x 2n+2 − 2x n+1 + 1 = x 2(n+1) − 2x n+1 + 1 = x n+1 − 2 x n+1 + 1 = ( x n+1 − 1)2
2.4 Long Division 49

2.4 Long Division

2.87. Division of two polynomials follows the same procedure as division of any two large
numbers. Of course, in sample cases, it is preferable to take advantage of identities and simple
factorization techniques. Nevertheless, huge majority of polynomials are more complicated.
Thus, mastering the long division technique is a mandatory prerequisite. There are multiple
techniques to organize the polynomial coefficients and visual tabulation of the intermediate
results. Here, one possible way is to first rearrange all terms of the two given polynomials in
descending powers. Then, if the last step results in zero, it is said that two polynomials are
divisible; otherwise, there is reminder r.

Obviously, given division (x 2 −2x+1)÷(x−1) is well-known binomial square, see A.2.72 and
A.2.73, so the result is already known. However, for the sake of introducing the long division
technique, step-by-step procedure may be as follows:

1. Divide only the two highest power terms (underlined below), and write the result, that is to
say x 2 ÷ x = x, so that

(x 2 − 2x + 1) ÷ (x − 1) = x

2. Multiply x with the divisor polynomial (x − 1), and write the product under dividend

(x 2 − 2x + 1) ÷ (x−1) = x
x2 − x Multiply

3. Subtract terms that are aligned vertically, i.e., (x 2 − 2x) − (x 2 − x) = −x, and then write
down the next term from dividend, i.e., “+1.”

(x 2 − 2x +1 ) ÷ (x − 1) = x
−(x 2 − x)
= 0 − x +1

4. Now, calculate (−x +1)÷(x −1). Next term in the solution polynomial is found as the ratio
of two highest-order terms in these two polynomials −x ÷ x = −1; repeat multiplication
step, so that

(x 2 − 2x + 1) ÷ (x − 1) = x − 1
−(x 2 − x)
−x+1
− (−x + 1)
=0
50 2 Polynomials

Because the last subtraction equals zero means that reminder of this division is
r = 0/(x −1) = 0. Since the reminder equal zero, it is true that (x 2 −2x +1)÷(x −1) = x −1,
which is already known from the binomial identity.

Further understanding of binomial factors is that, in this example, (x−1) factor also means that
x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 is a zero (i.e., “root”) of x 2 − 2x + 1 polynomial. The use of word “zero”
implies that calculated value of this polynomial at x = 1 equals zero, as P (x) = x 2 − 2x + 1,
then for x = 1 in P (x), it follows that

P (1) = (1)2 − 2(1) + 1 = 1 − 2 + 1 = 0

This understanding of reminder is very useful in determining divisibility of a polynomial with

a given binomial. That is to say, if reminder of polynomial division with a binomial (x − x0 )
equal zero, then it is true that x0 is root of this polynomial, and vice versa. More examples on
this topic are found in the following sections.

2.88. Division (x 2 − 6x + 9) ÷ (x − 3) is also easy to resolve either by algebraic techniques

or by binomial development; see A.2.82, but for the sake of exercise, it may be resolved as
follows.

1. Divide only the two highest power terms (underlined below), and write the result, that is to
say x 2 ÷ x = x, so that

(x 2 − 6x + 9) ÷ (x − 3) = x

2. Multiply x with the divisor polynomial (x − 3), and write the product under dividend

(x 2 − 6x + 9) ÷ (x−3) = x
x 2 − 3x Multiply

3. Subtract terms that are aligned vertically, i.e., (x 2 − 6x) − (x 2 − 3x) = −3x, and then write
down the next term from dividend, i.e., “+9.”

(x 2 − 6x +9 ) ÷ (x − 3) = x
−(x 2 − 6x)
= 0 − 3x +9

4. Now, calculate (−3x+9)÷(x−3). Next term in the solution polynomial is found as the ratio
of two highest-order terms in these two polynomials −3x ÷ x = −3; repeat multiplication
step, so that

(x 2 − 6x + 9) ÷ (x − 3) = x − 3
2.4 Long Division 51

−(x 2 − 3x)
− 3x + 9
− (−3x + 9)
=0

Because the last subtraction equals zero means that reminder of this division is
r = 0/(x −3) = 0. Since the reminder equals zero, it is true that (x 2 −6x +9)÷(x −3) = x −3,
as already known.

Furthermore, in this example, (x − 3) factor also means that x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x = 3 is a zero

(i.e., “root”) of x 2 − 6x + 9 polynomial. The use of word “zero” implies that calculated value
of this polynomial at x = 3 equals zero, as P (x) = x 2 − 6x + 9, then for x = 3 in P (x), it
follows that

P (3) = (3)2 − 6(3) + 9 = 9 − 18 + 9 = 0

That is to say, x = 3 is one of this polynomial’s roots.

2.89. Given division (x 2 + x − 5) ÷ (x + 3) is resolved by the long division technique as

1
(x 2 + x − 5) ÷ (x + 3) = x − 2 +
x+3
 
r

x + 3x
2

− 2x − 5
− 2x − 6

= 1

The conclusion is that (x 2 + x − 5) is not divisible by (x + 3) because r = 1/(x + 3) = 0. In

other words, x + 3 = 0 ⇒ x = −3 is not root of P (x) = x 2 + x − 5 because

P (−3) = (−3)2 + (−3) − 5 = 9 − 3 + 5 = 11 = 0

2.90. Division (2x 2 − 5x + 3) ÷ (2x − 3) may be resolved as follows:

1. Divide 2x 2 ÷ 2x = x, so that

(2x 2 − 5x + 3) ÷ (2x − 3) = x

2. Multiply x with the divisor polynomial (2x − 3), and write the product under dividend
52 2 Polynomials

(2x 2 − 5x + 3) ÷ (2x−3) = x
2x 2 − 3x Multiply

3. Subtract (2x 2 − 5x) − (2x 2 − 3x) = −2x, then

(2x 2 − 5x +3 ) ÷ (2x − 3) = x
−(2x 2 − 3x)
= 0 − 2x +3

4. Division (−2x + 3) ÷ (2x − 3) starts with −2x ÷ 2x = −1, so that

(2x 2 − 5x + 3) ÷ (2x − 3) = x − 1
−(2x 2 − 3x)
− 2x + 3
− (−2x + 3)
=0

Because the last subtraction equals zero means that reminder of this division is r =
0/(2x −3) = 0. Since the reminder equals zero, it is true that (2x 2 −5x +2)÷(2x −3) = x −1.

Furthermore, in this example, (x − 1) factor also means that x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 is a zero

(i.e., “root”) of 2x 2 − 5x + 3 polynomial as P (x) = 2x 2 − 5x + 3, then for x = 1 in P (x), it
follows that

P (1) = 2(1)2 − 5(1) + 3 = 2 − 5 + 3 = 0

It is not difficult to verify that the two binomials are indeed the factors of given polynomial as

(2x − 3)(x − 1) = 2x 2 − 2x − 3x + 3 = 2x 2 − 5x + 3

and therefore the second root of this polynomial is at 2x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x = 3/2, which is

confirmed as

9 15 6
P (3/2) = 2(3/2)2 − 5(3/2) + 3 = − + =0
2 2 2

2.91. Given (4x 3 − 7x 2 − 11x + 5) ÷ (4x + 5), long division gives

(4x 3 − 7x 2 − 11x + 5) ÷ (4x + 5) = x 2 − 3x + 1

4x 3 + 5x 2
2.4 Long Division 53

− 12x 2 − 11x
− 12x 2 − 15x

4x + 5
4x + 5

= 0

2.92. Apply the long division procedure as

1. Divide 2x 3 ÷ x 2 = 2x, so that

(2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3) ÷ (x 2 − 2x + 1) = 2x

2. Multiply 2x with the divisor polynomial (x 2 − 2x + 1), so that

(2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3) ÷ (x 2 −2x + 1) = 2x
2x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x Multiply

3. Difference is (2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x) − (2x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x) = −3x 2 + 6x, as

(2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x −3 ) ÷ (x 2 − 2x + 1) = 2x
−(2x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x)
= 0 − 3x 2 + 6x −3

4. Next term in the solution polynomial is found as −3x 2 ÷ x 2 = −3, then

(2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3) ÷ (x 2 − 2x + 1) = 2x − 3
−(2x 3 − 4x 2 + 2x)
− 3x 2 + 6x − 3
− (3x 2 − 6x − 3)
=0

That is to say r = 0/(x 2 − 2x + 1) = 0; in other words, (2x − 3) is one of the factors

of (2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3) polynomial, and 2x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x = 3/2 is one of its roots as
P (x) = 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3; thus if x = 3/2, then

27 63
P (3/2) = 2(3/2)3 − 7(3/2)2 + 8(3/2) − 3 = − + 12 − 3 = 0
4 4
54 2 Polynomials

Furthermore, if (2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3) is divisible by (x 2 − 2x + 1), then it must be also divisible

with the factors of (x 2 − 2x + 1); see A.2.72 and A.2.73. As x 2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)(x − 1),
then x = 1 is also a double root of (2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3), as verified by

P (1) = 2(1)3 − 7(1)2 + 8(1) − 3 = 2 − 7 + 8 − 3 = 0

In summary, three roots of (2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3) are x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = 3/2 because

2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3 = (x − 1)(x − 1)(2x − 3)

Note that

P (x) = 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x − 3 = (x − 1)(x − 1)(2x − 3)

= 2 (x − 1)(x − 1)(x − 3/2)
= 2 Q(x)

That is to say, polynomial P (x) = (x −1)(x −1)(2x −3) and polynomial Q(x) = (x −1)(x −
1)(x − 3/2) are not equal because P (x) = 2Q(x); nevertheless, they have the same roots. This
is an example showing that a factorized constant has no influence on the polynomial roots.

2.93. Higher-order polynomials are divided by long division as

1. Starting with division x 4 ÷ x = x 3 , so that

(x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x − 3) = x 3

2. so that

(x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x−3) = x 3
x 4 − 3x 3 Multiply

3. difference is (x 4 − 2x 3 ) − (x 4 − 3x 2 ) = x 3 , then

(x 4 − 2x 3 −7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x − 3) = x 3
−(x 4 − 3x 3 )
= 0 + x 3 −7x 2

4. and so on until the last division

(x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x − 3) = x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 4
2.5 Difference of Squares 55

−(x 4 − 3x 3 )
x 3 − 7x 2
− (x 3 − 3x 2 )
− 4x 2 + 8x
− (−4x 2 + 12x)
− 4x + 12
− (−4x + 12)
=0

Because the last subtraction equals zero means that r = 0/(x − 3) = 0, that is to say x = 3 is
zero of P (x) = x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12. It is verified by setting x = 3 in P (x) as

P (3) = (3)4 − 2(3)3 − 7(3)2 + 8(3) + 12 = 81 − 54 − 63 + 24 + 12 = 0

Thus, first of the four roots is x1 = 3, and the remaining three roots are found by following the
same argument as in A.2.92, i.e., by searching for factors of x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 4 polynomial.
That can be done, for example, by the factor theorem; see Sect. 2.8.

2.94. Given (6x 3 + 10x 2 + 8) ÷ (2x 2 + 1), while keeping the place of the missing mono-
mial terms, long division gives

−3x + 3
(6x 3 + 10x 2 +0x + 8) ÷ (2x 2 + 1) = 3x + 5 +
2x 2 + 1
 
r

6x 3
+0x + 3x
2

10x 2 − 3x + 8
10x 2 +0x + 5

−3x + 3 = 0

In conclusion, (6x 3 +10x 2 +8) is not divisible by (2x 2 +1), because r = (−3x +3)/(2x 2 +1)
is not equal to zero.

2.5 Difference of Squares

One of the best known polynomial identities to factorize difference of two terms. Recall squares of
numbers, decimal and fractional forms.

2.95. x 2 − 49 = x 2 − 72 = (x + 7)(x − 7)
56 2 Polynomials

2.96. a 2 − 36 = a 2 − 62 = (a + 6)(a − 6)

2.97. 16x 2 − 9 = (4x)2 − 32 = (4x + 3)(4x − 3)

2.98. 9x 2 − 49 = (3x)2 − 72 = (3x + 7)(3x − 7)

2.99. 25 − x 2 = 52 − x 2 = (5 + x)(5 − x)

2.100. 81 − x 4 = 92 − (x 2 )2 = (9 + x 2 )(9 − x 2 ) = (9 + x 2 )(3 + x)(3 − x)

  
1 1 1
2.101. x −2
= x+ x−
49 7 7

 2   
x2 4 x 2 2 x 2 x 2
2.102. − = − = + −
4 9 2 3 2 3 2 3

  
9x 2 4y 2 3x 2y 3x 2y
2.103. − = + −
4 9 2 3 2 3

 2   
49x 2 7x 7x 7x
2.104. − 9y 2 = − (3y) =
2
+3 −3
25 5 5 5

 2   
2.105. x 2 − 0.36 = x 2 −

9 36 3 3 3
= x2 − = x+ x−
 100
25 5 5 5

2.106. x 2 − 0.0009 = x 2 − 0.032 = (x + 0.03) (x − 0.03)

  
2x 5 2x 5 1
2.107. 0.04x 2 − 0.25 = (0.2x)2 − 0.52 = + − = (2x + 5)(2x − 5)
10 10 10 10 100

1
2.108. 0.01x 2 −0.04y 2 = (0.1x)2 −(0.2y)2 = (0.1x +0.2y)(0.1x −0.2y) = (x + 2y)(x −2y)
100

 2
2.109. x 4 y 2 − 0.01 = x 2 y − 0.12 = (x 2 y + 0.1)(x 2 y − 0.1)
2.5 Difference of Squares 57

2.110. 0.25x 2 y 2 − 0.0001 = (0.5xy + 0.01)(0.5xy − 0.01)

 2   
(x 2 y)2 x2y x2y x2y
2.111. 0.0625x 4 y 2 − (ab)2 = − (ab)2 = − (ab) =
2
− ab + ab
16 4 4 4

   2  2   
2.112. a 8 b6 c2 −4b2 c4 = b2 c2 a 8 b4 −4c2 = b2 c2 a 4 b2 − 2c = b2 c2 a 4 b2 −2c a 4 b2 +2c

2.113. (x − 3)2 − 4 = (x − 3 + 2)(x − 3 − 2) = (x − 1)(x − 5)

2.114. (a + 5)2 − 9 = (a + 5 + 3)(a + 5 − 3) = (a + 8)(a + 2)

2.115. y 2 − (x − y)2 = (y
+ x − y)(y

− (x − y)) = x(2y − x)

2.116. x 2 − (x + y)2 = (x + x + y)(x
− x
− y) = −y(2x + y)

2.117. (x + 2)2 − 4x 2 = (x + 2 + 2x)(x + 2 − 2x) = (3x + 2)(2 − x)

2.118. 9x 2 − (x − 1)2 = (3x + x − 1)(3x − (x − 1)) = (4x − 1)(2x + 1)

2.119. (x − y)2 − 16(x + y)2 = (x − y + 4x + 4y)(x − y − 4x − 4y)

= (5x + 3y)(−3x − 5y) = −(5x + 3y)(3x + 5y)

2.120. (x + 2y)2 − 9(x − 2y)2 = (x + 2y + 3x − 6y)(x + 2y − (3x − 6y))

= (4x − 4y)(8y − 2x) = 4(x − y) 2(4y − x)
= 8 (x − y)(4y − x)

2.121. 4(x − y)2 − 25(x + y)2 = (2x − 2y + 5x + 5y)(2x − 2y − 5x − 5y)

= (7x + 3y)(−3x − 7y) = −(7x + 3y)(3x + 7y)

2.122. 36(x − 2)2 − 25(x + 1)2 = (6x − 12 + 5x + 5)(6x − 12 − 5x − 5) = (11x − 7)(x − 17)

2.123. (x + y − z)2 − (x − y + z)2 = (x + y
−
z + x − y
+
z)(x
+ y − z − x
+ y − z)

= 2x(2y − 2z) = 4x(y − z)
58 2 Polynomials

2.124. (x + y − 3)2 − 25(x + 2)2 = (x + y − 3 + 5x + 10)(x + y − 3 − 5x − 10)

= (6x + y + 7)(y − 4x − 13)

2.125. 98 × 102 = (100 − 2)(100 + 2) = 1002 − 22 = 10,000 − 4 = 9996

2.126. 99 × 101 = (100 − 1)(100 + 1) = 1002 − 1 = 9999

2.127. 83 × 77 = (80 + 3)(80 − 3) = 802 − 32 = 6400 − 9 = 6391

2.128. 79 × 81 = (80 − 1)(80 + 1) = 802 − 1 = 6400 − 1 = 6399

2.129. 18 × 22 = (20 − 2)(20 + 2) = 400 − 4 = 396

2.130. 201 × 199 = (200 + 1)(200 − 1) = 40,000 − 1 = 39,999

2.131. 1.05 × 0.95 = (1 + 0.05)(1 − 0.05) = 1 − 0.052 = 1 − 0.0025 = 0.9975

2.132. 1.01 × 0.99 = (1 + 0.01)(1 − 0.01) = 1 − 0.012 = 1 − 0.0001 = 0.9999

2.133. 9.9 × 10.1 = (10 − 0.1)(10 + 0.1) = 100 − 0.01 = 99.99

2.6 Quadratic Polynomial: Viète Formulas

2.134. Given x 2 − 6x + 5, by Viète formulas there should be x1 , x2 pair so that

x1 x2 = 5 and x1 + x2 = 6

Being prime number, “5” is divisible only with ±1, ±5. By simple trial, its factors −1 and
−5 satisfy both equalities, i.e., their product equals (−1)(−5) = +5 and their sum is (−1) +
(−5) = −6. Thus,

x 2 −6x + 5 = x 2 − (1)x − 5x + 5 = x(x − 1) − 5(x − 1) = (x − 1)(x − 5)

Therefore, two roots of x 2 − 6x + 5 are x1 = 1 and x2 = 5, which are easily verified by

P (x) = x 2 − 6x + 5 ∴ P (1) = 12 − 6(1) + 5 = 1 − 6 + 5 = 0

∴ P (5) = 52 − 6(5) + 5 = 25 − 30 + 5 = 0
2.6 Quadratic Polynomial: Viète Formulas 59

It is very useful technique for factorizing quadratic polynomials.

2.135. Given x 2 − 9x + 14, two factors of “+14” whose sum equals “−9” are “−2” and
“−7,” thus

x 2 −9x + 14 = x 2 −2x − 7x + 14 = x(x − 2) − 7(x − 2) = (x − 2)(x − 7)

Therefore, two roots of x 2 − 9x + 14 are x1 = 2 and x2 = 7.

2.136. Given x 2 − 6x + 8, two factors of “+8” whose sum equals “−6” are “−2” and “−4,”
thus,

x 2 −6x + 8 = x 2 −2x − 4x + 8 = x(x − 2) − 4(x − 2) = (x − 2)(x − 4)

Therefore, two roots of x 2 − 6x + 8 are x1 = 2 and x2 = 4.

2.137. Given 2x 2 + 3x + 1, the leading coefficient a = 2 = 1 then,

Method 1: factor the leading coefficient in trinomial as ax 2 +bx +c = a[x 2 +(b/a)x +(c/a)],
then apply Viète formulas as usual, i.e., search pair of (c/a) factors whose sum equals (b/a),
as
 
3 1
2x + 3x + 1 = 2 x + x +
2 2
2 2
 
1 1 1 3
= two factors of 1/2 are “1” and “1/2”, thus: 1 × = and 1 + =
2 2 2 2
   
1 1 1
= 2 x2 + x + x + = 2 x(x + 1) + (x + 1)
2 2 2
  
1
= 2 (x + 1) x + = (x + 1)(2x + 1)
2

Method 2: in ax 2 +bx+c factorize the product (ac) so that sum of its two factors equals b, i.e.,

 
2x 2 + 3x + 1 = ac = 2 × 1 = 2 ∴ 1 × 2 = 2 and 1 + 2 = 3
= 2x 2 +3x + 1 = 2x 2 +2x + x + 1 = 2x(x + 1) + x + 1
= (x + 1)(2x + 1)

The two techniques are simply question of preference; nevertheless, with good grasp on prime
factors, both techniques may be used mentally.
60 2 Polynomials

2.138. Search factors of (ac) whose sum equals b, i.e.,

3 × 8 = 24, (−12) × (−2) = 24 and

3x 2 −14x + 8 =
(−12) + (−2) = −14
= 3x 2 −12x − 2x + 8 = 3x(x − 4) − 2(x − 4)
= (x − 4)(3x − 2)

2.139. Search factors of (ac) whose sum equals b, i.e.,

 
−2x 2 +x + 3 = −2 × 3 = −6, (−2) + 3 = 1
= −2x 2 −2x + 3x + 3 = −2x(x + 1) + 3(x + 1)
= (x + 1)(3 − 2x)

2.140. −x 2 +5x − 4 = −x 2 +x + 4x − 4 = −x(x − 1) + 4(x − 1) = (x − 1)(4 − x)

2.141. −6x 2 +5x + 4 = −6x 2 −3x + 8x + 4 = −3x(2x + 1) + 4(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)(4 − 3x)

√ √ √ √ √
2.142. Given x 2 + ( 2 + 3)x + 6, √ there
√ is nothing
√ √ of b = 2 + 3; it is still
special
just a number. What is more, the product 2 3 = 2 · 3 = 6 is exactly as needed, thus
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
x 2 + ( 2 + 3)x + 6 = x 2 + x 2 + x 3 + 2 × 3 = x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2)
√ √
= (x + 2)(x + 3)
√ √ √ √ √
Therefore, two roots of x 2 + ( 2 + 3)x + 6 are x1 = − 2 and x2 = − 3.

2.143. In general, after rewriting x 2n as (x n )2 , this biquadratic polynomial form is converted

into quadratic relative to (x n ), then by Viète formulas, it follows

x 4 −13x 2 + 36 = (x 2 )2 −4(x 2 ) − 9(x 2 ) + 36 = x 2 (x 2 − 4) − 9(x 2 − 4)

= (x 2 − 4)(x 2 − 9) = (x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 3)

2.144. After rewriting x 2n as (x n )2 , this biquadratic polynomial form is converted into

quadratic relative to (x n ), and then by Viète formulas, it follows:

x 4 −10x 2 + 9 = x 4 −x 2 − 9x 2 − 9 = x 2 (x 2 − 1) − 9(x 2 − 1) = (x 2 − 1)(x 2 − 9)

= (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 3)(x − 3)
2.7 Completing the Square 61

2.145. This is biquadratic polynomial, as x 6 = (x 3 )2 so that

x 6 − 2x 3 + 1 = (x 3 )2 − 2(x 3 ) + 1 = (x 3 − 1)2
 
= (x 3 − 1) = (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1), see A.2.167
= [(x 2 + x + 1)(x − 1)]2 = (x 2 + x + 1)2 (x − 1)2

2.146. This is biquadratic polynomial, thus

x 6 +3x 3 + 2 = x 6 + x 3 + 2x 3 + 2 = x 3 (x 3 + 1) + 2(x 3 + 1)
 
= (x 3 + 1)(x 3 + 2) = by long divisions and factor theorem, see A.2.169
√ √ √
= (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)(x + 2)(x 2 − x 2 + 4)
3 3 3

2.147. This is biquadratic polynomial, thus

x 6 +9x 3 + 8 = x 6 +x 3 + 8x 3 + 8 = x 3 (x 3 + 1) + 8(x 3 + 1)
= (x 3 + 1)(x 3 + 8) = (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)(x 3 + 8)
= (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)(x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4)

2.148. This is biquadratic polynomial, thus

 2  
2x 2m+2 − 11x m+1 + 9 = 2 x m+1 − 11 x m+1 + 9
 2    
= 2 x m+1 − 2 x m+1 − 9 x m+1 + 9
   
= 2x m+1 x m+1 − 1 − 9 x m+1 − 1
  
= x m+1 − 1 2x m+1 − 9

2.7 Completing the Square

2.149. Factorization of higher-order polynomials usually requires multiple steps and tech-
niques. Therefore, there is no unique path to the solution. Nevertheless, sometimes the
solutions are elegant, for example, when it is possible to complete difference of squares as
in
 
x 4 + 4 = x 4 +4x 2 + 4 −4x 2 = (x 2 + 2)2 − (2x)2 = a 2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)
= (x 2 + 2x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 2)

Note that both quadratic polynomial have negative discriminants; thus, all four zeros of (x 4 +4)
are complex.
62 2 Polynomials

2.150. Similarly to P.2.149, it is possible to take advantage of difference of squares identity,

as

x 4 + x 2 + 1 = x 4 +2x 2 + 1 −x 2 = (x 2 + 1)2 − (x)2 = (x 2 − x + 1)(x 2 + x + 1)

thus, all four zeros of (x 4 + x 2 + 1) are complex.

2.151. Following same idea as already done in the previous examples,

x 5 + x + 1 = x 5 −x 2 +x 2 + x + 1 = x 2 (x 3 − 1) + x 2 + x + 1
 
= x 3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) see A.2.167
= x 2 (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) + (x 2 + x + 1)
 
= (x 2 + x + 1) x 2 (x − 1) + 1
= (x 2 + x + 1)(x 3 − x 2 + 1)

where quadratic polynomial (x 2 + x + 1) has two complex zeros and cubic polynomial (x 3 −
x 2 + 1) has one real and two complex zeros (see Vol.II on function analysis).

2.152. The change of variables technique in combination with other identities is very often
used to simplify complicated forms, as

(x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) + 15 = (x + 1)(x + 7) (x + 3)(x + 5) + 15

= (x 2 + 8x + 7)(x 2 + 8x + 15) + 15
= (x 2 + 8x + 7 )(x 2 + 8x + 7 + 8) + 15
 
= substitution: x 2 + 8x + 7 = t
= t (t + 8) + 15 = t 2 + 8t + 15
= t 2 + 3t + 5t + 15 = t (t + 3) + 5(t + 3) = (t + 3)(t + 5)
 
= back substitution: t = x 2 + 8x + 7
 
= x 2 + 8x + 7 + 3)(x 2 + 8x + 7 + 5
 
= x 2 + 8x + 10)(x 2 + 8x + 12
  
= x 2 + 2(4)x +42 − 42 + 10 x 2 + 2x + 6x + 12
   
= (x + 4)2 − 6 (x + 2)(x + 6) = a 2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)
√ √
= (x + 4 − 6)(x + 4 + 6)(x + 2)(x + 6)
2.7 Completing the Square 63

2.153. Complete the binomial square form by artificially adding the missing term to create
binomial square, in this case “+32 ” and “−32 ,” as follows:

x 2 + 6x − 7 = x 2 + 2(3)x +32 − 32 − 7 = (x + 3)2 − 16 = 0

   
(x + 3)2 − 16

Therefore, the quadratic equation may be solved as

(x + 3)2 = 16 ∴ x + 3 = ±4 ∴ x1,2 = −3 ± 4 ∴ x1 = 1, x2 = −7

which is easily verified as

P (x) = x 2 + 6x − 7 ∴ P (1) = (1)2 + 6(1) − 7 = 1 + 6 − 7 = 0

∴ P (7) = (−7)2 + 6(−7) − 7 = 49 − 42 − 7 = 0

2.154. Given 2x 2 − 10x − 3 = 0, the leading coefficient (i.e., “2”) may be factored. However,
the leftover linear term coefficient “5” is a prime number, thus not divisible by “2” that would
be necessary to factor and complete the square form. Instead, artificially create “5/2” term, as
     
3 5 3
2x 2 − 10x − 3 = 2 x 2 − 5x − = 2 x2 − 2 x−
2 2 2
    2  2 
5 5 5 3
= 2 x2 − 2 x+ − −
2 2 2 2
 
 
5 2
x−
2
 2    
5 25 3 5 2 31
=2 x− − − =2 x− − =0
2 4 2 2 4
 
5 2 31
x− − =0 ∴
2 4
    √
5 2 31 5 31 5 31 5 ± 31
x− = ∴ x− =± ∴ x1,2 = ± =
2 4 2 4 2 4 2

2.155. Factor the leading coefficient “−1” as

 
−x 2 − 6x + 7 = − x 2 + 2(3)x +32 −32 − 7
 
= − (x + 3)2 − 16 = 0
∴ (x + 3)2 − 16 = 0
√
∴ x + 3 = ± 16
64 2 Polynomials

∴ x1,2 = −3 ± 4
x1 = 1, x2 = −7

Note however that although the roots of (−x 2 − 6x + 7) and (x 2 + 6x − 7) are same, these
two quadratic polynomials are not equal.

2.156. Given x 2 + 3x = 0, there are multiple techniques, as

Method 1: Force the completing square form as

   2  2  
3 3 3 3 2 9
x + 3x = x + 2
2 2
x+ − = x+ − =0
2 2 2 2 4
3 3 3 3
∴ x+ =± ∴ x1,2 = − ± ∴ x1 = 0, x2 = −3
2 2 2 2

Method 2: Of course, in this case, factorization is faster

x 2 + 3x = x(x + 3) = 0 ∴ x1 = 0, x2 = −3

2.157. Factorize the leading coefficient “2,” and artificially introduce “±3/2,” so that
    2  2 
3 3 3
2x + 6x + 2 = 2 x + 2
2 2
x+ − +1
2 2 2
  
3 2 9
=2 x+ − +1 =0
2 4
 √
3 5 −3 ± 5
∴ x+ =± ∴ x1,2 =
2 4 2

 2
1 25
2.158. x − x − 6 = 0 ∴
2
x− − = 0 ∴ x1 = −2, x2 = 3
2 4

2.8 Factor Theorem

2.159. Two polynomials are identical if they are of the same order, and they have the same
coefficients. As an extension, a polynomial is divisible by each of its binomial factors. Thus,
given two binomial factors, the corresponding quadratic polynomial P (x) is

P (x) = (x − 1)(x + 1) = x 2 + x
− x
− 1 = x 2 − 1
2.8 Factor Theorem 65

Evidently, this quadratic polynomial is incomplete, and the linear term x is missing. The
missing terms may be explicitly written in with the coefficient zero, as

P (x) = x 2 + 0 x − 1

Identity of two polynomials implies identical coefficients, that is,

P (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = x 2 + 0 x − 1

which is true only if a = 1, b = 0, and c = −1.

2.160. Two polynomials are identical if they are of the same order and they have the same
coefficients. As an extension, a polynomial is divisible by each of its binomial factors. Thus,
given two binomial factors, the corresponding quadratic polynomial P (x) is

P (x) = (x − 1)(2 − x) = 2x − x 2 − 2 + x = −x 2 + 3x − 2

Identity of two polynomials implies identical coefficients, that is,

P (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = −x 2 + 3x − 2

which is true only if a = −1, b = 3, and c = −2.

2.161. Two polynomials are identical if they are of the same order and they have the same
coefficients. As an extension, a polynomial is divisible by each of its binomial factors. Thus,
given two binomial factors, the corresponding quadratic polynomial P (x) is
    
P (x) = −(x − 1) −(x − 1) = (−1)2 (x − 1)2 = see A.2.6 = x 2 − 2x + 1

Identity of two polynomials implies identical coefficients, that is,

P (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = x 2 − 2x + 1

which is true only if a = 1, b = −2, and c = 1.

2.162. Two polynomials are identical if they are of the same order and they have the same
coefficients. As an extension, a polynomial is divisible by each of its binomial factors. Thus,
given two binomial factors, the corresponding quadratic polynomial P (x) is
 
P (x) = −(3x − 1) (2 − x) = −(6x − 3x 2 − 2 + x) = 3x 2 − 7x + 2

Identity of two polynomials implies identical coefficients, that is,

P (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = 3x 2 − 7x + 2

which is true only if a = 3, b = −7, and c = 2.

66 2 Polynomials

2.163. Third-order polynomial P (x) that is divisible by x, (x − 1) and (x − 2) must be in the

form of products of its three binomial factors, that is,

P (x) = (x +0)(x − 1)(x − 2) = x(x 2 − 3x + 2) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x + 0

where x factor is written in its binomial form as (x − 0) and the constant term took its place
as zero. Therefore,

P (x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x ∴ a = 1, b = −3, c = 2, and d = 0

2.164. Third-order polynomial P (x) that is divisible by (x + 1), (x − 1) and (x + 2) must be

in the form of products of its three binomial factors, that is,

P (x) = (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 2) = (x 2 − 1)(x + 2) = x 3 + 2x 2 − x − 2

Therefore,

P (x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = x 3 + 2x 2 − x − 2 ∴ a = 1, b = 2, c = −1, and d = −2

2.165. Third-order polynomial P (x) that is divisible by (x + 1), (x − 2) and (x + 3) must be

in the form

P (x) = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) = x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x − 6

Therefore,

P (x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x − 6 ∴ a = 1, b = 2, c = −5 and d = −6

2.166. Third-order polynomial P (x) that is divisible by (2x − 5), (2 − x), and (x + 4) must
have form

P (x) = (2x − 5)(2 − x)(x + 4) = −2x 3 + x 2 + 26x − 40

Therefore,

P (x) = ax 3 +bx 2 +cx + d = − 2x 3 +x 2 +26x − 40 ∴ a = −2, b = 1, c = 26 and d = −40

2.167. Given Q3 (x) = 1x 3 − 1, the only two factors of a3 a0 = 1 × (−1) = −1 product

are “+1” and “−1.” That is because “−1 × 1 = −1” and “1 × (−1) = −1.” Possible roots of
Q3 (x) may be one of these two factors; thus, first step is to verify if Q3 (±1) = 0, as

Q3 (−1) = (−1)3 − 1 = −2 ∴ Q(−1) = 0

Q3 (1) = (1)3 − 1 = 0 ∴ x1 = 1
2.8 Factor Theorem 67

That is to say, because Q(1) = 0, it must be that x1 = 1 is one of its roots, by consequence
(x − 1) is one of Q3 (x) factors. Once the first root is known, then Q3 (x) polynomial can be
further factorized by long division as

Q3 (x) = (x − 1)(ax 2 + bx + c) ⇒ Q3 (x) ÷ (x − 1) = ax 2 + bx + c

where (ax 2 +bx+c) must be second-order polynomial that is left after a third-order polynomial
is divided by a first-order polynomial, i.e.,

ax 2 + bx + c = Q3 (x) ÷ (x − x1 ) ⇒ ax 2 + bx + c = (x 3 − 1) ÷ (x − 1)

The long polynomial division results in

(x 3 − 1) ÷ (x − 1) = x 2 + x + 1
−(x 3 − x 2 )
x2 − 1
− (x 2 − x)
x−1
− (x − 1)
=0

Therefore, Q3 (x) = x 3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1). The quadratic polynomial factor may

be itself further factorized by multiple methods. For example, its discriminant is negative;
therefore, the last two roots of Q3 are complex.

 = b2 − 4ac = 12 − 4 × 1 × 1 = −3 < 0
∴
√ √
−b ±  −1 ± i 3
x2,3 = =
2a 2
∴
Q(x) = x 3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
 √  √ 
1+i 3 1−i 3
= (x − 1) x + x+
2 2

Note that this procedure for factorizing higher-order polynomials is quite general, and it
illustrates the use of basic theorems of algebra.

2.168. An important polynomial form is known as the difference of two cubes. Given
P (x) = x 3 − y 3 , note that P.2.167 may be considered as special case where y = 1. Then,
similarly, by inspection of P (x), it may be concluded that one of its roots must be x1 = y,
68 2 Polynomials

that is because P (y) = 0. Therefore, P (x) is divisible by (x − y).

The long polynomial division results in

(x 3 +0x 2 y +0xy 2 − y 3 ) ÷ (x − y) = x 2 + xy + y 2
x3 − x2y

x 2 y +0xy 2
x 2 y − xy 2

xy 2 − y 3
xy 2 − y 3

=0 ∴ (x 3 − y 3 ) = (x − y)(x 2 + xy + y 2 )

is one of basic polynomial identities, e.g., difference of squares, square of a binomial, etc..

2.169. Given P3 (x) = 1x 3 + 1, the only two factors of a3 a0 = 1 × 1 = 1 product are “+1”
and “−1.” That is because “(−1) × (−1) = 1” and “1 × 1 = 1.” Possible roots of P3 (x) may
be one of these two factors; thus, first step is to verify if P3 (±1) = 0, as

P3 (−1) = (−1)3 + 1 = 0 ∴ x1 = −1
P3 (1) = (1)3 + 1 = 2 ∴ P3 (1) = 0

That
  because P (−1) = 0, it must be that x1 = −1 is one of its roots; in other words,
is to say,
x − (−1) is one of P3 (x) factors, and furthermore P3 (x) polynomial can be factorized as

P3 (x) = (x + 1)(ax 2 + bx + c) ⇒ P3 (x) ÷ (x + 1) = ax 2 + bx + c

where (ax 2 + bx + c) must be second-order polynomial that is left after the factorization, i.e.,

ax 2 + bx + c = P3 (x) ÷ (x − x1 ) ⇒ ax 2 + bx + c = (x 3 + 1) ÷ (x + 1)

The long polynomial division results in

(x 3 + 1) ÷ (x + 1) = x 2 − x + 1
−(x 3 + x 2 )
− x2 + 1
− (−x 2 − x)
x+1
− (x + 1)
=0
2.8 Factor Theorem 69

Therefore, R3 (x) = x 3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1). The quadratic polynomial factor may

be itself further factorized by multiple methods. For example, its discriminant is negative;
therefore, the last two roots of R3 are complex,

 = b2 − 4ac = (−1)2 − 4 × 1 × 1 = −3 < 0

∴
√ √
−b ±  1±i 3
x2,3 = =
2a 2
∴
P (x) = x 3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)
 √  √ 
1+i 3 1−i 3
= (x + 1) x − x−
2 2

2.170. Given R3 (x) = 1x 3 + x + 2, factors of a3 a0 = 1 × 2 = 1 product are “+1, +2”

and “−1, −2.” Possible roots of R3 (x) may be among these four factors. Thus, by inspection,
R3 (−1) = 0, as (−13 ) + (−1) + 2 = 0. The long polynomial division results in

(x 3 + x + 2) ÷ (x + 1) = x 2 − x + 2
−(x 3 + x 2 )
− x2 + x
− (−x 2 − x)
2x + 2
− (2x + 2)
=0

Therefore, (x 3 + x + 2) = (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 2), where the quadratic term has two complex
zeros.

2.171. Given P (x) = x 3 + y 3 , note that P.2.169 may be considered as special case
where y = 1. Then, similarly, by inspection of P (x), it may be concluded that one of its
roots must be x1 = −y, that is because P (−y) = 0. Therefore, P (x) is divisible by x−(−y) .

The long polynomial division results in

(x 3 +0x 2 y +0xy 2 + y 3 ) ÷ (x + y) = x 2 − xy + y 2
x3 + x2y

− x 2 y +0xy 2
−x 2 y − xy 2
70 2 Polynomials

xy 2 + y 3
xy 2 + y 3

=0

Therefore, (x 3 + y 3 ) = (x + y)(x 2 − xy + y 2 ), and it is usually listed among other basic

polynomial identities, e.g., difference of squares, square of a binomial, etc..

2.172. Given P6 (x) = x 6 − 14x 4 + 49x 2 − 36, prime factors of 1 a0 = −36 are

−36 = −1 × 36 = −2 × 18 = −2 × 2 × 9 = −2 × 2 × 3 × 3

Thus possible roots of P6 (x) = x 6 − 14x 4 + 49x 2 − 36 may be among ±1, ±2, ±3 factors.
Thus, by inspection,

P (1) = (1)6 − 14(1)4 + 49(1)2 − 36 = 1 − 14 + 49 − 36 = 0 ∴ x1 = 1

P (1) = (−1)6 − 14(−1)4 + 49(−1)2 − 36 = 1 − 14 + 49 − 36 = 0 ∴ x2 = −1
P (−2) = (−2)6 − 14(−2)4 + 49(−2)2 − 36 = 64 − 224 + 196 − 36 = 0 ∴ x3 = −2

cont.
P (2) = (2)6 − 14(2)4 + 49(2)2 − 36 = 64 − 224 + 196 − 36 = 0 ∴ x4 = −2
 
P (3) = (3)6 − 14(3)4 + 49(3)2 − 4 × 32 = 32 34 − 14 × 32 + 49 − 4
   
= 32 34 − 14 × 32 + 5 × 32 = 32 × 32 32 − 14 + 5
 
= 32 × 32 32 − 32 = 0 ∴ x5 = 3

and note that this polynomial has only even powers, as (−x)2n = x 2n thus P (−x) = P (x),
that is to say P (−3) = 0, and x6 = −3. As ti happens, all roots of this sixth-order polynomial
are found by the factor theorem, without the need for long division.

2.173. Given P (x) = x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 4, factors of “−4 × 1 = −4” are “{±1, ±4, ±2}.” That
is because:

(−1) × 4 = −4, 1 × (−4) = −4, (−2) × 2 = −4

Thus, P (x) calculated for each factor is

P (−1) = ((−1)3 + (−1)2 − 4(−1) − 4) = 0 ∴ x1 = −1

P (1) = ((1)3 + (1)2 − 4(1) − 4) = −6 ∴ P (1) = 0
P (−2) = ((−2)3 + (−2)2 − 4(−2) − 4) = 0 ∴ x2 = −2
2.8 Factor Theorem 71

P (2) = ((2)3 + (2)2 − 4(2) − 4) = 0 ∴ x3 = 2

P (−4) = ((−4)3 + (−4)2 − 4(−4) − 4) = −36 ∴ P (−4) = 0
P (4) = ((4)3 + (4)2 − 4(4) − 4) = 60 ∴ P (4) = 0

Therefore,

P (x) = x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 4 = (x − x1 )(x − x2 )(x − x3 ) = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 2)

As it happens, all three roots are real.

2.174. Given polynomial P (x) = (x 4 − 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 4x + 1) and divisor (x − 1), then

by the factor theorem if the constant termx0 = 1 of binomial (x − 1) is root of P (x) =
(x 4 − 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 4x + 1) and furthermore it must be true that P (1) = 0. Equivalently, it
is to say that reminder r = 0, and by consequence, it could be concluded that P (x) is indeed
divisible by (x − 1). Direct calculation reveals that

P (1) = (1)4 − 2(1)3 + 3(1)2 − 4(1) + 1 = −1 = 0

Therefore, x0 = 1 is not the root of P (x); consequently, (x − 1) is not one of P (x) factors,
because reminder of this division is

−1
r= = 0
x−1

2.175. Given polynomial P (x) = (x 3 + 1) and divisor (x + 1) = (x − (−1)), i.e., x0 = −1,

then by the factor theorem and following the same argument as in A.2.174, direct calculation
reveals

P (−1) = (−1)3 + 1 = 0

Therefore, x0 = −1 is indeed one of the roots of P (x), because reminder

0
r= =0
x+1

i.e., P (x) is divisible by (x + 1). As a matter of fact, by long division, it may be shown that

(x 3 + 0x 2 + 0 x + 1) ÷ (x + 1) = x 2 − x + 1
−(x 3 + x 2 )
− x2 + 0 x
− (−x 2 − x)
x +1
− (x + 1)
=0
72 2 Polynomials

 
2.176. Given polynomial P (x) = x 1965 − 256x 1961 + 1 and its divisor Q(x) = x 2 − 4x,
it means that if P (x) is divisible by Q(x), it must be divisible by all factors of Q(x) as well,
where

Q(x) = x 2 − 4x = x(x − 4) = (x − 0)(x − 4)

It is necessary therefore to calculate reminders for both (x − 0) and (x − 4) factors as

:0
 :0

(0)
P (0) =  1965
(0)
− 256 1961
+1=1
P (4) = (4)1965 − 256(4)1961 + 1 = 41965 − 44 (4)1961 + 1
   − 41965

= a b a c = a b+c = 41965 − 41961+4 + 1 = 41965  + 1
=1

In conclusion, neither (x − 0) nor (x − 4) are factors of the given 1965th order polynomial,
because there is nonzero reminder

1
r=
x2 − 4x

As this 1965th order polynomial is divided by a second-order polynomial, the resulting

polynomial must be 1965 − 2 = 1963rd order, that is,

P1965 (x) 1
= N1963 (x) + 2
Q2 (x) x − 4x

where N1963 (x) is a 1963rd order polynomial.

2.177. Given polynomial P (x) = (x 2024 − 2x 2024 − 1) and its divisor Q(x) = (x 2 − 3x + 2),
it means that if P (x) is divisible by Q(x), it must be divisible by all factors of Q(x) as well,
where

Q(x) = x 2 − 3x + 2 = x 2 − x − 2x + 2 = x(x − 1) − 2(x − 1) = (x − 1)(x − 2)

It is necessary to calculate reminders at two points, i.e., for both (x − 1) and (x − 2) factors as

:1 
 :1

(1)
R(1) = P (1) =  2024
− 2
(1)2023 − 1 = 1
− 2 − 1
= −2
 − 22024

R(2) = P (2) = (2)2024 − 2(2)2023 − 1 = 
22024  − 1 = −1

As there are two different values of r and there are two points in consideration, x = 1 and
x = 2, the conclusion is that simplest reminder must be in the form

R(x) ax + b
r(x) = = 2
x2 − 3x + 2 x − 3x + 2
2.8 Factor Theorem 73

where polynomial R(x) = ax + b is resolved as

x = 1 : R(1) = −2 = a(1) + b a + b = −2
∴ ∴ a = 1, b = −3
x = 2 : R(2) = −1 = a(2) + b 2a + b = −1

so that R(x) = x − 3. In conclusion, the reminder in division P (x)/Q(x)

x−3 P (x) x 2024 − 2x 2023 − 1 x−3

r= ⇒ = = N2022 (x) + 2
x − 3x + 2
2 Q(x) x − 3x + 2
2 x − 3x + 2

where N2022 (x) is a 2022nd order polynomial. This is because 2024th order polynomial is
divided by a second-order polynomial, and the resulting polynomial must be 2024 − 2 =
2022nd order.

2.178. Given parametrized polynomial P (x, k) = 4x 5 + k x 4 + 8x 3 + 5x 2 + 3x + 2 and its

divisor Q(x) = x + 2, i.e., for P (x) to be divisible by (x + 2), it is necessary that P (−2) = 0.
That is to say,

P (−2) = 4(−2)5 + k(−2)4 + 8(−2)3 + 5(−2)2 + 3(−2) + 2

= −128 + 16k − 64 + 20 − 6 + 2 = 0 ∴ 16k − 176 = 0
176 2 × 88 2
× 8
× 11
∴ k= = = = 11
16 2×8 2
× 8

so it must be P (x) = 4x 5 + 11x 4 + 8x 3 + 5x 2 + 3x + 2. Indeed, by long division, it may be

shown that

4x 5 + 11x 4 + 8x 3 + 5x 2 + 3x + 2
= 4x 4 + 3x 3 + 2x 2 + x + 1
x+2

2.179. Given parametrized polynomial P (x, k) = x 3 − 3k x + 4(k 2 + 1)x − (k 3 + 5) and its

divisor Q(x) = x − 1, i.e., for P (x, k) to be divisible by (x − 1), it is necessary that P (1) = 0.
Therefore,

r = P (1) = (1)3 − 3k(1) + 4(k 2 + 1)(1) − (k 3 + 5)

= 1 − 3k + 4k 2 + 4 − k 3 − 5
= −k 3 + 4k 2 − 3k = −k(k 2 − 4k + 3) = −k(k 2 − k − 3k + 3)
 
= −k k(k − 1) − 3(k − 1) = −k(k − 1)(k − 3) = 0

Therefore, there are three values of k that produce r = 0, i.e., k = 0, 1, 3, i.e.,

k = 0 : P (x, k) = x 3 + 4x − 5
k = 1 : P (x, k) = x 3 + 5x − 6
k = 3 : P (x, k) = x 3 + 31x − 32
74 2 Polynomials

Indeed, by long division, it may be confirmed that

P (x, k) x 3 + 4x − 5
k=0: = = x2 + x + 5
x−1 x−1
P (x, k) x 3 + 5x − 6
k=1: = = x2 + x + 6
x−1 x−1
P (x, k) x 3 + 31x − 32
k=3: = = x 2 + x + 32
x−1 x−1

2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition

2.180. Given

P (x) x
=
Q(x) (x + 1)(x − 4)

denominator Q(x) has two unique zeros at x = −1 and x = 4, thus for each zero, there is one
constant, A and B, respectively, as

P (x) x A B A(x − 4) + B(x + 1) Ax − 4A + Bx + B

= = + = =
Q(x) (x + 1)(x − 4) x+1 x−4 (x + 1)(x − 4) (x + 1)(x − 4)
(A + B)x + B − 4A
=
(x + 1)(x − 4)

Denominator Q(x) is unchanged; therefore, numerator P (x) is unchanged too, that is,

1x ≡ (A + B)x + B − 4A

Two polynomials are equal if coefficients of all monomials are equal. In the first-order
polynomial, there are two unknowns; thus, two equations as

term x 1 : 1 = A + B ∴ A = 1 − B
term x 0 : 0 = B − 4A ∴ B = 4A
∴
4 4 1
B = 4(1 − B), ∴ B = ∴ A=1− =
5 5 5

In summary,

P (x) x 1 4
= = +
Q(x) (x + 1)(x − 4) 5(x + 1) 5(x − 4)

where, within an integral, decomposed form on the right side is easily integrated.
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 75

2.181. Given

P (x) 1
=
Q(x) (x + 1)(x + 2)

denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros at x = −1 and x = −2, as

1 A B A(x + 2) + B(x + 1)
= + = ∴ (A + B) x + (2A + B) = 1
(x + 1)(x + 2) x+1 x+2 (x + 1)(x + 2)
∴ A + B = 0 ∴ A = −B
∴ 2A + B = 1 ∴ B = −1 ∴ A = 1

Therefore,

1 1 1
= −
(x + 1)(x + 2) x+1 x+2

2.182. Given

P (x) x−1 x−1

= 2 =
Q(x) x +x x(x + 1)

denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros at x = 0 and x = −1; thus, for each zero, there is
one constant, A and B, respectively. Equality of polynomials before and after decomposition
gives

x−1 A B A(x + 1) + Bx
= + =
x(x + 1) x x+1 x(x + 1)
∴ (A + B) x + A = 1
∴ A = −1
∴ A+B =1 ∴ B =1−A= ∴ B =2

Therefore,

x−1 1 2
=− +
x +x
2 x x+1

2.183. Given

P (x) 1 1
= 2 =
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)

denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros at x = 1 and x = −1; thus, for each zero, there
is one constant, A and B, respectively, as
76 2 Polynomials

1 1 A B A(x + 1)+B(x − 1)
= = + = ∴ (A+B) x+(A−B)=1
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x−1 x+1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
∴ A + B = 0 ∴ A = −B
1 1
∴ A − B = 1 ∴ 2A = ∴ A = ∴ B=−
2 2

Therefore,

1 1 1 1 1
= −
x2 − 1 2 x−1 2 x+1

2.184. Given

P (x) x+2 x+2

= 3 = 2
Q(x) x − 2x 2 x (x − 2)

denominator Q(x) has one unique zero at x = 2 and one double zero x = 0. Terms
associated with the multiple real zeros are created in the form of constant over denominator in
progressively increasing powers until the order of multiplicity (here two). Thus, in this case,
constants A and B are assigned to x1 = 0 and x2 = 0 double zero, while constant C is assigned
to x3 = 2 zero as

P (x) x+2 x+2  

= 3 = 2 = Q(x) = x 2 (x − 2) ∴ x1,2 = 0, x3 = 2
Q(x) x − 2x 2 x (x − 2)
A B C Ax(x − 2) + B(x − 2) + Cx 2
= + 2+ =
x x x−2 x 2 (x − 2)
Ax 2 − 2Ax + Bx − 2B + Cx 2 (A + C)x 2 + (B − 2A)x − 2B
= =
x 2 (x − 2) x 2 (x − 2)

Denominator Q(x) is unchanged; therefore, numerator P (x) is unchanged after decomposi-

tion. A second-order polynomial has three terms, thus three unknowns as

0x 2 + 1x + 2 ≡ (A + C)x 2 + (B − 2A)x − 2B
∴
term x 2 : 0 = A + C ∴ A = −C
term x 1 : 1 = B − 2A
term x 0 : 2 = −2B ∴ B = −1
∴
B = −1, ∴ 1 = (−1) − 2A ∴ A = −1 ∴ C = 1

So that the original rational function with three poles is decomposed into the equivalent sum
of three much simpler rational functions as
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 77

P (x) x+2 x+2 1 1 1

= 3 = 2 =− − 2 +
Q(x) x − 2x 2 x (x − 2) x x x−2

2.185. Given

Pk (x) 1
= 3
Qm (x) x −1

denominator Q(x) has one unique real zero at x = 1, as well as two complex conjugate zeros.
To each real unique zero, there is one constant assigned (here A), and two constants (here B
and C) are assigned to one complex conjugate pair of zeros as

P (x) 1   1
= 3 = see A.2.167 =
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
A Bx + C A(x 2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 1)
= + 2 =
x−1 x +x+1 (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
(A + B)x 2 + (A − B + C)x + A − C
=
(x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)

Denominator Q(x) did not change; therefore, numerator P (x) must not change before and
after decomposition, that is,

1 ≡ (A + B)x 2 + (A − B + C)x + A − C
∴
term x 2 : 0 = A + B ∴ A = −B
term x 1 : 0 = A − B + C ∴ 0 = (−B) − B + C ∴ C = 2B
1
term x 0 : 1 = A − C ∴ 1 = (−B) − (2B) ∴ B = −
3
2 1
C=− ∴ A=
3 3

Finally,

P (x) 1 1 1 x+2
= 3 = = −
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x + x + 1)
2 3(x − 1) 3(x + x + 1)
2

Note that a complex conjugate pair results in one rational function with quadratic polynomial
as its denominator.

2.186. Given

P (x) x3 + x − 1
=
Q(x) (x 2 + 2)2
78 2 Polynomials

denominator Q(x) has duplicity of complex conjugate zeros. To each complex conjugate pair
of zeros, there are two constants assigned (here A, B, and C, D). Note how denominator
polynomials are assigned with progressively increasing powers until the duplicity (here, two)
as

P (x) x3 + x − 1 Ax + B Cx + D (Ax + B)(x 2 + 2) + Cx + D

= = + =
Q(x) (x 2 + 2)2 x2 + 2 (x 2 + 2)2 (x 2 + 2)2
Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (C + 2A)x + 2B + D
=
(x 2 + 2)2

By equalizing polynomials before and after decomposition, it follows that

x 3 + x − 1 ≡ Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (C + 2A)x + 2B + D
∴
term x 3 : A = 1
term x 2 : B = 0
term x 1 : 1 = C + 2A ∴ C = −1
0
+ D ∴ D = −1
term x 0 : −1 = 2B

Finally,

P (x) x3 + x − 1 x x+1
= = 2 −
Q(x) (x 2 + 2)2 x + 2 (x 2 + 2)2

2.187. Given

P (x) 2x 2
= 4
Q(x) x −1

denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros at x = 1 and x = −1, as well as two complex
conjugate zeros. To each real unique zero, there is one constant assigned (here A and B), and
two constants (here C and D) are assigned to one complex conjugate pair of zeros as

P (x) 2x 2   2x 2
= 4 = a 2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b) = 2
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x 2 + 1)
2x 2 A B Cx + D
= = + + 2
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 1)
2 x−1 x+1 x +1
A(x + 1)(x 2 + 1) + B(x − 1)(x 2 + 1) + (Cx + D)(x − 1)(x + 1)
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
(A + B + C)x 3 + (A − B + D)x 2 + (A + B − C)x + A − B − D
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 79

By equalizing numerators and denominators before and after decomposition, it follows that

2x 2 ≡ (A + B + C)x 3 + (A − B + D)x 2 + (A + B − C)x + (A − B − D)

∴
term x 3 : 0 = A + B + C
term x 2 : 2 = A − B + D
term x 1 : 0 = A + B − C
term x 0 : 0 = A − B − D

The above system of four linear equations may be solved, for example, by the reduction
method. From first equation 0 = A + B + C ∴ B = −A − C, then

2 = A − B + D ∴ 2 = A − (−A − C) + D = 2A + C + D
0 = A + B − C ∴ 0 = A + (−A − C) − C = −2C ∴ C = 0
0 = A − B − D ∴ 0 = A − (−A − C) − D = 2A − @
C − D = 2A − D ∴ 2A = D
2 = 2A + @
C + D ∴ D = 2 − 2A
1
2A = D ∴ 2A = 2 − 2A ∴ A = ∴ D=1
2
1
B = −A − @
C ∴ B=−
2

Finally,
P (x) 2x 2 2x 2 1 1 1
= 4 = = − +
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)(x 2 + 1) 2(x − 1) 2(x + 1) x 2 + 1
Note that a single complex conjugate pair results in one rational function with quadratic
polynomial in the denominator.

2.188. Given

P (x) 4
= 4
Q(x) x +1

numerator Q(x) has two complex pairs of zeros. Complete the squares to enforce biquadratic
form, and then use difference of squares identities to rearrange resulting fourth-order
polynomial.

P (x) 4 4 4
= 4 = 4 = √
Q(x) x +1 x +2x + 1 −2x
2 2 2
(x 2 + 1)2 − 2x

4 Ax + B Cx + D
= √ √ = √ + √
(x 2 + 1 − 2 x)(x + 1 + 2 x)
2 x − 2x + 1 x + 2x + 1
2 2
80 2 Polynomials

√ √
(Ax + B)(x 2 + 2 x + 1) + (Cx + D)(x 2 − 2 x + 1)
= √ √ =
(x 2 − 2 x + 1)(x 2 + 2 x + 1)
√ √ √ √
(A + C)x 3 + ( 2A + B − 2C + D)x 2 + (A + C + 2B − 2D)x + B + D
√ √
(x 2 − 2 x + 1)(x 2 + 2 x + 1)

By equalizing polynomials before and after decomposition, it follows that

√ √ √ √
4 ≡ (A + C)x 3 + ( 2A + B − 2C + D)x 2 + (A + C + 2B − 2D)x + B + D
∴
term x 3 : 0 = A + C ∴ A = −C
√ √ √
term x 2 : 0 = 2A + B − 2C + D ∴ 0 = −2 2C + B + D
√ √ √ √
term x 1 : 0 = A + C + 2B − 2D ∴ 0 = + 2B − 2D ∴ B = D
term x 0 : 4 = B + D ∴ 4 = D + D ∴ D = 2 ∴ B = 2
√ √ √
∴ 0 = −2 2C + 4 ∴ C = 2 ∴ A = − 2

Finally,
√ √
P (x) 4 − 2x + 2 2x + 2
= 4 = √ + √
Q(x) x +1 x2 − 2 x + 1 x2 + 2 x + 1

2.189. Given,

1
x 3 (x − 1)2

denominator Q(x) has five real zeros: one zero with the multiplicity of three (x = 0), and
one with the multiplicity of two (x = 1). Terms associated with each multiple real zeros are
created in the form of constant over denominator in progressively increasing powers until the
order of multiplicity (here three and two). Thus,

P (x) 1  
= 3 = Q(x) = x 3 (x − 1)2 ∴ x1,2,3 = 0, x4,5 = 1
Q(x) x (x − 1)2
A B C D E
= + 2+ 3+ +
x x x x − 1 (x − 1)2
A x 2 (x − 1)2 + B x(x − 1)2 + C (x − 1)2 + D x 3 (x − 1) + E x 3
=
x 3 (x − 1)2

By equalizing polynomials before and after decomposition, it follows that

1 = Ax 2 (x − 1)2 + Bx (x − 1)2 + C (x − 1)2 + Dx 3 (x − 1) + Ex 3

= (A + D)x 4 + (E − 2A − D + B)x 3 + (A − 2B + C)x 2 + (B − 2C)x + C
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 81

Therefore,

A + D = 0 ∴ D = −A
E − 2A − D + B = 0 ∴ E + 2D − D + B = 0 ∴ E + D + B = 0
A − 2B + C = 0
B − 2C = 0 ∴ B = 2C
C=1 ∴ B=2

and, by working backward,

C = 1 ,B = 2 , ∴ A − 4 + 1 = 0 ∴ A = 3 ∴ D = −3
E+D+B =0 ∴ E =3−2 ∴ E =1

So that the original rational function with three poles is decomposed into the equivalent sum
of three much simpler rational functions as

1 3 2 1 3 1
= + 2+ 3− +
x 3 (x − 1)2 x x x x − 1 (x − 1)2

2.190. Given

1
x 3 (x 2 − x + 1)2

denominator Q(x) has three real zeros: one zero with the multiplicity of three (x = 0) and
a complex conjugate pair of complex zeros with the multiplicity of two. Terms associated
with each multiple zeros are created in the form of constant over denominator in progressively
increasing powers until the order of multiplicity (here three and two). Thus,

1 A B C Ex + D Gx + F
 2 = + 2+ 3+ 2 + 2
x3 x2 − x + 1 x x x x −x+1 x2 − x + 1
Ax 2 (x 2 −x+1)2 +Bx(x 2 −x+1)2 +C(x 2 −x+1)2 +(Ex+D)x 3 (x 2 −x+1)+(Gx+F )x 3
=  2
x3 x2 − x + 1
(A + E)x 6 + (B − 2A − E + D)x 5 + (3A − 2B + C + E − D + G)x 4 + · · ·
=  2
x3 x2 − x + 1
· · · + (3B−2A−2C+D+F )x 3 +(A−2B+3C)x 2 +(B−2C)x+C

By equalizing polynomials before and after decomposition, it follows that

A + E = 0 ∴ E = −A
B − 2A − E + D = 0 ∴ B − 2A + A + D = 0 ∴ B − A + D = 0
82 2 Polynomials

3A − 2B + C + E − D + G = 0 ∴ 3A−2B +C−A−D +G=0 ∴ 2A−2B+C−D +G=0

3B − 2A − 2C + D + F = 0
A − 2B + 3C = 0
B − 2C = 0 ∴ B = 2C
C=1 ∴ B=2

and, by working backward,

C = 1 ,B = 2 ∴ A−4+3=0 ∴ A=1 ∴ E = −1
3B − 2A − 2C + D + F = 0 ∴ 6 − 2 − 2 + D + F = 0 ∴ D + F = −2
2A − 2B + C − D + G = 0 ∴ 2 − 4 + 1 − D + G = 0 ∴ D − G = −1
B − A + D = 0 ∴ 2 − 1 + D = 0 ∴ D = −1 ∴ G=0 ∴ F = −1

In summary,

A = 1, B = 2, C = 1, D = −1, E = −1, F = −1, G = 0

so that

1 A B C Ex + D Gx + F
= + 2+ 3+ 2 + 2
x 3 (x 2 − x + 1)2 x x x x −x+1 x −x+1
2

1 2 1 x+1 1
= + 2+ 3− 2 − 2
x x x x −x+1 x2 − x + 1

2.191. Given rational form

x 3 + x 2 − 16x + 16
x 2 − 4x + 3

note that numerator polynomial is of higher order than the denominator. For that reason, first
apply the long division then partial fraction decomposition as

x+1
(x 3 + x 2 − 16x + 16) ÷ (x 2 − 4x + 3) = x + 5 +
x 2 − 4x + 3
(−) x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x
5x 2 − 19x + 16
(−) 5x 2 − 20x + 15
x+1
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 83

Denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros of x = 1 and x = 3, thus

P (x) x+1 x+1 A B

= 2 = = +
Q(x) x − 4x + 3 (x − 1)(x − 3) x−1 x−3
A(x − 3) + B(x − 1) (A + B)x − 3A − B
= =
(x − 1)(x − 3) (x − 1)(x − 3)

By equalizing polynomials before and after decomposition, it follows that

x + 1 ≡ (A + B)x − 3A − B
∴
term x 1 : 1 = A + B ∴ A = 1 − B
term x 0 : 1 = −3A − B ∴ 1 = −3(1 − B) − B
∴
B=2 ∴ A = −1

Finally,

P (x) x 3 + x 2 − 16x + 16 1 2
= =x+5− +
Q(x) x 2 − 4x + 3 x−1 x−3
Linear Equations and Inequalities
3

Problems

3.1 Linear Equations

Solve and comment on the solutions of equations in P.3.4 to P.3.9.

3.1. x + 1 = 2 3.2. −2x + 3 = 3 3.3. 5x − 1 = 5x

3.4. 3.5. 3.6.

x−1 3−x 1 + 3x 6x + 3 x
1− = 3x + 14 = 5x − 2 (x − 7) − =
3 3 4 12 4

3.7. 1 x2 3.9.
x 2x + 3 x2 3.8. = x 2x + 3 7x
− = x−1 4 −2 =−
x−2 x+2 4 − x2 x−2 2x + 1 3

Solve “telescopic” forms of equations in P.3.11 to P.3.13

2 1 1
3.10. 1 − =0 1− =
3−x 3.11. 1 2
1−
1−x

1 5 1 16
= =
1 12 1 37
3.12. 2 + 2+
1 3.13. 1
2+ 3+
2−x 3
4+
x+1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 85

R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_3
86 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

3.2 System of Linear Equations

Solve systems of equations in P.3.14 to P.3.17

 
x + 2y = 2x − 5 xy = 10
3.14. 3.15.
x−y =3 x+y =2

⎧ 14 24 ⎧ 4 1
⎪ ⎪
⎨x + y
⎪ = 10 ⎨x + y − 1 + x − y + 1
⎪ =1
3.16. 3.17.
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ 7 − 18 = −5 ⎩ 18
−
5
=1
x y x + y − 1 2(x − y + 1)

3.3 Linear Inequalities

Solve inequalities in P.3.19 to P.3.26

3.18. 3.19. 3.20.

1 1 x2 − 2
(x + 5)(x − 5) > 0 (x + 3)2 ≤ 10x + 6 + < 2
x x+1 x +x

3.21. 3.22. 3.23.

−3x 2 + 30x − 75 > 0 x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 < 0 −2x 2 + 4x − 2 > 0

 
3.24.  4x  3.26.
2x 2 − 5x − 3 
3.25.  <3 (x + 2) |x − 2|
≤0 2x + 4  >1
−2x + 1 x2 + 2

3.4 System of Linear Inequalities

Solve systems of inequalities in P.3.27 to P.3.32


y > 2x 3.28. 3.29.
3.27. ⎧ 
y < −x − 3 ⎪
⎪ −2(x + 1) ≥ 4 y ≥ 2x ; y ≤ 2x
⎨
−2x ≥6 x ≤ 4; x ≥ 4
⎪
⎪
⎩
x ≤ −3
3.4 System of Linear Inequalities 87

3.30. 3.31. 3.32.

  ⎧
−4x + 6y >6 −2x − y < −1 ⎪
⎪ x+y <6
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
2x − 3y >3 4x + 2y ≤6 ⎨ 5x + y ≥4
x + 4y > −3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ≤5
⎪
⎪
⎩
y <4
88 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Answers

3.1 Linear Equations

“Linear” refers to polynomial form where the linear term, i.e., ax 1 is the highest-order monomial.
Therefore, general form of linear equation is “ax + b = 0,” where a, b ∈ R, a > 0. Geometrical
interpretation of this polynomial form is a simple straight line (thus “linear”) that may or may not
cross the horizontal axis at one point. In other words, solution to linear equation (i.e., with a single
variable) is a single number. If the variable is canceled however, then there may be either infinity of
solutions (i.e., an identity) or no solution (i.e., impossible equation). Sometimes, it may appear that
given equation is nonlinear due to higher-order monomial terms; however, they may eventually cancel
leaving only the linear part of the equation.

3.1. Given x + 1 = 2, by balancing left and right sides of the equation, it follows

x + 1
−1
= 2 −1 ∴ x = 1

which is evidently correct, because for x = 1, given equation results in the identity

1
+ 1 = 2 ∴ 2 = 2 
x=1

What does it mean geometrically?

Left side of the given equation “x + 1” is a straight line. Thus, it is sufficient to calculate its
two points, for example, at two arbitrary x values:

x = 0 ⇒ x + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 ∴ A : (0, 1)
x=0

x = −1 ⇒ x + 1 = −1 + 1 = 0 ∴ B : (−1, 0)
x=-1

At the same time, the right side is simply a constant “2” that is independent of any x value.
Graphically, it is represented by a horizontal line at y = 2; see Fig. 3.1. To say that the left
side of the equation (i.e., the “x + 1” line) equal to the right side of the equation (i.e., the
“2” line) is equivalent to say that the two lines share one point, the intersection point O .
Evidently, the intersect point is found at (x, y) = (1, 2) coordinate. In general, it is true that

Fig. 3.1 P.3.1, graphical method

for solving equations, coordinates
of the intersection point satisfy
both left and the right sides of an
equation. Here, at point O : (1, 2),
line x + 1 crosses line 2 .
Therefore, x = 1 is the only real
solution of x + 1 = 2 equation
3.1 Linear Equations 89

two nonparallel coplanar straight lines must intersect in one point. This example illustrates the
basic idea behind the graphical method for solving either equations or systems of equations.

3.2. Given −2x + 3 = 3, by balancing left and right sides of the equation, it follows

x
−2
 0
−2x + 3 −3 = 3 −3 ∴ = ∴ x=0

−2 −2

which is evidently correct, because for x = 0, given equation results in the identity

−2( 0) + 3 = 3 ∴ 3 = 3 
x=0

Following as same argument as in A.3.1, geometrical interpretation is as follows.

Left side of the given equation “−2x + 3” is a straight line. Thus, it is sufficient to calculate
its two points, for example, at two arbitrary x values:

x = 0 ⇒ −2x + 3 = 0 + 3 = 3 ∴ A : (0, 3)
x=0

x = 1 ⇒ −2x + 3 = −2 + 3 = 1 ∴ B : (1, 1)
x=1

At the same time, the right side is simply a constant “3” that is independent of any x value.
Graphically, it is represented by a horizontal line at y = 3; see Fig. 3.2. To say that the left side
of the equation (i.e., the “−2x + 3” line) equal to the right side of the equation (i.e., the “3”
line) is equivalent to say that the two lines share one point, the intersection point, as it happens
here A . Evidently, the intersect point is found (i.e., the solution) at x = 0 coordinate.

3.3. Given 5x − 1 = 5x, by balancing left and right sides of the equation, it follows

 − 1 −

5x =
5x  −
5x  ∴ −1 = 0
5x ∴ this is a contradiction

In case as this one, the conclusion is that the given equality is contradictory, thus not possible
for any value of the variable x. Geometrically speaking, constant line at y = −1 does not have
any intersect points with the horizontal axis at y = 0.

Fig. 3.2 P.3.2, graphical method

for solving equations, coordinates
of the intersection point satisfy
both left and the right sides of an
equation. Here, at point B : (1, 1),
line −2x + 3 crosses line 3.
Therefore, x = 1 is the only real
solution of −2x + 3 = 3 equation
90 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

3.4. Given equation

x−1 3−x
1− =
3 3

must be simplified as

x−1 3−x 3−x+1 3−x

1− = ∴ = ∴ 4 − x
= 3 − x
∴ 4 = 3
3 3 3 3

Conclusion: As it claims that 4 = 3, this equation is not possible; there are no valid solution
for all x.

What does it mean geometrically?

Left side of the given equation may be reduced to the basic form as

x−1 3 − (x − 1) 4−x x 4
1− = = ∴ − +
3 3 3 3 3

which is a straight line. Thus, it is sufficient to calculate its two points, for example, at two
arbitrary x values:

x 4 x=0 0 4 4
x=0⇒− + =− + = ∴ A : (0, 4/3)
3 3 3 3 3
x 4 x=1 1 4
x = 1 ⇒ − + = − + = 1 ∴ B : (1, 1)
3 3 3 3

Similarly, the right side is

3−x x
=− +1
3 3

which is a straight line. Thus, it is sufficient to calculate its two points, for example, at two
arbitrary x values:

Fig. 3.3 P.3.4, graphical method

for solving equations, two straight
lines are parallel; thus, no intercept
point is possible. In other words,
this type of linear equation does not
have solution for all x
3.1 Linear Equations 91

x 0
x=0⇒− + 1 = − + 1 = 1 ∴ C : (0, 1)
x=0

3 3
x 3
x = 3 ⇒ − + 1 = − + 1 = 0 ∴ D : (3, 0)
x=3

3 3

Graphically, these two lines are parallel; see Fig. 3.3, and therefore there are no intersect
points for all x, which is as same the earlier conclusion that 4 = 3. In general, it is true that
two parallel coplanar straight lines do not have any intersect point, or equivalently, that type
of linear equation does not have any solution.

3.5. Given linear equation 3x + 14 = 5x − 2 (x − 7), after a few simple transformations,

+Z
3x + 14 = 5x − 2 (x − 7) ∴ 
3x Z−
14 −Z
3x Z= 0 ∴ 0 = 0 
14

Conclusion: This equation is true for any x; thus, there are infinitely many solutions.
What does it mean geometrically?
Left and right side of the equation may be better compared after simplification as

3x + 14 (left side)
5x − 2(x − 7) = 5x − 2x + 14 =3x + 14 (right side)

which effectively states that the left and right sides of the given equation are the same line
“3x + 14”; therefore, the equality is true for all x.

3.6. After a simple calculation,

1 + 3x 6x + 3 x
− =
4 12 4
3
+ 9x − 6x − 3
3x
∴ =

12 

12
∴ 3
x = 3
x ∴ x = x ∴ xA − xA = 0 ∴ 0 = 0 

Conclusion: This equation is an identity that is true for any x; thus, there are infinitely many
solutions. In other words, as the left side line x is as same as the right side line x, it is said that
the two lines lines are parallel (in this case on top of each other).

3.7. As presented, given quadratic terms and rational function form,

x 2x + 3 x2
− =
x−2 x+2 4 − x2

it is important to note that this equation is not defined for x = ±2, because for each of the
three rational terms on left and right side substituting either x = +2 or x = −2 results in
polynomial division by zero. Therefore, it must be that x = ±2, then
92 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Fig. 3.4 P.3.7, as calculated by

linear equation, there is only one
intersect point between these two
quadratic polynomials. It must be
excluded however, because it is the
discontinuity point in the original
form of given equation

x 2x + 3 x2
− =
x−2 x+2 4 − x2
x(x + 2) − (2x + 3)(x − 2) x2
=
(x − 2)(x + 2) 4 − x2
−x 2 + 3x + 6 x2
=
x2 − 4 4 − x2
 2
− x − 3x − 6 x2
 =
− 4 − x2 4 − x2
x 2 − 3x − 6 x2
=
4 − x2 4 − x2

as denominator on the left side equals to denominator on the right side, for the total equality
to be true, it must be true that two numerators are also equal, i.e., given equation is equivalent
to

x 2 − 3x − 6 −x 2 = x 2 −x 2

x 2 − 3x − 6 − x 2 = 0
−3x − 6 = 0 ∴ x = −2

which illustrates that the above quadratic equation reduces to a linear equation. However, this
only solution must be also excluded because, as already stated, x = −2. Thus, the conclusion
is that equation given in this example does not have any solution.
Geometrical interpretation of x 2 −3x−6 = x 2 equation clearly shows that the only intersection
point between left side and right side quadratic polynomials is at x = −2; see Fig. 3.4, which
was already excluded.

3.8. Note that given equation is not defined for x = 1 due to division by zero on the left side,

1 x2
= ∴ 4 = x 2 (x − 1) ∴ x 3 − x 2 − 4 = 0
x−1 4
3.1 Linear Equations 93

Fig. 3.5 P.3.8, there is only one

intersect point for
1/(x − 1) = x 2 /4 at x = 2.
Alternatively, there is only one real
solution for x 3 − x 2 − 4 = 0,
inevitably at x = 2

A third-order polynomial must have at least one real zero, here by inspection at x = 2 (or,
strictly speaking, by the factor theorem), thus by long polynomial division

(x 3 − x 2 − 4) ÷ (x − 2) = x 2 + x + 2
−(x 3 − 2x 2 )
x2 − 4
− (x 2 − 2x)
2x − 4
− (2x − 4)
=0

where x 2 + x + 2 does not have real zeros (check its discriminant). Thus, x = 2 is the only
real solution to the given equation, and the other two are complex.
By superimposing three polynomials graphs, the left side inverse term, the right side quadratic,
and the equivalent third-order polynomial, it is clearly shown that x = 2 is the only real
solution, regardless which method is used; see Fig. 3.5.

3.9. Similarly to P.3.8, given equation

x 2x + 3 7x
−2 =−
x−2 2x + 1 3
is not defined for x = +2 nor x = −1/2, because it results in polynomial division by zero.
Then,

x 2x + 3 7x
−2 =−
x−2 2x + 1 3
x(2x + 1) − 2(2x + 3)(x − 2) 7x
=−
(x − 2)(2x + 1) 3
−2x 2 + 3x + 12 7x
=−
(x − 2)(2x + 1) 3
94 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Therefore, given equation is equivalent to

3(−2x 2 + 3x + 12) = −7x(x − 2)(2x + 1)

−6x 2 + 9x + 36 = −14x 3 + 21x 2 + 14x
14x 3 − 27x 2 − 5x + 36 = 0

Third-order polynomial must have at least one real zero, here by inspection at x = −1 (or
strictly speaking by the factor theorem). Long polynomial division gives

(14x 3 − 27x 2 − 5x + 36) ÷ (x + 1) = 14x 2 − 41x + 36

−(14x 3 + 14x 2 )
− 41x 2 − 5x
− (−41x 2 − 41x)
36x + 36
− (36x + 36)
=0

where 14x 2 − 41x + 36 does not have real zeros (check its discriminant). Thus, x = −1 is the
only real solution to the given equation. This example illustrates how an “innocently” looking
equation with only linear x terms is equivalent to a higher-order nonlinear equation. This is
consequence of inverse terms that, by definition, are nonlinear and were not canceled in the
process.

3.10. As given,

2
1− =0
3−x

telescopic form is nonlinear. This form of equation is common for problems that are iterative.
In general, it is necessary to unfold this form as

2
1− =0
3−x
2
1= balance both sides
3−x
3−x =2 ∴ 3−2=x
∴ x=1

That is to say, there is only one intersect point between telescopic polynomial on the left side
and a constant 0 on the right side, at x = 1.
3.1 Linear Equations 95

Fig. 3.6 P.3.11, there is only one

intersect point between given
telescopic polynomial and a
constant 1/2 at x = 2

3.11. As given,

1 1
1− =
1 2
1−
1−x

telescopic form is nonlinear. This form of equation is common for problems that are iterative.
In general, it is necessary to unfold this form as

1 1 1 1 1
1− = ∴ =1− = ∴ invert both sides
1 2 1 2 2
1− 1−
1−x 1−x
1 1
∴ 1− =2 ∴ 1−2= invert both sides
1−x 1−x
∴ 1 − x = −1
∴ x=2

That is to say, there is only one intersect point between telescopic polynomial on the left side
and a constant 1/2 on the right side at x = 2; see Fig. 3.6.

3.12. “Unfold” this form by invert-add fractions repetition as

1 5 1 12
= ∴ invert both sides ∴ 2+ =
1 12 1 5
2+ 2+
1 2−x
2+
2−x
1 12 2
= −2= repeat
1 5 5
2+
2−x
1 5 1 1
∴ 2+ = ∴ =
2−x 2 2−x 2
∴ 2−x =2
∴ x=0
96 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

3.13. “Unfold” this form by invert-add fractions repetition as

⇒ ∴
1 5
1 16 = ∴
= ∴ 3+
1 16
2+ 3+
1
1 37 3
3
4+ x+1 4+
x+1
1 37
2+ = ∴ 1 16
1 16 3+ = ∴
3+ 3 5
3 4+
4+ x+1
x+1
1 16 1
1 37 = −3= ∴
= −2 3 5 5
1 16 4+
3+ x+1
3
4+ 3
x+1 4+ =5 ∴
x+1
∴ ⇒
3
=1
x+1

Therefore, x + 1 = 3 ∴ x = 2

3.2 System of Linear Equations

Geometrical interpretation of solution to a system of two linear equations with two unknowns is that
it represents spatial coordinates (x, y) of the intersection point of these two lines in the plane, that
is to say, the only point that is shared by two lines. If two lines are not parallel, there must be one
intersection point. However, if two lines are parallel, either all points are the solution (i.e., the two
lines are superimposed) or none of the points are common (i.e., the two lines are parallel and separated
by a distance). In the following examples, only the real solutions (i.e., only those that can be shown
in xy plane) are illustrated.
3.14. Linear systems of equations are resolved by multiple methods:
Method 1: the substitution method

x + 2y = 2x − 5
x−y =3 ⇒x =3+y
∴ x + 2y = 2x − 5 ∴ 3 + y + 2y = 2(3 + y) − 5
∴ 3y + 3 = 2y + 1 ⇒ 3y − 2y = 1 − 3
∴ y = −2 ⇒ x − (−2) = 3 and x = 1

Thus, the solution of this system is (x, y) = (1, −2) point.

3.2 System of Linear Equations 97

Fig. 3.7 P.3.14, Two linear

functions intersect at the common
point, in other words at coordinates
that satisfy both y equations, in this
example (x, y) = (1, −2)

Method 2: recall the obvious, both (x, y) variables are same in both equations. Thus, this
system may be written explicitly as two linear functions of the same x variable, as

x−5
x + 2y = 2x − 5 ⇒ y =
2
x−y =3⇒y =x−3

The y variable is same; thus, the two y equations may be equalized as

x−5
= x − 3 ⇒ x − 5 = 2x − 6
2
6 − 5 = 2x − x ∴ x = 1

y = x − 3 ⇒ y = −2

The two y equations represent straight lines. Thus, their intersect point must be the desired
(x, y) solution; see Fig. 3.7.

3.15. Given system of equations may be resolved by multiple methods.

Method 1: derive two explicit y(x) equations as
⎧
⎪
⎨xy 10
= 10 ⇒ y =
x
⎪
⎩x + y =2 ⇒y =2−x

Geometrical representation of these two y(x) functions clearly shows that there is no intersect
point; thus the solution is an empty set; see Fig. 3.8. Recall that, arguably, the easiest technique
to determine coordinates of two points at straight line is to look for the points where the line
crosses the two axes. In other words, at x = 0 straight line y = 2 − x crosses y–axis at
y = 2 − 0 = 2, i.e., (x, y) = (0, 2). Similarly, the crossing point with x–axis is at y = 0, that
is to say at 0 = 2 − x ⇒ x = 2, i.e., (x, y) = (2, 0); see Fig. 3.8.
Method 2: alternatively, by the substitution method, it follows that the given system is
equivalent to
98 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Fig. 3.8 P.3.15, a case of linear

and inverse y(x) equations without
the intersection point, thus no real
domain solutions

⎫
10 ⎪
⎬
y= 10
x ∴ x+ = 2 ∴ x 2 − 2x + 10 = 0
⎪
y = 2 − x⎭
x

Note that form of this system (due to the product of xy term) is unavoidably a quadratic
equation in disguise. In this case, the resulting quadratic equation does not have real solutions
due to its discriminant being negative  = (−2)2 − 4 · 1 · 10 = −36 < 0. Thus, there are no
real solutions to this system.

3.16. Given system

⎧ 14 24
⎪
⎨x + y
⎪ = 10

⎪
⎪
⎩ 7 − 18 = −5
x y

is in the form of f (1/x , 1/y ) thus may appear to be nonlinear; nevertheless, it may be resolved
by multiple methods.

Method 1: the change of variables. The two inverse functions of two original variables may
be replaced by new variables, so that this nonlinear system relative to (x, y) is transformed
into linear system relative to (t, k) as
⎧ 14 24
⎪ 
⎨x + y
⎪ = 10 
1 1
 14t + 24k = 10
∴ t= , k= ∴
⎪
⎪ x y 7t − 18k = −5
⎩ 7 − 18 = −5
expand by (×2)
x y

Now, the system is linear relative to (t, k) and may be resolved by the elimination method as

14t + 24k = 10
⇒ ∴ eq.(1) − eq.(2)
14t − 36k = −10
3.2 System of Linear Equations 99

Fig. 3.9 P.3.16: graphical representations of the given system

1 1
∴ 60k = 20 ∴ k = ⇒y= =3
3 k
 
1 1 1
then, 14t + 24 = 10 ∴ 14t + 8 = 10 ∴ t = ∴ x= =7
3 7 t

Therefore, the solution of this system is (x, y) = (7, 3) point.

Method 2: the original nonlinear system may be written as two explicit functions y(x) as

14 24 12x
+ = 10 ⇒ y =
x y 5x − 7
7 18 18x
− = −5 ⇒ y =
x y 7 + 5x

Or, alternatively, linear version of the system may be written as

5 − 7t
7t + 12k = 5 ⇒ k =
12
7t + 5
7t − 18k = −5 ⇒ k =
18

Both pairs of functions and their intersection points are shown by graphs, nonlinear system in
Fig. 3.9, and its equivalent linear system in Fig. 3.9a. Note that (0, 0) is a trivial solution that
is excluded in the original version of the system.

3.17. Given system may be resolved by the change of variables method, where two
denominators are substituted with (t, k) as
100 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

⎧ 4 1
⎪
⎨x + y − 1 + x − y + 1 = 1
⎪

⎪
⎪ 16 2
⎩ − =1
x+y−1 x−y+1
 
1 1
t= , k=
x+y−1 x−y+1

cont.
∴
⎧
⎪
⎨4t + k 1−k
=1 ⇒t =
4
⎪
⎩16t − 2k =1

∴
1−k 1 1
Z
Z4
16 − 2k = 1 ∴ 4 − 6k = 1 ∴ k = ∴ =2
4A 1 2 k

 
1 1 1 1
∴ 4t + = 1 ∴ 4t = ∴ t= ∴ =8
2 2 8 t

And, back the original variables,

⎧
⎪ 1 
⎪
⎨ =x+y−1 =8
t x+y =9
∴ ∴ x = 5, y = 4
⎪1
⎪ x−y =1 ⇒x =y+1
⎩ =x−y+1 =2
k

Therefore, solution to this system is (x, y) = (5, 4) point.

3.3 Linear Inequalities

Solution to inequalities may be one or more intervals, one or more points, or no solution at all.
3.18. Given inequality may be resolved similarly to equations by balancing the left and right
sides. This time however, it is very important to balance correctly ≤ or ≥ sides in respect to the
negative terms (which was not an issue in the case of simple equations). Given strict inequality
and factored form, straightforward technique is

(x + 5)(x − 5) > 0
3.3 Linear Inequalities 101

Fig. 3.10 P.3.18, inequality

solution are two intervals, x < −5
or x > 5, where both boundary
points (x = −5 and x = 5) are not
included (due to strict inequality
“<”)

Reminder: Product of two numbers is negative only if these two numbers have opposite
signs, i.e., if AB < 0 then either A < 0 and B > 0 or A > 0 and B < 0. Otherwise,
when both numbers are either positive or negative, the product AB is positive.

In this case,
⎧
⎪
⎪x+5 >0 ∴ x > −5
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x−5 >0 ∴ x>5
⎨
(x + 5)(x − 5) > 0 ⇒ or,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x+5 <0 ∴ x < −5
⎪
⎪
⎩
x−5 <0 ∴ x<5

There are two possibilities,

1. x > −5 and x > 5 conditions are satisfied at the same time if x > 5, i.e., in x ∈ (5, +∞)
where x = 5 is not included due to the strict inequality.
2. x < −5 and x < 5 conditions are satisfied at the same time if x < −5, i.e., in x ∈
(−∞, −5) where x = −5 is not included due to the strict inequality.

In summary,

(x + 5)(x − 5) > 0 ⇒ x < −5 or x > 5

Solutions of inequalities may be shown in graph form as shaded intervals where, e.g., solid
boundary lines and non-crossed points indicate that the associated boundary point is included,
while dashed boundary lines and crossed points indicate that the boundary point is not included
in the solution set. Here, both boundary points are not included (due to strict inequality “<”);
see Fig. 3.10.

3.19. Given inequality may be resolved similarly to equations by balancing the left and right
sides. This time however, it is very important to balance correctly ≤ and ≥ sides respective to
the negative signs (which was not an issue in the case of simple equations). Straightforward
technique is to keep the orientation of ≤ sign fixed and to balance the left and right sides as
102 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Fig. 3.11 P.3.19, inequality

solution is an interval (1, 3) where
the two boundary points themselves
are also included in the solution set
due to non-strict inequality ≤

(x + 3)2 ≤ 10x + 6
x 2 + 6x + 9 −10x − 6 ≤ 10x + 6 −10x − 6
x 2 − 4x + 3 ≤ 0
x 2 − 3x − x + 3 ≤ 0
x(x − 3) − (x − 3) ≤ 0
(x − 1)(x − 3) ≤ 0

In this case,
⎧
⎪
⎪x−1 ≤0 ∴ x≤1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x−3 ≥0 ∴ x≥3
⎨
(x − 1)(x − 3) ≤ 0 ⇒ or,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x−1 ≥0 ∴ x≥1
⎪
⎪
⎩
x−3 ≤0 ∴ x≤3

There are two possibilities,

1. if x ≤ 1 and x ≥ 3 then there is no x that satisfies both conditions at the same time.
2. if x ≥ 1 and x ≤ 3, then the solution includes all numbers within the x ∈ (1, 3) interval,
where both x = 1 and x = 3 points are included in the solution set.

Solutions of inequalities may be shown in graph form as shaded intervals where, e.g., solid
boundary lines and non-crossed points indicate that the associated boundary point is included,
while dashed boundary lines and crossed points indicate that the boundary point is not included
in the solution set. Here, both boundary points are included (due to non-strict inequality “≤”);
see Fig. 3.11.

3.20. Given inequality of two rational functions, first, x = 0 and x = −1 are to be excluded
due to division by zero, as

1 1 x2 − 2 x2 − 2
+ < 2 =
x x+1 x +x x(x + 1)

This inequality may be resolved as follows:

3.3 Linear Inequalities 103

∴ ⇒

1 1 x2 − 2 x 2 − 2x − 3
+ < 0<
x x+1 x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
x+1+x x2 − 2 x 2 + x − 3x − 3
< 0<
x(x + 1) x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
x2 − 2 2x + 1 x(x + 1) − 3(x + 1)
0< − 0<
x(x + 1)
x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
x+
( 1)(x − 3)
x 2 − 2 − 2x − 1 0< (x =
 −1)
0< x+
x( 1)
x(x + 1)
∴ ⇒

In summary,
x−3
>0
x
Both left and right side expressions must keep correct relationship to “>” while moving from
one side to the other. Ratio of A/B is positive only when both A (i.e., numerator) and B (i.e.,
denominator) have the same sign, thus
⎧
⎪
⎪x−3 >0 ∴ x>3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x >0 ∴ x>0
x−3 ⎨
>0 ⇒ or,
x ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x−3 <0 ∴ x<3
⎪
⎪
⎩
x <0 ∴ x<0

There are two possibilities:

1. if x > 3 and x > 0 then x > 3 satisfies both conditions at the same time.
2. if x < 3 and x < 0 then x < 0 satisfies both conditions at the same time.

In summary,
x−3
> 0 ⇒ x < 0 or x > 3 (x = −1)
x
Note that in this case boundary point (x = 0) is not included (due to strict inequality “<”
and division by zero), boundary point (x = 3) is not included due to strict inequality “>” and
(x = −1) is not included due to division by zero; see Fig. 3.12.

3.21. Given inequality may be resolved by factorization as

−3x 2 + 30x − 75 > 0 ∴ −3(x 2 − 10x + 25) > 0

−3(x 2 − 5x − 5x + 25) > 0
104 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Fig. 3.12 P.3.20, set of solutions

that does not include the two
boundary points, x = 0 and x = 3
as well as x = −1

−3[x(x − 5) − 5(x − 5)] > 0

∴
− 3 (x − 5) > 0 ∴ not possible
2
     
<0 >0

because the product of one negative and one positive terms is always negative (the squared
number is always positive). Therefore, there is no real solution to this inequality.

3.22. Given inequality may be resolved by factorization as

x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 < 0
(x 2 )2 − 2x 2 + 1 < 0
(x 2 − 1)2 < 0
(x + 1)2 (x − 1)2 < 0 ∴ not possible
     
≥0 ≥0

because, on the left side, there is product of two square terms, thus both positive, which is
always greater or equal to zero, but not negative.

3.23. Given inequality may be resolved by factorization as

−2x 2 + 4x − 2 > 0
−2x 2 + 4x − 2 > 0
−2(x 2 − 2x + 1) > 0
− 2 (x − 1)2 > 0 ∴ not possible
     
<0 >0

because product of one negative and one positive term is always negative.

3.24. Given inequality may be resolved by factorization as

2x 2 − 5x − 3
≤0
−2x + 1
2x 2 − 6x + x − 3
≤0
−2x + 1
3.3 Linear Inequalities 105

Fig. 3.13 P.3.24,

2x(x − 3) + (x − 3)
≤0
−2x + 1
(x − 3)(2x + 1)
≤0
−2x + 1

Note that division by zero occurs when x = 1/2; thus, it must be excluded. Moreover, this
inequality is possible only if numerator and denominator have opposite signs. As there are
three factors organized as (AB)/C, they must be systematically examined to determine the
total sign of the rational form as:

x −1/2 1/2 −3
x−3 − − − − − 0 +
2x + 1 − 0 + + + + +
−2x + 1 + + + 0 − − −
total sign + 0 − n.d. + 0 −

In conclusion:

(2x + 1)(x − 3) 1 1
≤0 ∴ − ≤x< and x ≥ 3
−2x + 1 2 2

In this case, boundary point (x = −1/2) is included (due to non-strict inequality “≤”), boundary
point (x = 1/2) is not included due to division by zero, and (x = 3) is included due to non-strict
inequality “≥”; see Fig. 3.13.

3.25. Recall if |A| < a it means that A ∈ (−a, a) interval. In other words, given absolute
value is equivalent to two inequalities as
 
 4x  4x 4x
 
 2x + 4  < 3 ∴ 2x + 4 ∈ (−3, 3) ∴ −3 < 2x + 4 < 3 ⇒
⎧ 4x
⎪
⎨ 2x + 4 < 3 ∴ 4x < 6x + 12 ∴ −2x < 12 ∴ x < −6
⎪

⎪ 4x
⎪ 6
⎩ > −3 ∴ 4x > −6x − 12 ∴ 10x > −12 ∴ x > −
2x + 4 5

Note that in this case, both boundary points x = −6 and x = −6/5 are not included (due to
strict inequality “<>”); see Fig. 3.14.
106 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Fig. 3.14 P.3.25, absolute

inequality set of solutions consists
of two intervals, while the two
boundary points are note included
due to strict inequality

3.26. Each absolute term is equivalent to two cases:

 
(x + 2) |x − 2| 1) x − 2 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 2 ⇒ |x − 2| = x − 2
>1
x2 + 2 2) x − 2 < 0 ∴ x < 2 ⇒ |x − 2| = −(x − 2)

Case 1: (x ≥ 2) , i.e., the absolute brackets are replaced with regular brackets, as
Method 1: to say that the ratio A/B > 1 is equivalent to say that A > B, as

(x + 2)(x − 2) x2 − 4 x2 1 − 4
x2
>1 ∴ 2 >1 ∴  >1
x2 + 2 x +2 x2 1 + 2
x2

Because as its form is (1 − n), the numerator is inferior to “1”; at the same time, as its form
is (1 + n), the denominator is greater than “1”; thus, their ratio is always inferior to “1,” not
greater.
Method 2: a simple algebraic transformations results in

(x + 2)(x − 2) x2 − 4
>1 ∴ >1
x2 + 2 x2 + 2
x2 − 4 > x2 + 2

x2 − 4 − x2 − 2 > 0
−6>0

Because obviously “−6” is negative, not positive. In conclusion, for (x ≥ 2), there is no
solution to this inequality; i.e., the solution is an empty set.
Case 2: (x < 2) , then |x − 2| = −(x − 2), as

(x + 2)(x − 2) −(x + 2)(x − 2)

>1 ∴ >1
x2 + 2 x2 + 2
4 − x2
>1
x2 + 2
4 − x2 > x2 + 2
√ √
4 − 2 > 2x 2 ∴ 1 > x 2 ⇒ x 2 < 1 ∴ |x| < 1
3.4 System of Linear Inequalities 107

Fig. 3.15 P.3.26, absolute

inequality set of solutions bound
within a single (−1, 1) interval,
while the two boundary points are
not included due to strict inequality

In summary, the solution set of given inequality is

−1 < x < +1

Note that both boundary points (x = ±1) are not included (due to strict inequality “<”); see
Fig. 3.15.

3.4 System of Linear Inequalities

3.27. Given system of inequalities,

y > 2x
y < −x − 3

each line separates the space into two regions, one below and one above the boundary y(x)
line. Then, the superimposed region represents the solution set of this system of inequalities;
see Fig. 3.16. Note that the boundary lines are not included in the solution set (due to strict
nonequalities ‘<>’). In addition, coordinates of the intersection point A = (−1, −2) are
found as

2x = −x − 3 ∴ 3x = −3 ∴ x = −1 ∴ y = 2x = −2 (or, y = −x − 3 = −2 )

3.28. Given system of inequalities is resolved as

−2(x + 1) ≥ 4 ∴ −2 + x
− x
− 1 ≥ 2
−2
+ x ∴ −3 ≥ x ∴ x ≤ −3

−2x ≥ 6 ∴ −3 + x
− x
≥ 3
−3
+ x ∴ −3 ≥ x ∴ x ≤ −3

x ≤ −3 ∴ x ≤ −3

In conclusion, all three inequalities are satisfied in (x ≤ −3) interval. While balancing
inequalities, it is important to respect the negative sign of x variable relative to ≤≥ inequality
signs, as illustrated in this example.
108 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Fig. 3.16 P.3.27, set of solutions

for a system of inequalities is a
region bound by two boundary
lines where both inequalities are
satisfied at the same time. Each
boundary line separates the plane
into two regions, one above and
one below the line

Fig. 3.17 P.3.30, geometrical

interpretation of the empty solution
set for given system of inequalities,
as no common region

3.29. Given system of inequalities,

y ≥ 2x ; y ≤ 2x
x ≤ 4; x ≥ 4

The first two inequalities, y ≥ 2x and y ≤ 2x, cover space both above and below y = 2x line,
thus the whole space. Note that y = 2x line is included in the solution set. The second two
inequalities, however, add constrains that x ≤ 4 and x ≥ 4 at the same time. Therefore, there
is only one point x = 4 that satisfies all four inequalities, and consequently y = 2x = 8. The
solution set is a single point (4, 8).

3.30. Given system of nonlinearities is balanced as

6 + 4x 2
−4x + 6y > 6 ∴ y > = x+1
6 3
2x − 3 2
2x − 3y > 3 ∴ >y ∴ y < x−1
3 3

and solved graphically as in Fig. 3.17. Obviously, there is no overlapping region; thus, the
solution set is empty.
3.4 System of Linear Inequalities 109

Fig. 3.18 P.3.31, geometrical

interpretation of the solution set for
given system of inequalities, bound
in between of the two y(x) lines

3.31. Given system of inequalities is balanced as

−2x − y < −1 ∴ −2x + 1 < y ∴ y > −2x + 1

4x + 2y ≤ 6 ∴ 2y ≤ 6 − 4x ∴ y ≤ −2x + 3

and solved graphically as in Fig. 3.18. Obviously, there is overlapping region bound by the
two y(x) lines; thus, the solution set is well defined. Note that y = −2x + 1 line is not in the
solution set due to strict inequality.

3.32. Given system of five inequalities is balanced as

x+y <6 ∴ y <6−x

5x + y ≥ 4 ∴ y ≥ 4 − 5x
3 1
x + 4y > −3 ∴ y > − − x
4 4
x≤5
y<4

and graphical solution is in Fig. 3.19. The solution set is bound by these five linear functions,
where the intersection points are:

A : y = 4 and y = −5x + 4 ∴ −5x + 4 = 4 ∴ −5x = 0 ∴ x = 0 ⇒ (0, 4)

B : y = 4 and y = −x + 6 ∴ −x + 6 = 4 ∴ x = 2 ⇒ (2, 4)
C : x = 5 and y = −x + 6 ∴ y = −5 + 6 ∴ y = 1 ⇒ (5, 1)

D : x = 5 and y = (−x − 3)/4 ∴ y = (−5 − 3)/4 ∴ y = −2 ⇒ (5, −2)

E : y = (−x − 3)/4 and y = −5x + 4 ∴ −5x + 4 = (−x − 3)/4

∴ −20x + 16 = −x − 3
∴ x=1 ∴ y = −5 + 4 ∴ y = −1 ⇒ (1, −1)
110 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Fig. 3.19 P.3.32, geometrical

interpretation of the solution set for
given system of inequalities, where
the common region is bound by five
lines

Note that due to strict inequalities, the following lines are not part of the solution set:

y=4
y = −x + 6
x+3
y=−
4

which then excludes all intersect points as well.

Irrational Equations
4

Irrational numbers and equations

The term “irrational equations” refers to equations where the unknown variable is argument of a
radical function (e.g., square root, or any fractional exponent). It is important to understand implied
conditions and limitations of even order radicals, such as square root, fourth root, etc.. Take a look at
√
x = ±a

where a 2 = x. To start with, it is implied that (a) x ∈ R and (b) that x ≥ 0. This is because
√ even
order roots of negative argument result in a complex solution because, by definition, −1 = j .
Furthermore, there are two equally valid solutions for a square root operation, one positive and one
negative. For that reason, irrational equations are specifically written in the following two forms:
  2
f (x) = h(x) ≡ f (x) = h(x) and h(x) ≥ 0
  2
− f (x) = g(x) ≡ f (x) = −g(x) and g(x) ≤ 0
√
Geometrical interpretation of these two forms is that positive (i.e., in the upper half plane) f (x)
√
may intersect only function h(x) ≥ 0. Similarly, negative (i.e., in the lower half plane) − f (x) may
intersect only function g(x) ≤ 0, as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 111
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_4
112 4 Irrational Equations

Fig. 4.1 √ Even order radical

function x is not defined for
x < 0. Furthermore, there √ are two
different possibilities, + xó 0 in
the upper half plane, and − x ≤ 0
in the lower half plane. Evidently,
√
given h(x) may intersect + x only
if h(x) ≥ 0. Similarly,
√ given g(x)
may intersect − x only if
g(x) ≤ 0

Problems

4.1 Irrational Numbers

4.1. Briefly explain the main properties of irrational numbers and their relation with other
main groups of numbers.

Which of the numbers given in P.4.2 to P.4.17 are irrational, briefly explain your reason.

1 1 4.5.
4.2. 4.3. 0.25 4.4.
2 3 0.10101010 . . .

√ √ √ √
4.6. 4 4.7. 2 4.8. 3 4.9. 5

√
2 4
4.10. π 4.11. e 4.12. 4.13.
2 0

4.14. π √
3
√
3
4.15. 4.16. 8 4.17. 9
1.010010001 . . . π

Evaluate expressions given in P.4.18 to P.4.25. Which results are irrational, briefly explain your
reason.

√ √ √ √ √
4.18. 4+5 4.19. √
√ 4.20. 2 7 4.21. 8 2
4+ 5

√ √ √
1 + 5 355 3 + 5 4
4.22. 4.23. 4.24. 4.25. 36
2 113 2
4.2 Irrational Equations Basic Forms 113

4.2 Irrational Equations Basic Forms

The term “irrational equations” refers to equations where the unknown variable is argument of a
radical function (i.e., square root, or any fractional exponent). Solve irrational equations in P.4.26 to
P.4.43.

 
4.26. 25 − x 2 = 7 − x 4.27. 1 + x2 − 9 = x
  
4.28. 2x 2 + 7 = x 2 − 4 4.29. 12 − x x 2 − 8 = 3

√ √ 1
4.30. 2x + 8 + x+5=7 √ √
2+x− 2−x
4.31.
1
−√ √ =1
2+x+ 2−x
 
4.32. x 2 − 9 + x 2 − 9 = 20 4.33. x 2 − 2x + x 2 − 2x + 6 = 6
   
√ √ √ √
4.34. 2x 2 + x + 2x 2 + x − 1 = 13 4.35. 5+ 3 x+ 5− 3 x = 3 x

   
1 1 1 16x x−1 5
4.36. x− − 1− =1− + =
5
4.37. 5

x x x x−1 16x 2
√ √  
4.38. 2 3 x + 5 6 x − 18 = 0 √ √
4.39. x 5 x − x x = 56
5

√ √ √
4.40. 92 x−1
− 4 · 32 x−1
+3=0 4.41. 3 + 3x + 1 = x

 √ √ √
√ √ 4.43. x + 2 + x − 2 = 2x + 3
4.42. 2 x + 1 = 3x − 5

Evaluate forms in P.4.44 to P.4.45

√ 2  √ 2 √
5+1 5−1 x−9 x+3 √
4.44. − 4.45. √ ÷√ − x
2 2 x+3 x+9 x − 27
3
114 4 Irrational Equations

Answers

4.1 Irrational Numbers

Among all numbers in mathematics, arguably, irrational equations

4.1. By the accepted categorization, real numbers R include rational numbers Q (i.e., all
numbers that can be expressed as the ratio of two integers), and an additional group of numbers
that are not rational, i.e., that cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers, thus referred to
as “irrational”; see Fig. 4.2.
Probably the most obvious property of irrational numbers is that, when written in decimal
form, their stream of decimal digits is non-repeatable and infinite. Although that property
may seem obvious, there are still many numbers and expressions that are subject of ongoing
research to prove their irrationality.
Due to their non-repeatable and infinite decimal digits, it is not possible to exactly place
irrational numbers on the horizontal axis. One mathematical definition, given by Richard
Dedekind,a is that irrational numbers are objects between two sets of rational numbers, on
the right side, rational numbers that are superior, and on the left side, rational numbers that are
inferior to the given irrational number. Most famous irrational numbers are π and e.
a https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dedekind

4.2. Any number that is explicitly written as ratio of two integers, where denominator is not
zero, is by definition not irrational, and therefore including 1/2.
4.3. Given number 0.25 has finite number of decimal digits and in rational form is written as
1/4. Thus, by definition, it is rational, not irrational.

4.4. Fraction 1/3 written in decimal form equal 0.333 . . . . Even though there are infinite
numbers of decimal digits, their pattern is repeatable. As 1/3 is a fraction of two integers, by
definition is rational, not irrational.

4.5. Even though 0.10101010 . . . has infinite number of decimal digits, the sequence 10
repeats and therefore 0.10101010 . . . is not irrational.
√
4.6. Radicals may or may not be irrational.
√ As 4 = 2 is the perfect square (i.e., √ an integer
that is the square of an integer, where 4 = 2 is principal solution of this radical,√ 4 = −2
is the other). As this radical may be written in rational form as ratio of two integers 4 = 2/1,
by definition, it is rational, not irrational.

Fig. 4.2 P.4.1, classification of all

numbers: complex C, real R that
contain rational Q and irrational
numbers, integers Z, and natural N
4.1 Irrational Numbers 115

√
4.7. First irrational number that was discovered is 2 while calculating diagonal of a square
whose side is one unit long. Then, by Pythagoras’
√ theorem, the right triangle’s hypotenuse
(whose two catheti are one√unit long) equals 2. There are number of well-known rigorous
mathematical proofs that 2 = is indeed irrational. It is useful to know a few rational
approximations
√
2 = 1.414 213 562 373 095 048 801 · · ·
99 239 355 577 665 857
≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ etc.
70 169 113 408 470 832
√ √ √ √
2 2 2 4 2
1
= √ = √ = √ = √ = 0.707 106 781 186 547 524 400 · · ·
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
√
One of many methods to calculate digits of 2 is by telescopic (a.k.a continuous) fraction as

√ 1
2=1+
1
2+
1
2+
2 + ···

√
4.8. Square root 3 (note that 3 is a prime number) is proved to be irrational. In its
geometrical interpretation, it equals to the diagonal of a cube whose √ side is√one unit long;
see Fig. 4.3. First the horizontal triangle’s hypotenuse is calculated as 2 = 12 + 12 , then
the vertical triangle’s hypotenuse is

√ √ 
3 = ( 2)2 + 12 = 12 + 12 + 12 ;
√
see Fig. 4.3 (right). Square root 3 value starts with non-repeating decimal digits as
√
3 = 1.732 050 807 568 877 293 527 · · ·

It is useful to know a few rational approximations

√ 97 1351 716 035

3≈ ≈ ≈ etc.
56 780 413 403

Fig. 4.3 P.4.8, geometrical

interpretation
√ of irrational numbers
2 as the square
√ diagonal (in 2D
space), and 3 as the cube
diagonal (in 3D space). Calculated
by Pythagoras’ theorem of right
triangles, here one horizontal and
one vertical
116 4 Irrational Equations

√
Among many other methods, digits of 3 may be calculated by telescopic fraction as

√ 1
3=1+
1
1+
1
2+
1
1+
2 + ···
√
4.9. Square root of prime number 5 is proved to be irrational. It equals to the diagonal
length of a rectangle whose one side is one unit long and the other side is two unit long. Its
value starts with non-repeating decimal digits as
√
5 = 2.236 067 977 499 789 696 409 · · ·

It is useful to know a few rational approximations

√ 38 161 682
5≈ ≈ ≈ etc.
17 72 305
√
Among many other methods, digits of 5 may be calculated by telescopic fraction as

√ 1
5=2+
1
4+
1
4+
1
4+
4 + ···
4.10. Probably the most famous irrational number π is found as the ratio of a circle’s
circumference to its diameter. Its value starts with non-repeating decimal digits as

π = 3.141 592 653 589 793 238 462 · · ·

It is useful to know a few rational approximations

22 333 355
π≈≈ ≈ etc.
7 106 113
√
Among many other methods, digits of 5 may be calculated by telescopic fraction as

1
π =3+
1
7+
1
15 +
1
1+
1
292 +
1 + ···

as well as quite a few other telescopic fraction forms.

4.1 Irrational Numbers 117

4.11. The number e is irrational number introduced by Jacob Bernoulli in 17th century. This
is the last of the five famous terms in “the most beautiful equation in mathematics” known as
Euler’s identity

ej π + 1 = 0

where numbers 0, 1, e, and π are connected with the imaginary unit j 2 = −1. This equation is
among most important in engineering mathematics; for more examples, see Ch. 8 and Vol.III.
It is also the base of the natural logarithm function ln x. Its value starts with non-repeating
decimal digits as

e = 2.718 281 828 459 045 235 360 · · ·

The number e is found as the limit of the expression used to calculate of compound interest,
n
1
lim 1+
n→∞ n
√
Among many other methods, digits of 5 may be calculated by telescopic fraction as

1
e =2+
1
1+
1
2+
1
1+
1
1+
4 + ···
√
4.12. Given 2/2, it is in the form of irrational√
numerator and integer denominator. The ratio
of such two number must be irrational, because 2 is irrational already.

4.13. The result of division by zero, such as 4/0, is not defined; it is a very special case in
the strict sense of number definitions. Irrational numbers are real numbers; thus, the result of
division by zero should not be classified neither as rational nor irrational—the result is not
defined.

4.14. Decimal digits of the given number 1.010010001 . . . continue until infinity; however,
there is no repetitive pattern in the digit sequence (note the increase of number of zeros
between each two ones); thus, this number is classified as irrational.

4.15. As π is a real nonzero number, division π/π = 1, evidently not irrational.

√
4.16. Radicals may or may not be irrational, in this case 3 8 = 2, which is evidently not
irrational.
√3
4.17. Given radical
√ 9 is not perfect cube; i.e., there is no integer, so that its cube equals
3
nine. Therefore, 9 must be irrational.
√ √
4.18. Radicals may or may not be irrational, in this case 4 + 5 = 9 = 3, which is
evidently not irrational.
118 4 Irrational Equations

√ √ √
4.19. Sum of two radicals may or may not √ be irrational, in this case 4+ 5 = 2+ 5, which
is in the form of sum where one term (i.e., 5) is irrational; thus, the sum is also irrational.
√ √ √
4.20. Product of radicals may or may√not be √ irrational; in this case, 2 7 = 14 is
product of two irrational numbers (i.e., 2 and 7) that √ cannot be further simplified; thus,
this product should be irrational. The formal proof that 14 is irrational is done, for example,
by contradiction, which is a method that is widely used among mathematicians.
√ √ √
4.21. Product of two radicals may or may not be irrational; in this case, 8 2 = 16 = 4
is the square root of a perfect square, thus not irrational.

4.22. Irrational number ϕ known as golden ratio is defined as

√
1+ 5
ϕ= = 1.618 033 988 749 894 848 . . .
2

and is very often cited not only in√mathematics but also in architecture, art, philosophy, nature,
etc., and it is irrational due to 5 term. Among many other methods, digits of ϕ may be
calculated by telescopic fraction as

1
ϕ =1+
1
1+
1
1+
1
1+
1 + ···

4.23. Ratio of two integers is by definition rational number,

355
= 3.141 592 920 353 982 300 9
113

even though that this particular ratio is close to π . As a matter of fact, this rational number is
one of the well-known approximations for π to the first six decimal places.
√ √
4.24. Similar to golden ratio ϕ, this expression 3 + 5/2 is irrational due to 5 term.

4.25. Given radical may be simplified as

√ √ √ √
36 = 4 × 9 = 4 9
4 4 4 4

which is evidently irrational, because 36 is not perfect fourth power of any integer.
4.2 Irrational Equations 119

4.2 Irrational Equations

4.26. Equations that include radicals may or may not result in irrational solutions. It is
important to keep in mind, however, that the argument of square root must be nonnegative,
i.e., positive or zero. Given a simple case, square root may be eliminated by squaring both
sides of the equation, as

25 − x 2 = 7 − x ⇒ 25 − x 2 ≥ 0 ∴ |x| ≤ 5 or, −5 ≤ x ≤ 5
25 − x 2 = (7 − x)2 = 49 − 14x + x 2
0 = 2x 2 − 14x + 24 = 2(x 2 − 7x + 12)
∴
0 = x 2 − 7x + 12
0 = x 2 − 4x − 3x + 12
0 = x(x − 4) − 3(x − 4)
0 = (x − 3)(x − 4) ⇒ x1 = 3, x2 = 4
√ √
Note that 25 − x 2 = 52 − x 2 is equation √ of a positive half circle whose radius r = 5.
As the square root has two solutions, then − 25 − x 2 is the negative half circle. Geometrical
interpretation of equation in this example shows that a line 7 − x crosses positive half circle at
x1 = 3 and x2 = 4; see Fig. 4.4. This result illustrates one less known theorem in algebra that
states the following: to say

P (x) = Q(x) is equivalent to say that P (x) = Q2 (x) and Q(x) ≥ 0

in other words

25 − x 2 = 7 − x ≡ 25 − x 2 = (7 − x)2 and 7 − x ≥ 0

Fig. 4.4 P.4.26, evidently, the

straight line “7 − x” can intersect
only
√ the positive half circle
“ 25 − x 2 ,” while
√ the negative
half circle “− 25 − x 2 ” stays out
of its reach
120 4 Irrational Equations

This result is evident in Fig. 4.4, as there are no intersect points for 7 − x < 0 (i.e., below the
horizontal axis), because this line cannot cross the negative half circle.

4.27. With a simple transformation,

 
1+ x2 − 9 = x ⇒ x2 − 9 = x − 1

given equation form is converted into the form already discussed in A.4.26. Following the
same idea,

x 2 − 9 = x − 1 and x − 1 ≥ 0

x 2 − 9 = (x − 1)2 = x 2 − 2x + 1
2x = 10 ⇒ x1 = 5

where the solution must also satisfy that x − 1 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 1. This may seem obvious;
however, geometrical interpretation of this exemple illustrates that there is only one solution
for the principal square root function; for x 2 − 9 ≥ 0 (i.e., in the upper √ half plane) and for
x ≥ 1, see√Fig. 4.5. More precisely, it indicates that line x −1 cannot cross x 2 − 9 for x < 1.
Note that x 2 − 9 is not √equation of a half circle; it is equation of upper half hyperbola. The
lower half hyperbola − x 2 − 9 intersects with x − 1 line only for x < 1 condition. These are
fine points about irrational equations and which solutions satisfy the implied conditions.

4.28. In order to sort out which solutions are acceptable, following arguments in A.4.26, it
follows that

2x 2 + 7 = x 2 − 4 ⇒ 2x 2 + 7 = (x 2 − 4)2 and x 2 − 4 ≥ 0

that is to say, only solutions where x 2 − 4 ≥ 0 are acceptable. Then,


2x 2 + 7 = x 2 − 4

Fig. 4.5 P.4.27, straight line

“x − 1” can intersect only the
√ (i.e., x ≥ 3) of
positive side
hyperbola x 2 − 9. √ The intersect
of “x − 1” with − x 2 − 9 in the
lower half plane and x ≤ −3 is
excluded, because it does not
satisfy x ≥ 1 condition
4.2 Irrational Equations 121

2x 2 + 7 = (x 2 − 4)2 = x 4 − 8x 2 + 16
∴
0 = x 4 − 10x 2 + 9
0 = x 4 − x 2 − 9x 2 + 9
0 = x 2 (x 2 − 1) − 9(x 2 − 1)
0 = (x 2 − 9)(x 2 − 1)
0 = (x − 3)(x + 3)(x − 1)(x + 1)

Thus, there are four solutions to the given equation: x1 = −3, x2 = 3, x3 = −1, x4 = 1, and
only the ones where x 2 − 4 ≥ 0 are acceptable, that is
√
x 2 − 4 ≥ 0 ∴ x 2 ≥ 4 ∴ x ≥ | 2| ∴ x ≥ |1.4142 · · · |

That is to say, only x1 = −3, x2 = 3 are acceptable, as illustrated in Fig. 4.6.

4.29. Nested radical is resolved in stages,

 
12 − x x 2 − 8 = 3

12 − x x 2 − 8 = 9

12 − 9 = x x 2 − 8

3 = x x2 − 8
9 = x 2 (x 2 − 8)
9 = x 4 − 8x 2
0 = x 4 − 8x 2 − 9

Fig. 4.6 P.4.28, an example of

x 2 − 4 curve that√has intersect
points with both 2x 2 + √7 in the
upper half plane, and − 2x 2 + 7
in the lower half plane.
Nevertheless,√only solutions that
satisfy x ≥ | 2| are valid, that is to
say in the upper half plane
122 4 Irrational Equations

0 = x 4 + x 2 − 9x 2 − 9
0 = x 2 (x 2 + 1) − 9(x 2 + 1)
0 = (x 2 − 9)(x 2 + 1)
0 = (x − 3)(x + 3)(x 2 + 1)

Thus there are two real zeros, x1 = 3, x2 = −3, and two complex zeros for x 2 + 1 = 0.
There are two conditions to be met, the first is obvious, 3 ≥ 0, and the second one follows the
argument for nonnegative argument of square root, i.e.,
 √ √
x 2 − 8 ⇒ x 2 − 8 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 8 = 2 2 ≈ 2.8 . . .

there only real solution is x = 3, because the other solution x = −3 which is

; therefore, √
inferior to 2 2 must be excluded.

4.30. Given expression has two radicals, where the two square roots impose conditions
√
2x + 8 ⇒ 2x + 8 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ −4
√
x + 5 ⇒ x + 5 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ −5

therefore, the first condition of given equation is that x ≥ −4. Then, with the following
algebraic transformations
√ √
2x + 8 + x + 5 = 7
√ √
(2x + 8) + 2 2x + 8 x + 5 + (x + 5) = 49
√ √
3x + 13 + 2 2x + 8 x + 5 = 49

2 2x 2 + 18x + 40 = 36 − 3x = 3(12 − x) (4.1)

it is possible to apply the theorem introduced in A.4.26, so that (4.1) implies that
 3 9
2x 2 + 18x + 40 = (12 − x) ≡ 2x 2 + 18x + 40 = (12 − x)2 and 12 − x ≥ 0
2 4

which is to say that the second initial condition in this example is x ≤ 12. Which means that
(4.1) is further developed as

4(2x 2 + 18x + 40) = 9(x 2 − 24x + 144)

∴
−x 2 + 288x − 1136 = 0

This quadratic polynomial may be factorized as follows. First, the product of the leading and
free coefficients (−1)(−1136) = 1136 may be factorized as
4.2 Irrational Equations 123

1136 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 71 = 4 × 284
or,

because the sum 4 + 284 = 288 equal to the linear coefficient, thus

−x 2 + 288x − 1136 = 0
−x 2 + 4x + 284x − 4 × 284 = 0
−x(x − 4) + 284(x − 4) = 0
(x − 4)(284 − x) = 0

Therefore, two roots of this quadratic equation are x1 = 4 and x2 = 284. However, due to
the two initial conditions, x ≥ −4 and x ≤ 12, the only acceptable solution is x = 4. This
conclusion is easily verified as

1. x = 4 : is correct as
√ √
2x + 8 + x + 5 = 7
 
2(4) + 8 + (4) + 5 = 7
x=4

√ √ x=4
16 + 9 = 7

4+3=7 
x=4

2. x = 284 : is, obviously, not correct solution of this equation as

√ √
2x + 8 + x + 5 = 7
 
2(284) + 8 + (284) + 5 = 7
x=284

√ √
576 + 289 = 7
x=284

24 + 17 = 7
x=284

4.31. Square roots in the given equation

1 1
√ √ −√ √ =1
2+x− 2−x 2+x+ 2−x

imply that the initial conditions are

√
2 + x ⇒ 2 + x ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ −2
√
2−x ⇒2−x ≥0 ∴ x ≤2

Radicals found in denominator may be transformed with the help of the difference of two
squares identity after expansion with the complementary term as
124 4 Irrational Equations

√ √
1 2+x+ 2−x
√ √ √ √ = (a − b)(a + b) = a 2 − b2
2+x− 2−x 2+x+ 2−x
√ √
2+x+ 2−x
=
(2 + x) − (2 − x)
√ √
2+x+ 2−x
= ; (x = 0)
2x

and similarly,
√ √
1 2+x− 2−x
√ √ √ √ = (a − b)(a + b) = a 2 − b2
2+x+ 2−x 2+x− 2−x
√ √
2+x− 2−x
=
(2 + x) − (2 − x)
√ √
2+x− 2−x
= ; (x = 0)
2x

These transformations lead, after adding the last condition (x = 0), into

1 1
√ √ −√ √ =1
2+x− 2−x 2+x+ 2−x
√ √ √ √
2+x+ 2−x 2+x− 2−x
− =1
2x 2x
√ √  √ √ 
2+x+ 2−x − 2+x− 2−x
=1
2x
√
2
2 − x
=1
2
x
∴
√
2 − x = x ≡ 2 − x = x 2 and x > 0

That is to say,

2 − x = x2
x2 + x − 2 = 0
x 2 − x + 2x − 2 = 0
x(x − 1) + 2(x − 1) = 0
(x − 1)(x + 2) = 0

whose two roots are x1 = 1 and x2 = −2. Nevertheless, only x = 1 satisfies all three initial
conditions: x ≥ −2, x > 0, and x ≤ 2. This conclusion is easily verified as
4.2 Irrational Equations 125

1. x = 1 : is correct as

1 1
√ √ −√ √ =1
2+x− 2−x 2+x+ 2−x
1 1
√ √ −√ √ =1
x=1

2 + (1) − 2 − (1) 2 + (1) + 2 − (1)

1 1
√ √ −√ √ =1
x=1

3− 1 3+ 1
√ √ √ √
( 3 + 1) − ( 3 − 1) x=1
√ √ √ √ =1
( 3 − 1)( 3 + 1)
2(1) x=1
=1 
3−1

2. x = −2 : is, obviously, not correct solution of this equation as

1 1
√ √ −√ √ =1
2+x− 2−x 2+x+ 2−x
1 1
√ √ −√ √ =1
x=-2

2 + (−2) − 2 − (−2) 2 + (−2) + 2 − (−2)

1 1 x=-2
− =1
−2 2
−1 = 1
x=-2

4.32. First initial condition for the given equation is due to square root
 √ 
x2 − 9 ⇒ x2 − 9 ≥ 0 ∴ x 2 = |x| ∴ |x| ≥ 3

Method 1: a simple transformation, leads into


x 2 − 9 + x 2 − 9 = 20
 √
x 2 − 9 = 29 − x 2 ≡ x 2 − 9 = (29 − x 2 )2 and 29 − x 2 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≤ 29

so that

x 2 − 9 = (29 − x 2 )2
x 2 − 9 = x 4 − 58x 2 + 841
x 4 − 59x 2 + 850 = 0 bi–quadratic; change of variables x 2 = t
t 2 − 59t + 850 = 0
126 4 Irrational Equations

Factors 850 = 2 × 5 × 5 × 17 = 25 × 34 so that 25 + 34 = 59, and

or,

t 2 − 25t − 34t + 850 = 0

t (t − 25) − 34(t − 25) = 0
√ √
(t − 25)(t − 34) = 0 ⇒ t1 = 25 ∴ x = ±5, and, t2 = 34 ∴ x = 34 > 29

Therefore, two
√ possible solutions are x1,2 = ±5 because | ± 5| ≥ 3 and
±52 = 25 ≤ ( 29)2 = 29.

Method 2: the change of variable technique can be used immediately as

  
x 2 − 9 + x 2 − 9 = 20 x2 − 9 = t

t + t 2 = 20
t 2 + t − 20 = 0
t 2 + 5t − 4t − 20 = 0 factors − 20 = 5 × (−4)
t (t + 5) − 4(t + 5) = 0
(t + 5)(t − 4) = 0 ∴ x1 = 4, x2 = −5

which leads into

 
x2 − 9 = t ∴ x 2 − 9 = 4 ∴ x 2 − 9 = 16 ∴ x = ±5
 
x2 − 9 = t ∴ x 2 − 9 = −5 ≡ x 2 − 9 = 25 and, − 5 ≥ 0

Obviously, if applied correctly, the results must be the same regardless of the method used.

4.33. After a simple transformation of the given equation as


x 2 − 2x +6 + x 2 − 2x + 6 = 6 +6

x 2 − 2x + 6 + x 2 − 2x + 6 = 12

it is possible to apply the same ideas as in A.4.32.


x 2 − 2x + 6 + x 2 − 2x + 6 = 12

x 2 − 2x + 6 = 6 + 2x − x 2 ≡ x 2 − 2x + 6
= (6 + 2x − x 2 )2 and, 6 + 2x − x 2 ≥ 0

where the signs of the last quadratic equation may be derived as

√
2± 4 − 4(1)(−6) √
−(x − 2x − 6) = 0 ∴ xa,b =
2
= 1 ± 7 ∴ a ≈ −1.65 and, b ≈ 3.65
2
4.2 Irrational Equations 127

Thus, in factorized form −(x 2 − 2x − 6) = −(x − a)(x − b) and its sign may be evaluated as

x −1.65 . . . 3.65 . . .
−1 − − − − −
(x + 1.65 . . . ) − 0 + + +
(x − 3.65 . . . ) − − − 0 +
−(x − a)(x − b) − 0 + 0 −

which
√ to say that the condition 6 + 2x − x 2 ≥ 0 is satisfied within the interval x ∈ (1 −
is √
7, 1 + 7). Then,
   
x 2 − 2x + 6 + x 2 − 2x + 6 = 12 change of variable: x 2 − 2x + 6 = t

t 2 + t = 12
t 2 + t − 12 = 0
t 2 + 4t − 3t − 12 = 0
t (t + 4) − 3(t + 4) = 0
(t + 4)(t − 3) = 0

That is to say, t1 = 3 and t2 = −4, and further


x 2 − 2x + 6 = 3
x 2 − 2x + 6 = 9
x 2 − 2x − 3 = 0
x 2 − 3x + x − 3 = 0
x(x − 3) + x − 3 = 0
(x − 3)(x + 1) = 0 ∴ x1 = −1, x2 = 3

and

x 2 − 2x + 6 = −4 ≡ x 2 − 2x + 6 = 16 and, − 4 ≥ 0

which leaves only x1 = −1 and x2 = 3 as valid solutions. For the sake of argument, let us try
to calculate x3,4 by ignoring the “−4 ≥ 0” requirement. That is,

x 2 − 2x + 6 = −4
x 2 − 2x + 6 = 16
√
2± 4 − 4(1)(−10) √ √
x − 2x − 10 = 0
2
∴ x3,4 = = 1 ± 11 ≥ 1 ± 7
2
128 4 Irrational Equations

Fig. 4.7 P.4.33, illustration of

possible intersect points
√ between a
constant −4 and ± x 2 − 2x + 6
curves.
√ Evidently
x 2 − 2x + 6 = −4 is not
possible

√ √
therefore excluded from the solution set due to the x ∈ (1 − 7, 1 + 7). One could visualize
√ ≥ 0” requirement by illustration in the Fig.
the necessity of “−4 √ 4.7. Evidently, the −4 line
does not intersect x 2 − 2x + 6 curve; instead, it intersects − x 2 − 2x + 6 curve, which is
not the same thing.

4.34. Nested radicals may be resolved as

  
√ √
2x 2 + x + 2x 2 + x − 1 = 13 ≡ 2x 2 + x + 2x 2 + x − 1 = 13 and, 13 ≥ 0 
and,

2x 2 + x + 2x 2 + x − 1 = 13
∴

2x 2 + x − 1 = −2x 2 − x + 13 ≡ 2x 2 + x − 1
= (−2x 2 − x + 13)2 and, − 2x 2 − x + 13 ≥ 0

where
√ √
−1 ± 1 − 4(2)(−13) −1 ± 105
−(2x + x − 13) = 0
2
∴ xa,b = =
4 4
∴
−(2x 2 + x − 13) = −(x − x1 )(x − x2 )

Thus, in factorized form −(2x 2 + x − 13) = −(x − a)(x − b) and its sign may be evaluated as

x a b
−1 − − − − −
(x − a) − 0 + + +
(x − b) − − − 0 +
−(x − a)(x − b) − 0 + 0 −
4.2 Irrational Equations 129

which is to say that the condition −(2x 2 +x−13) ≥ 0 is satisfied within the interval x ∈ (a, b).
Then,
   
2x 2 + x −1 + 2x 2 + x − 1 = 13 −1 change of variable: 2x 2 + x − 1 = t

t 2 + t = 12 ∴ t 2 + t − 12 = 0 ∴ t 2 + 4t − 3t − 12 = 0
∴ (t + 4)(t − 3) = 0 ∴ t1 = −4, t2 = 3

So that,

2x 2 + x − 1 = −4 ≡ 2x 2 + x − 1 = 16 and − 4 ≥ 0

2x 2 + x − 1 = 3 ≡ 2x 2 + x − 1 = 9 and 3 ≥ 0 

Therefore, two possible solutions are

5
2x 2 + x − 1 = 9 ∴ 2x 2 + x − 10 = 0 ∴ (2x + 5)(x − 2) = 0 ∴ x1 = − , x2 = 2
2

where both roots are within the x ∈ (a, b) = (−2.81 . . . , 2.31 . . . ) interval.

4.35. Given equation form may be transformed into one of the already mastered forms by
change of variable as
 
√ √ √ √
5+ x+ 5− 3 x = 3 x
3
change of variable: 3
x=t
√ √
5+t + 5−t =t

Note that given positive signs of the two square roots, it must be that t ≥ 0. In addition, real
domain values of a square root imply that 5 + t ≥ 0 ⇒ t ≥ −5 and 5 − t ≥ 0 ⇒ t ≤ 5. Then,
√ √
5+t + 5−t =t
√ √
(5 + t) + 2 5 + t 5 − t + (5 − t) = t 2
√ √
(5 + t)
C + 2 5 + t 5 − t + (5 − t)
C =t
2

 t2
(5 + t)(5 − t) = − 5 ≡ (5 + t)(5 − t)
2
2
t2 t2
= −5 and, −5≥0
2 2
√
which leads into another initial condition t ≥ 10. Further,
2
t2
(5 + t)(5 − t) = −5
2
t4
 − t2 =

25 
− 5t 2 + 
25
4
130 4 Irrational Equations

t4 t2 2
− 4t 2 = 0 ∴ (t − 16) = 0 ⇒ t1,2 = 0, t3,4 = ±4
4 4
√
Condition that t ≥ 10 eliminates t1,2 = 0. Condition that t ≥ 0 eliminates t3 = −4, which
leaves t = 4 as the only solution. Returning back to the original variable,
√ √
3
x=t ∴ 3
x = 4 ⇒ x = 64

4.36. Each of the three terms in the given form of equation

 
1 1 1
x− − 1− =1−
x x x

implies initial conditions due to square roots (i.e., its argument must be greater or equal to
zero) and due to the inverse function of x (i.e., division by zero is not accepted), as

1. division by zero must be avoided, thus

1
∈R ⇒ x=0
x

2. then, it has to be (while x = 0 already)


1 1 x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
x− ∴ x− = = ≥0
x x x x

recall how the sign of two or more terms in product/division form is determined, as

x −1 0 1
(x + 1) − 0 + + + +
(x − 1) − − − − 0 +
x − − − n.a. + +
(x − 1)(x + 1)/x − 0 + n.a. 0 +

In summary,

1
x− ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ (−1, 0) or x ≥ 1
x

3. as well as
 
1 1 x−1 x > 0 and x − 1 ≥ 0 ∴ x≥1 ⇒ x≥1
1− ∴ 1− = ≥0 ⇒
x x x x < 0 and x − 1 ≤ 0 ∴ x≤1 ⇒ x<0
4.2 Irrational Equations 131

In summary,

1
1− ≥ 0 ⇒ x < 0 or x ≥ 1
x

While respecting the above conditions,

 
1 1 1
x− − 1− =1−
x x x
2
1 1 1 1 1
x− −2 x− 1− + 1− = 1−
x x x x x

x2 − 1 x3 − x2 − x + 1 x − 1 x 2 − 2x + 1
−2 + =
x x2 x x2

x2 + x − 2 x 2 (x − 1) − (x − 1) (x − 1)2
−2 =
x x2 x2

(x − 1)(x + 2) (x − 1)2 (x − 1)(x 2 − 1)
− − 2 =0
x x2 x2
(x − 1)(x + 2) (x − 1)2 2(x − 1) 
− 2
− (x + 1) = 0
x x x
x−1 x−1 
x+2− − 2 (x + 1) = 0
x x
 2 √ 
(x − 1) x + x + 1 − 2x (x + 1)
= 0, (x = 0)
x

which is equivalent to the following two equations:


(x − 1) = 0 or x 2 + x + 1 − 2x (x + 1) = 0

The first equation gives simply x1 = 1, (it satisfies all initial conditions), and

x 2 + x + 1 − 2x (x + 1) = 0

x 2 + x + 1 = 4x 3 + 4x 2

x 2 + x + 1 = 4x 3 + 4x 2
x 4 + 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x + 1 = 4x 3 + 4x 2
x 4 − 2x 3 − x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0 regroup and compete terms
x − x − x − x +x + x −x + x + 1 = 0
4 3 2 3 2 2

x 2 (x 2 − x − 1)) − x(x 2 − x − 1) − (x 2 − x − 1) = 0
(x 2 − x − 1)2 = 0
132 4 Irrational Equations

Therefore,
√ √
1+1 − 4(1)(−1) 1+ 5
x −x−1=0
2
∴ x2,3 = =
2 2
√ √
1 − 1 − 4(1)(−1) 1− 5
x4,5 = =
2 2
√
In summary, as x ≥ 1 condition eliminates x4,5 , then solutions are x1 = 1, x2,3 = (1 + 5)/2
(double root).

4.37. Given equation form is not defined for x = 1 (division by zero), and
    
16x x−1 5 16x
+ =
5 5
=t
5
change of variable:
x−1 16x 2 x−1
1 5 2t 2 − 5t + 2
t+ = ∴ =0
t 2 2t

which is equivalent to

16x 16x
t =0 ⇒ =0 ∴ =0 ∴ x=0
5

x−1 x−1

and

2t 2 − 5t + 2 = 0 ∴ 2t 2 − 4t − t + 2 = 0 ∴ 2t (t − 2) − (t − 2) = 0
∴ (t − 2)(2t − 1) = 0
1
t1 = , t2 = 2
2

Return to the original variable gives

16x t=1/2 1
5
=
x1 − 1 2
16x 1 1 1
= 5 = ∴ 512x1 = x1 − 1 ∴ x1 =
x1 − 1 2 32 511

and

16x t=2
5
= 2
x2 − 1
16x2 x2
= 32 ∴ = x2 − 1 ∴ x2 = 2
x2 − 1 2
4.2 Irrational Equations 133

4.38. Recall that even radicals imply that their argument is nonnegative, which is not the
√
case for odd radicals. Given equation has 6 x, therefore x ≥ 0. Change of variable transforms
irrational into a quadratic form as
√ √ √
2 3 x + 5 6 x − 18 = 0 n
x m = x m/n
 2 √
2 x 1/6 + 5 x 1/6 − 18 = 0 (a b )c = a bc , 6
x=t
2t 2 + 5t − 18 = 0 ∴ 2t 2 − 4t + 9t − 18 = 0 ∴ 2t (t − 2) + 9(t − 2) = 0
(t − 2)(2t + 9) = 0

That is to say, t1 = 2 and t2 = −9/2. Return to the original variable gives

√
6
x = 2 ⇒ x = 26 ∴ x = 64

√ 9 9 6
9
6
x=− ≡ x= − and − ≥0
2 2 2

In summary, x = 64 is the solution.

√
4.39. As there is one x term, one initial condition is x ≥ 0, and
 
√ √
x x − x x = 56
5 5

√ √
x 6/5 − x 3/2 = 56
5

x 3/5 − x 3/10 = 56 change variable: x 3/10 = t

t 2 − t = 56 ∴ t 2 − t − 56 = 0 ∴ t 2 + 7t − 8t − 56 = 0
∴ t (t + 7) − 8(t + 7) = 0 ∴ (t + 7)(t − 8) = 0

That is,

t1 = −7 ⇒ x 3/10 = −7 ≡ x = (−7)10/3 and − 7 ≥ 0

t2 = 8 ⇒ x 3/10 = 8 ∴ x = 810/3 = 230/3 = 210 = 1 024

4.40. One convenient change of variable may be as

√ √
92 x−1
− 4 · 32 x−1
+3=0
 √  √  √ 
2 x−1 2
3 − 4·3 2 x−1
+3=0 change of variable: 32 x−1 = t

t 2 − 4t + 3 = 0 ∴ t 2 − t − 3t + 3 = 0 ∴ t (t − 1) − 3(t − 1) = 0
∴ (t − 1)(t − 3) = 0 ∴ t1 = 1, t2 = 3
134 4 Irrational Equations

So that the original variable solution is

√ 
x1 −1
32 =1 ≡ a0 = 1 ∴ 2 x1 − 1 = 0 ∴ x1 = 1
√  1 5
x2 −1
32 =3 ≡ a1 = a ∴ 2 x2 − 1 = 1 ∴ x2 − 1 = ∴ x2 =
4 4

4.41. Given equation, the initial constrain is that 3x + 1 ≥ 0, thus x ≥ −1/3, then
√ √
3+ 3x + 1 = x ∴ 3x + 1 = x − 3 ≡ 3x + 1 = (x − 3)2 and x − 3 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 3

then

3x + 1 = (x − 3)2 ∴ 3x + 1 = x 2 − 6x + 9 ∴ x 2 − 9x + 8 = 0 ∴ (x − 8)(x − 1) = 0

which implies that x1 = 8 and x2 = 1. Due to x ≥ 3 condition, x2 is not acceptable; thus,

x = 8 is the only solution.

4.42. The initial conditions forced by two square roots are

√ 
x + 1 ∴ x + 1 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ −1 5
√ ∴ x≥
3x − 5 ∴ 3x − 5 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 53 3

Then,

√ √ √ √ 3x − 5
2 x + 1 = 3x − 5 ∴ 2 x + 1 = 3x − 5 ∴ x+1=
2
9x 2 − 30x + 25
x+1=
4
9x 2 − 34x + 21 = 0
7 5
(x − 3)(9x − 7) = 0 ∴ x1 = 3, x2 = <
9 3

Therefore, the only solution is x = 3. Graphical interpretation of this solution is illustrated in

Fig. 4.8.

4.43. Given equation is constrained by

√ ⎫
x + 2 ∴ x + 2 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ −2 ⎪
⎪
⎬
√
x−2 ∴ x−2≥0 ∴ x ≥2 ∴ x≥2
⎪
⎪
√ ⎭
2x + 3 ∴ 2x + 3 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ − 23
4.2 Irrational Equations 135

Fig. 4.8 P.4.42, illustration of

multiple initial conditions. Given
x ≥ −1 and x ≥ 5/3 combined
conditions, evidently it is sufficient
that the solution satisfies x ≥ 5/3
condition. Both radicals are in the
upper half plane

Then,
√ √ √
x + 2 + x − 2 = 2x + 3
√ √
xA + 2
+ 2 x + 2 x − 2 + xA − 2
= Z
Z+ 3
2x
 3
(x + 2)(x − 2) =
2
9 25 5
x2 − 4 = ∴ x2 = ∴ x=±
4 4 2

As per the initial constrains, the only solution is x = 5/2.

4.44. By simple use of difference of two square identity,

√ 2  √ 2
5+1 5−1
− a 2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
2 2
√ √  √ √ 
5+1 5−1 5+1 5−1
− +
2 2 2 2
√ √ √ √
 5 + 1
− 5 + 1
5 + 1
+ 5 − 1

2
2
√
2
5 √
= 5
2

√
In summary, this expression reduces to 5.
136 4 Irrational Equations

4.45. Radical terms force the following constrains:

√
x ∴ x≥0
√ √
x 3 − 27 = 0 ∴ x 3 = 27 ∴ x = 3
√ √
x+3 x+9=0 x = t ≡ t 2 + 3t + 9 ≥ 0 

Then, recall identities for difference of two squares and difference of two cubes, so that the
given expression is transformed as

√
x−9 x+3 √
√ ÷√ − x a 2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
x+3 x+9 x − 27
3

a 3 − b3 = (a − b)(a 2 + ab + b2 )

√ √ √  
( x − 3)( x + 3) x+3 √ a c a d
√ ÷ √ √ − x ÷ =
x+3 x+9 ( x − 3)(x + 3 x + 9) b d b c
√ √   √ √ ((
( x − 3)(x+ 3) ( x − 3)((
x+(3((x + 9) √
√((( √   − x
x+
( (3( x + 9 x+ 3
 √
√ √
( x − 3)2 − x ⇒ x − 3 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 9
√ √ √ 
x − 3 − 
x x 2 = |x| = x, if x ≥ 0

− 3, (x ≥ 9)

In summary, given expression is valid only for x ≥ 9 where it is constant “−3.”

Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
5

Problems

5.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Sketch graphs and show important points of basic exponential and logarithmic functions in P.5.1 to
P.5.12.

5.1. f (x) = 2x 5.2. f (x) = ex 5.3. f (x) = 10x

5.4. f (x) = log2 (x) 5.5. f (x) = ln(x) 5.6. f (x) = log(x)
5.7. f (x) = 2−x 5.8. f (x) = e−x 5.9. f (x) = 10−x
5.10. f (x) = ln2 (−x) 5.11. f (x) = ln(−x) 5.12. f (x) = log(−x)

Knowing forms of basic exponential and logarithmic functions (see P.5.1 to P.5.12), deduce and
sketch graphs of functions in P.5.13 to P.5.21.

5.13. f (x) = 2x − 2 5.14. f (x) = 2 ln(x) − 1 5.15. f (x) = 3 ln(−x) + 3

√
5.16. f (x) = 2 x2 5.17. f (x) = eln x 5.18. f (x) = 3x + 3−x
 
5.19. f (x) = | log2 x| 5.20. f (x) = 5|x| − 2 5.21. f (x) = 3 ln(−x + 2) + 3

5.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations

Without using calculator, calculate logarithms in P.5.22 to P.5.39.

√
1 5.23. log0.1 1000 5.24. log2 3
512
5.22. log3
81

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 137
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_5
138 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

√
5.25. log2
1 5.26. log√2 8 5.27. loga
5
a2
128
5.28. log10 10 5.29. log10 100 5.30. log10 1000

5.31. log2 16 1 1
5.32. log25 5.33. log8
625 4
√
5.34. 25log5 3 5.35. log5 5 243
5.36. log2/3
32
 
5.39.  
5.37. log21/2 (4) 5.38. log1/2 (4)
log8 log4 log2 (16)

5.3 Exponential Equations

Solve and comment on the solutions of equations in P.5.40 to P.5.67.

5.40. 2x = 8 5.41. 3x = 81

5.42. 9x = 27 5.43. 2x−1 = 16

5.44. 2x−5 = 3 5.45. e7−4x = 6

 2x  2x−1
2 16 3 9
5.46. = 5.47. =
3 81 4 16
 −x
1 1 5.49. 2 · 3x+1 − 4 · 3x−2 = 450
5.48. =
2 64
1 x+2 1
5.50. 2x−1 − 2x−3 = 3x−2 − 3x−3 5.51. 3 · 4x + 9 = 6 · 4x+1 − 9x+1
3 2
5.52. 23x−2 − 23x−3 − 23x−4 = 4 2
−20x+61.5
=√
8
5.53. 0.5x
2
5.54. (11x − 11)2 = 11x + 99
x+1
5.55. 4x = 2 x

√ √ √ √
x 2 −2 x 2 −2
5.56. 4 x−2
+ 16 = 10 · 2 x−2 5.57. 4x+ − 5 · 2x−1+ =6

5.58. 23x 3x − 23x−1 3x+1 = −288 5.59. e2x − 3ex + 2 = 0

5.60. 5x+1 − 5x−1 = 24  x 2 −1

5.61. x2 − x − 1 =1
  2+√x+x
√ x√
√
1 2(1+ x)
5.62. 81 − 16 − 2 × 9 (9 − 4 ) + 36 = 0
x x x x x x 5.63. 3 3 1+ x = 81
3
5.4 Logarithmic Equations 139

 x  x
√ √
5.64. 5 + 24 + 5 − 24 = 10

 x  x
√ √
5.65. 7 + 48 + 7 − 48 = 14

5.66. 2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (x − 1) = (3x + 1)x+1

5.67. 312x−1 − 96x − 1 − 274x−1 + 813x+1 = 2192

Solve systems of equations in P.5.68 to P.5.71.

2x 3y = 12 2x 4y = 512
5.68. 5.69.
2y 3x = 18 8x = 211 4y
 √ √ √ √
3x−1 = 9y
x 3
a a2 = a7
y 10

5.70. √ √ 5.71. √ √ √
5 3
25x+1 53y−1 = 5x 5
15
a5 = a4
x y

5.4 Logarithmic Equations

Solve and comment on the solutions of equations in P.5.72 to P.5.85.

5.72. log2 x = 4 5.73. log x = 3

5.74. log x = 5 5.75. ln(3x − 10) = 2
5.76. ln(x 2 − 1) = 3 5.77. log(x 2 − 1) = 3
5.78. ln x + ln(x − 1) = 1 5.79. ln(ln x) = 1
√
5.80. log4 (x + 1) = 1 5.81. log(5 − x) + 2 log 3−x =1
5.82. log(x 2 + 19) − log(x − 8) = 2 5.83. log2 (x − 1) + log2 (x + 2) = 2
√
5.84. logx (5x 2 ) log25 x = 1 5.85. log x − (log x)−1 = 1
2
5.86. log3 x log9 x log27 x log81 x =
3

5.87. log5 (21.5x−2.5 + 21.5x−0.5 − 0.01 · 53x+1 ) = 3x − 1

140 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Solve systems of equations in P.5.88 to P.5.91.

x+y =5 3x 2y = 576
5.88. 5.89.
5 log2 (y − x) = 2
logy x + logx y =
2
2 log y + 4 = 3x log(x−y)−2 log 2 = 1 − log(x+y)
5.90. 5.91.
x + log y = 3 log x − log 3 = log 7 − log y

5.5 Exponential-Logarithmic Equations

Solve equations in P.5.95 to P.5.94.

5.92. x log3 x = 9
2
5.93. 4(log4 x) + x log4 x = 512

5.94. 52(log5 2+x) − 2 = 5x+log5 2

2
5.95. x 2 log x
= 10x

5.6 Exponential Inequalities

Solve and comment on the solutions of inequalities in P.5.96 to P.5.99.

 1/x
5.97. 1 < 3|x −x|
2
x+2 1 <9
5.96. 2 >
4
 2
−1 2
+1
5.98. 9x − 3x+2 > 3x − 9 5.99. 92x+2 3x − 10 · 30.5x 9x +3 ≤ 0

5.7 Logarithmic Inequalities

Solve and comment on the solutions of inequalities in P.5.100 to P.5.103.

x−1 5.101. log2x+3 x 2 < 1

5.100. log >0
x+2
5.102. log2x 2 −x (2x + 2) < 1 5.103. log(5x + x + 20) > x − x log 2
5.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 141

Answers

5.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Among all functions in mathematics, arguably, logarithmic and exponential forms are most challeng-
ing for the beginners. Nevertheless, mastery of their basic forms and properties is the key for many
other practical problems. In this section, exponential and logarithmic functions are reviewed from the
visual perspective, in addition to some of the basic transformation techniques.
5.1. Regardless of its base, exponential functions cross vertical axis at (x, y) = (0, 1) point.
Note that exponential functions are always positive; see Fig. 5.1. In addition, at x = 1
exponential function equals to its base, i.e., 2, e, 10, etc. Exponential functions limit to “0”
as x → −∞ and limit to +∞ as x → ∞.

5.2. Exponential function with base e has basically the same general form as the other
exponential function, where its value at x = 1 equals to e. See Fig. 5.1 where three typical
exponential functions are compared.

5.3. Exponential function with base 10 has basically the same form as the other exponential
function, where its value at x = 1 equals to 10. See Fig. 5.1 where three typical exponential
functions are compared.

5.4. Logarithmic function with the base 2, see Fig. 5.2, has basically the same general form
as logarithmic functions with some other base. Note that all basic logarithmic functions are
defined for x > 0; they cross the horizontal axis at (x, y) = (1, 0) point, and their respective
value equals to “1” when x equals to their base, i.e., 2, e, 10, etc. Logarithmic function limit
to −∞ as x → 0 from the positive side and limit to +∞ as x → ∞. Note rotational
symmetry relative to exponential functions. Due to its relatively slow rise to infinity, in the
communication theory, logarithmic functions are sometimes referred to as “compression”
functions.

Fig. 5.1 P.5.1 to P.5.3, all

exponential functions with positive
argument follow the same form:
strictly greater than zero for all x,
limit to zero on the left and to plus
infinity on the right side, and
exponent to zero equals one. Any
number or function may be used as
the base as well as the exponent;
however, most commonly used
bases are 2, e, and 10
142 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Fig. 5.2 P.5.4 to P.5.6, being the

inverse to exponential functions, all
logarithms follow the same form:
defined for strictly positive
arguments, limit to negative infinite
while approaching zero and to plus
infinity on the right side, and all
logarithms of one equal zero. Any
positive number or function may be
used as the base as well as the
argument; however, most
commonly used bases are 2, e
(a.k.a. “natural log” or ln), and 10

Fig. 5.3 P.5.7 to P.5.9, exponents

of negative arguments are mirrored
image of its original form. Still,
exponents of negative argumenta
are strictly greater than zero for all
x, limit to plus infinity on the left
and to zero on the right side, and
exponent to zero equals one

5.5. Logarithmic function with the base e, see Fig. 5.2, has basically the same general form
as logarithmic functions with some other base.

5.6. Logarithmic function with the base 10, see Fig. 5.2, has basically the same general form
as logarithmic functions with some other base.

5.7. Regardless of its base, basic exponential functions with negative argument, see Fig. 5.3,
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

5.8. Regardless of its base, basic exponential functions with negative argument, see Fig. 5.3,
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

5.9. Regardless of its base, basic exponential functions with negative argument, see Fig. 5.3,
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

5.10. Regardless of its base, basic logarithmic functions with negative argument, see Fig. 5.4,
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.
5.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 143

Fig. 5.4 P.5.10 to P.5.12,

logarithms of negative arguments
are mirrored image of its original
form: They are defined for x
strictly less then zero, limit to
negative infinity on the right and to
positive infinity on the left side, and
logarithms of one equal zero

Fig. 5.5 P.5.13, as for any

arbitrary function f (x), adding a
constant to all of its points, i.e.,
f (x) ± a, results in vertical shift of
the original curve without affecting
its form. For example, 20 = 1
therefore 20 − 2 = −1 as
illustrated here

5.11. Regardless of its base, basic logarithmic functions with negative argument, see Fig. 5.4,
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

5.12. Regardless of its base, basic logarithmic functions with negative argument, see Fig. 5.4,
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

5.13. Starting from the basic exponential form 2x , function f (x) = 2x − 2 is found as 2x
simply shifted down along the vertical axis by “−2”; see Fig. 5.5.

5.14. Starting with the basic form of ln(x), first it is multiplied by “2” to create 2 ln(x) then
shifted by “−1” along the vertical axis to create 2 ln(x)−1; see Fig. 5.6. For a simple sketch, it
is sufficient to consider only a few typical points and to follow their movement. For example,
ln(1) = 0 therefore 2 ln(1) = 0 and ln(e) = 1 therefore 2 ln(e) = 2. Then, 2 ln(e) − 1 = 1,
etc.

5.15. Starting with the basic form of ln(−x), first it is multiplied by “3” to create 3 ln(−x)
then shifted by “+3” along the vertical axis to create 3 ln(−x) + 3; see Fig. 5.7. For a simple
sketch, it is sufficient to consider only a few typical points and to follow their movement. For
example, ln(−1) = 0 therefore 3 ln(−1) = 0 and ln(−e) = 1 therefore 3 ln(−e) = 3. Then,
3 ln(−e) + 3 = 6, 3 ln(−1) + 3 = 3, etc.
144 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Fig. 5.6 P.5.14, given any

arbitrary f (x), multiple
transformations may be done in
succession. A function multiplied
by a constant increases its absolute
amplitude at every point (except at
zero point, of course). Then adding
a constant is equivalent to vertical
shift without changing the
multiplied curve’s form

Fig. 5.7 P.5.15, multiple

transformations of arbitrary f (x)
may include vertical “mirroring” by
replacing argument x with −x,
which then may be followed by
adding a constant, or any other
transformation, for example,
multiplication by a constant, then
adding a constant as illustrated here

Fig. 5.8 P.5.16,√as the

consequence of x 2 = |x|, given
function f (x) follows 2x for x ≥ 0;
however, it follows 2−x for x ≤ 0.
Note, for example, that for x = 1,
the function computes the value
x=1
2x = 21 = 2. On the left side,
however, for x = −1, it computes
as 2−x = 2−(−1) = 21 = 2, that is
x=-1

to say f (x) is en even function

5.16. Simple transformation shows that

√ f (x) = 2x ; x≥0
f (x) = 2 x2
= 2|x| ∴
f (x) = 2−x ; x≤0
√
Therefore, function f (x) = 2 x2
is created by plotting only positive part of 2x and negative
part of 2−x ; see Fig. 5.8.
5.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 145

Fig. 5.9 P.5.18, to add any two

functions, in this example 3x and
3−x , is to add their respective
values at each point x separately,
and therefore point by point to
create f (x). For example, at x = 0,
the sum is calculated as
3x + 3−x = 30 + 3−0 = 1 + 1 = 2
x=0

Fig. 5.10 P.5.19, given any

arbitrary function, here log2 x,
graph of its absolute value is
deduced by following definition of
an absolute value: (a) for f (x) ≥ 0,
simply keep f (x) as is; (b) for
f (x) ≤ 0, replace every negative
value f (x0 ) = −a with its positive
version |f (x0 )| = +a, as
illustrated here. Visually, all points
below the horizontal axis (i.e.,
negative) are flipped above the axis
(i.e., positive)

5.17. Knowing the basic function forms, first, argument of a logarithmic function must be
strictly positive, thus x > 0. Then, the relationship between exponential and logarithmic
functions is that they are inverse to each other (similar like “+” and “−” or × and ÷), that is
to say

A = x; (x > 0)
f (x) = Aelnx

In conclusion, this is a simple f (x) = x function that is strictly defined only for x > 0 side.

5.18. Starting with the basic functions 3x and 3−x , their sum may be sketched as in Fig. 5.9.
For example, 30 = 1 and 3−0 = 1 thus 30 + 3−0 = 2, and the rest of the sum is sketched by
following the asymptotic limits.

5.19. Starting from the basic form “log2 x” and knowing that absolute value of a positive
arguments stays the same, while absolute value of a negative argument is multiplied by “−1”
and becomes positive, then | log2 x| is sketched as in Fig. 5.10.

5.20. As already seen in P.5.16, exponent with the absolute argument may be created
by combining exponent 5x for x ≥ 0 and  |x| exponent
 5−x for x ≤ 0 to create 5|x| ; see
 
Fig. 5.11a (left). Then, the final form of 5 − 2 can be deduced by the following series
of transformations
 
5±x → 5|x| → 5|x| − 2 → 5|x| − 2
146 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Fig. 5.11 P.5.20—step-by-step transformations of |5|x| − 2|

Fig. 5.12 P.5.21, subsequent

transformations of ln x create
3 ln(−x + 2) + 3. In the first step,
ln x is mirrored around the vertical
axis to create ln(−x). Then the
multiplication by 3 to increase the
amplitude, followed by the right
shift by two horizontally and the up
shift by 3 vertically

As the last transformation, the negative interval (shaded region) of 5|x| − 2 is simply mirrored
to the positive side; see Fig. 5.11a (right).

5.21. Starting from the basic function ln(−x), the final form of ‘3 ln(−x + 2) + 3’ can
deduced by the following series of transformations

ln(−x) → 3 ln(−x) → 3 ln(−x + 2) → 3 ln(−x + 2) + 3

that appears as amplitude multiplied by “3,” then “3 ln(−x)” function is shifted to the right by
“2” and moved up by “3”; see Fig. 5.12.

5.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations

Problems in this section are intended for practicing hand calculations of logarithms with arbitrary
base. The goal is to develop basic hand calculation skills needed for solving mathematical problems
that include logarithmic functions.
5.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations 147

Reminder: Arbitrary base logarithms are converted to rational functions of ln(x) as

ln b
loga b =
ln a

5.22. Given x = log3 (1/81), argument of an logarithm with the arbitrary base may be
resolved by using the powers of the same base as

1 H3 (1/81) ∴ 3x = 1 = 1 = 3−4 ∴ x = log3 1 = −4

x = log3 ∴ 3x = 3AH
log
81 81 34 81

which is result of a simple deduction as: if 3x = 3−4 , then it must be that x = −4 (because of
the same power base).

5.23. Note that the logarithm’s base is 0.1, and by following the same reasoning as in P.5.22,
it follows that

1
x = log0.1 1000 ∴ 0.1x = 1000 = 103 = = 0.1−3 ∴ x = log0.1 1000 = −3
10−3
√ √  1/3 √
5.24. x = log2 3
512 ∴ 2x = 512 = 29
3
= 23 ∴ x = log2 512 = 3
3

1 H2 (1/128) ∴ 2x = 1 = 1 = 2−7 ∴ x = log2 1 = −7

5.25. x = log2 ∴ 2x = 2AH
log
128 128 27 128
√
 x √ √
 6
5.26. x = log√2 8 ∴ 2 = ZZ 2Hlog√2 8
H =8= 2 ∴ x = log√2 8 = 6

√ √ √ 2
5.27. x = loga
5
a 2 ∴ a x = a 2 = a 2/5 ∴ x = loga a 2 =
5 5

5.28. x = log10 10 ∴ 10x = 10 ∴ x = 1

5.29. x = log10 100 ∴ 10x = 100 ∴ x = 2

5.30. x = log10 1 000 ∴ 10x = 1 000 ∴ x = 3

In addition, writing “log” without specific index number assumes the base 10, while writing
“ln” assumes the base e. Note that, for example, x = log 1 000 000 may be found by simply
counting the zeros, therefore x = 6, x = log 1 000 therefore x = 3, etc.

5.31. x = log2 16 ∴ 2x = 16 ∴ 2x = 24 ∴ x = log2 16 = 4

5.32. x = log25
1 1
= log25 2 = log25 25−2 = −2
log :1 1
25 25 ∴ x = log25 = −2
625 25 625
where logarithm of its base always equals to “1” and identity “log a b = b log a” is used to
simplify powers of logarithm’s argument.
148 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

1 1 1 2 :
 1 1 2
= log8 √ = log8 √ = log8 8− /3 = − log 8 ∴ log8 = −
2
5.33. log8 3 3 8
4 64 82 3 4 3

 log 3
5.34. 25log5 3 = 52 5 = 5(2 log5 3) = 5AHH5 32 ∴ 25log5 3 = 9
log

√ 1 √ 1
5 = log5 5 /2 = log :1

5 5 ∴ log5 5=
1
5.35. log5
2 2

 −5 >

1
5
5.36. log 243 = log 3 = log 2 2 243
2/3 2/3 2/3 = −5 log
2/3 ∴ log2/3 = −5
32 25 3  3 32
 
  −2   1 
     >
 
1   1 
5.37. log21/2 (4) = log1/2 (4) = log1/2  = −2 log  = |−2| ∴ log21/2 (4) = 2
    2 
1/2
2
 

  −2 >

1

5.38. 1 1 √ √
log1/2 (4) = log1/2 = −2 log
1/2 = −2 ∴ log1/2 (4) = j 2
2  2
  
5.39. Given a general composed “telescopic” form x = log8 log4 log2 (16) , start unfold-
ing it from the inside (as the “Russian doll”), as
  
      4  :
 1
x = log8 log4 log2 (16) = log8 log4 log2 2 log
= log8 log4 4 
2 (2)

 
= log8 log :

4
1
⇒ x = log8 (1)
4

∴ 8x = 8AHH8 (1) ⇒ 8x = 1 = 80 ∴ x = 0
log

∴
  
log8 log4 log2 (16) =0

5.3 Exponential Equations

Sometimes the two sides of exponential equation may be transformed to the same base, and then the
two exponents must also be equal. Otherwise, if the two sides of equation are in the exponential form
with different bases, then the equation may be resolved by applying logarithm with the corresponding
base.
5.40. 2x = 8 ∴ 2x = 23 ∴ x = 3

5.41. 3x = 81 ∴ 3x = 34 ∴ x = 4

3
5.42. 9x = 27 ∴ 32x = 33 ∴ 2x = 3 ∴ x =
2
5.3 Exponential Equations 149

5.43. 2x−1 = 16 ∴ 2x−1 = 24 ∴ x − 1 = 4 ∴ x = 5

  ln 3 5 ln 2 + ln 3
5.44. 2x−5 = 3 ∴ H
logH2 2Ax−5 = log2 3 ∴ x − 5 = log2 3 = ∴ x=
ln 2 ln 2

  7 − ln 6
5.45. e7−4x = 6 ∴ @
ln Ae7−4x = ln 6 ∴ 7 − 4x = ln 6 ∴ 7 − ln 6 = 4x ∴ x =
4

 2x  2 x  x  2
2 16 2 42 4 4
5.46. = ∴ 2
= 2 ∴ = ∴ x=2
3 81 3 9 9 9

 2x−1  2x−1  2
3 9 3 3 3
5.47. = ∴ = ∴ 2x − 1 = 2 ∴ x =
4 16 4 4 2

 −x
1 1 1 1
5.48. = ∴ 2x = ∴ 2x = 6 ∴ 2x = 2−6 ∴ x = −6
2 64 64 2

5.49. Given form may be transformed by factorization while recalling the rules of powers, as
 
an
2·3 x+1
− 4·3 x−2
= 450 = a n a −m = a n−m
am
 

3x−2 2 · 3x+1−  − 4 = 2·3·3·5·5
x+2

3x−2 · 50 = 2 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5
3x−2 · 2
· 5
· 5
= 2
· 32 · 5
· 5

∴
x−2=2 ∴ x=4

5.50. Given form may be transformed by factorization while recalling the rules of powers, as
 
an
2x−1
−2 =3 x−3
−3 x−2
= a n a −m = a n−m
x−3
am
   

2x−3 2x−1−  − 1 = 3x−3 3x−2−
x+3   −1
x+3

2x−3 · 3 = 3x−3 · 2
2x−3 3x−3
=
2 3
2x−4 = 3x−4
 x−4
2  
= 1 an = 1 ⇒ n = 0
3
∴
150 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

x−4=0 ∴ x =4

5.51. Following same idea as in A.5.50,

1 x+2 1
3 · 4x +
9 = 6 · 4x+1 − 9x+1
3 2
1 x+1 1 x+2
9 + 9 = 6 · 4x+1 − 3 · 4x
2 3
   
1 1 x+2−x−1
9x+1 + 9  = 4x+1 6 − 3 · 4x−  x−1

2 3
7
3

21
9x+1 · = 4x+1 ·
2
4
2
9x+1 3
=
4x+1 2
 2(x+1)
3 3  b 
= a =a⇒b=1
2 2
∴
1
2(x + 1) = 1 ∴ x=−
2

5.52. Given form may be transformed by factorization while recalling the rules of powers, as
 
23x−2 − 23x−3 − 23x−4 = 4 a b a c = a b+c
23x 2−2 − 23x 2−3 − 23x 2−4 = 22
 
1 1 1
23x − − = 22
4 8 16
23x = 22 · 16 ∴ 23x = 26 ∴ 3x = 6 ∴ x = 2

5.53. After power transformations and factorization, given equation is resolved as

2
−20x+61.5 8
0.5x =√
2
 x 2 −20x+61.5
1
= 23 2−1/2
2
2−(x −20x+61.5)
2
= 25/2
∴
5
−(x 2 − 20x + 61.5) =
2
−x 2 + 20x − 64 = 0
−x 2 + 4x + 16x − 64 = 0
5.3 Exponential Equations 151

−x(x − 4) + 16(x − 4) = 0 ∴ (x − 4)(16 − x) = 0 ∴ x1 = 4, x2 = 16

5.54. Binomial square development and change of variable result in

(11x − 11)2 = 11x + 99

112x − 22 · 11x + 121 = 11x + 99
 
112x − 23 · 11x + 22 = 0 change of variable: 11x = t
t 2 − 23t + 22 = 0
t 2 − t − 22t + 22 = 0 ∴ (t − 1)(t − 22) = 0 ∴ t1 = 1, t2 = 22

so that

11x1 = 1 ∴ x1 = 0
  ln 22
11x2 = 22 see A.5.44 ∴ H 11Z
logH
H Z 2 = log11 22 ∴ x2 = log11 22 =
11x
ln 11

5.55. A simple power transformation leads into quadratic form, as

x+1 x+1 x+1

4x = 2 x ∴ 22x = 2 x ∴ 2x 2 − x − 1 = 0
∴ 2x =
x
1
∴ (x − 1)(2x + 1) = 0 ∴ x1 = 1, x2 = −
2

5.56. Change of variable technique leads into quadratic equation, as

√ √ √ 
4 x−2
+ 16 = 10 · 2 x−2
x−2=t
22t + 16 = 10 · 2t
 t 2  
2 − 10 · 2t + 16 = 0 2t = r
r 2 − 10r + 16 = 0 ∴ (r − 2)(r − 8) = 0 ∴ 2t1 = 2 ∴ t1 = 1, 2t2 = 8 ∴ t2 = 3

so that

x1 − 2 = 1 ∴ x1 − 2 = 1 ∴ x1 = 3

x2 − 2 = 3 ∴ x2 − 2 = 9 ∴ x2 = 11

5.57. Change of variable leads into quadratic equation as

√
x 2 −2
√
x 2 −2
 
4x+ − 5 · 2x−1+ =6 x ab = (x a )b = (x b )a
152 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

 √  √  √ 
x 2 −2 2
2x+ − 5 · 2−1 · 2x+ x−2
=6 2x+ x 2 −2
=t
5
t2 − t − 6 = 0 ∴ 2t 2 − 5t − 12 = 0 ∴ (t − 4)(2t + 3) = 0
2
3
∴ t1 = 4, t2 = −
2

so that
√  
2 x1 + x12 −2
= 22 ∴ x1 + x12 − 2 = 2 ∴ x12 − 2 = 2 − x1
√ 3   3
2 x2 + x22 −2
=− ∴ 2f (x) > 0 ∴ t2 = −
2 2

which is to say

x12 − 2 = 2 − x1 ≡ x12 − 2 = (2 − x1 )2 and 2 − x1 ≥ 0 ∴ x1 ≤ 2
3
x12 − 2 = 4 − 4x1 + 
 x12 ∴ x1 =
2

as the only solution.

5.58. Transformations based on power identities lead into

23x 3x − 23x−1 3x+1 = −288

 3 x
2 3 − 23x 2−1 3x 31 = −288
 x 3  3 x
23 3 − 2 3 = −288
2
3
24x − 24x = −288
2
1
− 24x = −288
2
24x = 576 = 242 ∴ x=2

5.59. This exponential equation is in reality quadratic equation in disguise; by the change of
variables technique, it is converted into a simple quadratic equation as
 2  
e2x − 3ex + 2 = 0 ∴ ex − 3 ex + 2 = 0 ∴ t = ex
∴ t 2 − 3t + 2 = 0
t 2 − 2t − t + 2 = 0
t (t − 2) − (t − 2) = 0
(t − 2)(t − 1) = 0 ∴ t1 = 2, t2 = 1
5.3 Exponential Equations 153

 
Case t1 = 2: ∴ ex1 = 2 ∴ ln ex1 = ln 2 ∴ x1 = ln 2
 
Case t2 = 2: ∴ ex2 = 1 ∴ ln ex2 = ln 1 ∴ x1 = 0

5.60. After factorization of 52 term, it follows that

5x+1 − 5x−1 = 24
5x−1 52 − 5x−1 = 24
 
5x−1 52 − 1 = 24
5x−1 × 24 = 24 ∴ 5x−1 = 1 = 50 ∴ x − 1 = 0 ∴ x = 1

 x 2 −1
5.61. Given f (x) = x 2 − x − 1 = 1, note that its general form of this function is
a b = 1, which is equivalent to logarithmic form

ln a b = ln 1 ∴ b ln a = 0

where argument of a logarithmic function must be strictly positive, that is to say a > 0. In this
problem, it must be that x 2 − x − 1 > 0. Roots of this polynomial are
√ √
1− 5 1+ 5
x − x − 1 = 0 ∴ x1 =
2
and x2 =
2 2
where inequality x 2 − x − 1 > 0 defines two intervals: x < x1 and x > x2 .

By consequence, in this problem, equation a b = 1 is possible in two cases: (1) if a > 0 and
b = 0, or (2) a = 1. Thus,

Case 1 : a b = 1 ⇒ a > 0 and b = 0, that is to say

 2 x 2 −1 x 2 − x − 1 > 0 ∴ (x 2 − 1) − x > 0
x −x−1 =1 ∴
x2 − 1 = 0 ∴ x = ±1
which is to say

x = 1 : ⇒ x 2 − 1 = 0 ∴ (x 2 − 1) − x = 0 − 1 > 0 ∴ −1 > 0
x = −1 : ⇒ x 2 − 1 = 0 ∴ (x 2 − 1) − x = 0 − 1 = 0 − (−1) = 0 ∴ 1 > 0 

therefore, x = −1 satisfies both conditions.

Case 2 : a b = 1 ⇒ a = 0, thus

x 2 − x − 1 = 1 ∴ x 2 − x − 2 = 0 ∴ x 2 − 2x + x − 2 = 0 ∴ x(x − 2) + x − 2 = 0
∴ (x + 1)(x − 2) = 0 ∴ x = −1, x = 2

Thus, in total x = −1 (double root) and x = 2. These three solutions for f (x) = 1 are
illustrated in Fig. 5.13.
154 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Fig. 5.13 P.5.61, arbitrary base

and exponent are subject to
multiple conditions. In this
example, all values within the strict
interval x ∈ (x1 , x2 ) are not
allowed. Solutions of f (x) = 1 are
the intersect points between f (x)
and g(x) = 1, as illustrated here
(Note that the even order roots do
not cross the horizontal line, see
Vol. II on functions)

5.62. After factorization, this equation is transformed into quadratic equation as

81x − 16x − 2 × 9x (9x − 4x ) + 36x = 0

(34 )x − (24 )x − 2 × 92x + 2 × 9x 4x ) + (62 )x = 0
34x − 24x − 2 × 34x + 2 × 32x 22x + 62x = 0
34x − 2 × 34x − 24x + 2 × 62x + 62x = 0
−34x − 24x + 3 × 62x = 0
 
34x + 24x − 3 × 62x = 0 factor 24x

34x  2
4x
2
32x  2x
+ − 3 =0
24x  2
4x 2Z4x 2x
  2  2x
3 2x 3
−3 +1=0
2 2

Thus, change of variable leads to

 2x √
3 3± 5
t= ∴ t − 3t + 1 = 0 ∴ t + 1, 2 =
2
2 2

Return to the original variable gives

 2x  x √ √ √
3 9 3± 5 9 3± 5 ln(3 ± 5) − ln 2
= = ∴ x1,2 ln = ln ∴ x1,2 =
2 4 2 4 2 ln 9 − ln 4
5.3 Exponential Equations 155

√
5.63. Transformations of the power forms, while respecting x ∴ x ≥ 0, leads into
quadratic equation as

  2+√x+x  
√ x√
√
1 2(1+ x) 1
3 3 1+ x = 81 x a x b = x a+b ; n = x −n
3 x
√
1
+ 1+x√x − 2+ x+x
√
32 3 2(1+ x) = 34
√
1
+ 1+x√x − 2+ x+x
√
32 2(1+ x) = 34

 
√ √ √ √

(1+ x)2 +2x(1+ x)−(1+ x)(2+ x+x)
√ 2
3 
2(1+ x) = 34

which is equivalent to
√ √
(1 + x) + 2x − (2 + x + x)
√ =4
2(1 + x)
√
x−1=8+8 x
 2
√ x−9 x−9 x−9
x= ≡ x= and ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 17
8 8 8

i.e., x ≥ 17, so that

 2
x−9
x=
8
x 2 − 82x + 81 = 0 ∴ x 2 − x − 81x + 81 = 0 ∴ (x − 1)(x − 81) = 0

which leaves x = 81 as the only solution.

5.64. By using the change of variables technique, given equation is converted as

 x  x
√ √
5 + 24 + 5 − 24 = 10
  √ x  x
√
5 − 24 √
5 + 24  √ + 5 − 24 = 10
5 − 24
⎛ √ √ ⎞x  x
(5 + 24)(5 − 24) √
⎝  √ ⎠ + 5 − 24 = 10
5 − 24
√ x  x
25 − 24 √
 √ + 5 − 24 = 10
5 − 24
 x
1 √
 √ x + 5 − 24 = 10
5 − 24
156 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

 √ x
This form is converted into quadratic equation with 5 − 24 = t change, as

1 √
+ t = 10 ∴ t 2 − 10 t + 1 = 0 ∴ t1,2 = 5 ± 24
t

Return to the original variable results in

 x  x
√ √ √
5 − 24 = t ∴ 5 − 24 = 5 − 24 ∴ x = 2
 x
√ √ 1
∴ 5 − 24 = 5 + 24 = √ ∴ x = −2
5 − 24
 
1
x −n = n ; (a − b)(a + b) = a − b
2 2
x

5.65. Transformation based on the difference of two squares leads into quadratic equation as
 x  x
√ √
7 + 48 + 7 − 48 = 14

 x   √ x
√ √ 7 + 48
7 + 48 + 7 − 48  √ = 14
7 + 48
⎛  √  √  ⎞x
 x 7 − 48 7 + 48
√
7 + 48 + ⎝  √ ⎠ = 14
7 + 48
 x  √ x
√ 49 − 48
7 + 48 +  √ = 14
7 + 48
 x  x 
√ 1 √
7 + 48 +  √ x = 14 7 + 48 = t
7 + 48

that is to say
√
1 14 ± 4 · 48 √
t+ − 14 = 0 ∴ t 2 − 14t + 1 = 0 ∴ t1,2 = = 7 ± 48
t 2

and return to the original variable,

 x
√ √
7 + 48 = 7 + 48 ∴ x1 = 2
 x  −x
√ 1 √ √
7 + 48 =  √  x = 7 − 48 = 7 − 48 ∴ x2 = −2
7 − 48
5.3 Exponential Equations 157

5.66. Given equation 2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (x − 1) = (3x + 1)x+1 , note that it must be (see
P.5.61)
1
3x + 1 > 0 ∴ x >
3
then, this function may be converted into the following form,

2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (x − 1) = (3x + 1)x+1

2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (3x + 1)x+1 = x − 1
2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (3x + 1)(3x + 1)x = x − 1
 
(3x + 1)x 2(x + 1) − (3x + 1) = x − 1
−(x − 1)(3x + 1)x = x − 1

Note that (3x + 1)x > 0 for all x > 1/3 and −(x − 1) = (x − 1); thus the last equation is
possible only if x = 1, i.e.,

x = 1 : −(1 − 1)(3(1) + 1)1 = 1 − 1 ∴ −(0)(4) = 0 

In conclusion, x = 1. This solution may be illustrated by finding the intersection point between
the left and right sides of equation (see Fig. 5.14), i.e.,

f1 (x) = 2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (x − 1)

f2 (x) = (3x + 1)x+1

5.67. Transformations of the power forms lead into quadratic equation as

312x−1 − 96x − 1 − 274x−1 + 813x+1 = 2192

312x−1 − 312x−2 − 312x−3 + 312x+4 = 2192
 
312x 3−1 − 3−2 − 3−3 + 34 = 2192
 
1 1 1
3 12x
− − + 81 = 2192
3 9 27

Fig. 5.14 P.5.66, nonlinear

equations may be resolved
graphically, where the left side of
the equation is one function, here
f1 (x), and the right side is another
function, here f2 (x). To say that
f1 (x) = f2 (x) is to say that they
have a common point, here at
x = 1, which is the desired solution
158 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

so that
 

2192 1
312x = 1

2192 ∴ 312x = 33 ∴ 12x = 3 ∴ x =
27 4

5.68. Given system is resolved as

2x 3y = 12  x  y  x  −y
2x 3y 2

12 2 3 2 2 2 2
∴ y x = ∴ = ∴ =
2y 3x = 18 2 3 3

18 3 2 3 3 3 3

so that,
 x−y
2 2
= ∴ x−y =1 ∴ x =1+y
3 3

which can be back-substituted as

21+y 3y = 12 ∴ 2 · 2y 3y = 12 ∴ 6y = 6 ∴ y = 1 ∴ x=2

5.69. Transformations of the power terms lead into

2x 4y = 512 2x 22y = 29 2x+2y = 29

∴ ∴
8x = 211 4y 23x 2−2y = 211 23x−2y = 211

which is equivalent to the following linear system

x + 2y =9
∴ 4x = 20 ∴ x = 5 ∴ y = 2
3x − 2y = 11

5.70. Following same idea as in A.5.69

√ √ √ ⎫
= a7⎬ a 1/x+2/y = a 7/10
x y 10
a a2
√ √ ∴  
= a4 ⎭ a 5/x−4/y = 1 x0 = 1
x y
a5

which is equivalent to

1 2 7
+ =
x y 10
5 4 1 4 4 2 7 2

14 7
1
− =0 ∴ = ⇒ + = ∴ = ∴ y=4 ∴ x=5
x y x 5y 5y y 10 5
y 
 2
10

5.71. Transformations of the power term forms and grouping similar ones lead into
5.4 Logarithmic Equations 159

√ √ ⎫ ⎫ ⎫
9y ⎬ ⎬ = 1⎬
x−1 2y 3x−4y−3
3x−1 = 3
3 2 =33 3 6

√ √ √ ∴ ∴
= 5x 15 5⎭ ⎭ = 1⎭
5 3 6(x+1)+5(3y−1) 15x+1 5y−3x
25x+1 53y−1 5 15 =5 15 5 5

which is equivalent to

3x − 4y =3
∴ y=3 ∴ x=5
−3x + 5y =0

5.4 Logarithmic Equations

Logarithmic and exponential functions reverse each other, similar as add/subtract, or multiply/divide
do; thus, the general strategy for solving these types of equations is to apply opposite function to both
left and right side of equation.

Reminder: Given a logarithmic equation, its solution is found by rising both left and right side
of the equation as

loga f (x) = b ⇒ aAHHa f (x) = a b ⇒ f (x) = a b

log

or given exponential function

log
a f (x) = b ⇒ loga a f (x) = loga b ⇒ f (x)  :1

a a = loga b ⇒ f (x) = loga b

5.72. log2 x = 4 ∴ 2AHH2 x = 24 ∴ x = 24 = 16

log

5.73. log x = 3 ∴

5.74. log x = 5 ∴

e2 + 10
5.75. ln(3x − 10) = 2 ∴ eln(3x−10) = e2 ∴ 3x − 10 = e2 ∴ x =
3

5.76. ln(x 2 − 1) = 3 ∴ eln(x
2
−1)
= e3 ∴ x 2 − 1 = e3 ∴ x = ± e3 + 1

5.77. log(x 2 − 1) = 3 ∴

 
5.78. ln x + ln(x − 1) = 1 ∴ ln x(x − 1) = 1 ∴ eln(x(x−1)) = e ∴ x 2 − x = e
√
1 ± 1 + 4e
x − x − e = 1 ∴ x1,2 =
2
2
160 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

5.79. ln(ln x) = 1 ∴ eln(ln x) = e ∴ ln x = e ∴ eln x = ee ∴ x = ee

5.80. log4 (x + 1) = 1 ∴ 4AHH4 (x+1) = 41 ∴ x + 1 = 4 ∴ x = 3

log

5.81. Logarithmic functions imply conditions

log(5 − x) ∴ 5−x >0 ∴ x <5

∴ x<3
log(3 − x) ∴ 3−x >0 ∴ x <3
so that logarithmic identity transformations lead to
√  
log(5 − x) + 2 log 3 − x = 1 n log x = log x n
 
log(5 − x) + log(3 − x) = 1 log a + log b = log(ab); log 10 = 1
 
log (5 − x)(3 − x) = log 10
∴
(5 − x)(3 − x) = 10 ∴ x 2 − 8x + 5 = 0
√
8 ± 64 − 4(1)(5) √
∴ x1,2 = = 4 ± 11
2
√
which leaves x = 4 − 11 as the only solution that satisfies x < 3 condition.

5.82. Following same idea as in A.5.81, first, (x 2 +19) argument is always positive; thus there
are no constrains. However, (x − 8) argument must be positive thus x > 8. Then, logarithmic
identity transformations lead to
 
log(x 2 + 19) − log(x − 8) = 2 log 100 = 2
x 2 + 19 x 2 + 19
log = log 100 ∴ = 100
x−8 x−8
∴
x 2 − 100x + 819 = 0 ∴ x 2 − 9x − 91x + 819 = 0 ∴ (x − 9)(x − 91) = 0

which is to say x1 = 9 and x2 = 91.

5.83. The two logarithmic functions impose limits as x − 1 > 0 ∴ x > 1 and x + 2 >
0 ∴ x > −2, thus x > 1, so that

log2 (x − 1) + log2 (x + 2) = 2
 
log2 (x − 1)(x + 2) = 2
2AHH2 ((x−1)(x+2)) = 22
log

(x − 1)(x + 2) = 4 ∴ (x − 2)(x + 3) = 0

which leaves x = 2 as the only solution because −3 < 1.

5.4 Logarithmic Equations 161

5.84. The change of log base identity may be used to transform given equation as
 
ln a
logx (5x 2 ) log25 x = 1 loga b =
ln b
ln
ln(5x 2 )  x ln x
=1
ln
 x ln 5 ln 5
 
ln(5x 2 ) ln x = ln 5 ln 5 ln(ab) = ln a + ln b
 
ln 5 + ln x 2 ln x = ln2 5
 
2 ln2 x + ln 5 ln x − ln2 5 = 0 change variable: ln x = t

so that

− ln 5 ±
ln2 5 − 4(2)(− ln2 5) − ln 5 ± 3 ln 5
2t + ln 5 t − ln 5 = 0 ∴ t1,2 =
2 2
∴ t1,2 =
4 4
− ln 5 + 3 ln 5 1   √
t1 = = ln 5 = a ln b = ln ba = ln 5
4 2
√ √
∴ ln x = ln 5 ∴ x1 = 5
− ln 5 − 3 ln 5   1
t2 = = − ln 5 = a ln b = ln ba = ln
4 5
1 1
∴ ln x = ln ∴ x2 =
5 5

5.85. Change of variable transforms this log equation into its equivalent quadratic form as
√
log x − (log x)−1 = 1
 −1
1  
log x − log x = 1 change of variable: log x = t
2
 −1
t
t− = 1 ∴ t 2 − t − 2 = 0 ∴ (t − 2)(t + 1) = 0 ∴ t1 = 2, t2 = −1
2

so that

1
log x1 = 2 ∴ x1 = 100, log x2 = −1 ∴ x2 =
10

5.86. The change of log base identity may be used to transform given equation as
 
2 ln a
log3 x log9 x log27 x log81 x = loga b =
3 ln b
ln x ln x ln x ln x 2
=
ln 3 ln 9 ln 27 ln 81 3
162 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

1 1 1 1 2
(ln x)4 2 3 4
=
ln 3 ln 3 ln 3 ln 3 3
1 2
(ln x)4 =
 8 (ln 3)4
24 3

 
(ln x)4 = (2 ln 3)4 even powers ∴ ln x = ±2 ln 3
∴
ln x1 = 2 ln 3 = ln 9 ∴ x1 = 9
1 1
ln x2 = −2 ln 3 = ln ∴ x2 =
9 9

5.87. Logarithmic and the power identities lead into

 log x 
log5 (21.5x−2.5 + 21.5x−0.5 − 0.01 · 53x+1 ) = 3x − 1 n n =x

5AHH5 (21.5x−2.5 +21.5x−0.5 −0.01 · 53x+1 ) = 53x−1

log

21.5x−2.5 + 21.5x−0.5 − 0.01 · 53x+1 = 53x−1

1 3x 1
2− /2 + 2
2− /2 = 53x 5−1 +
3x/2 5 3x/2
1
2 5 5
100
 
 5  1 5
2 /2 2− /2 + 2− /2 = 53x +
3x 1

5 100
 −5/2 −1/2
  
4·2 +2 =5 3x
3x/2
2 square both sides
 5 2
16 · 23x 2− /2 + 2− /2 = 56x
1

 3x
3x 25 25 25 1

16 · 2 = 25 3x
∴ = ∴ 3x = 1 ∴ x =

32 2 2 2 3

5.88. This example illustrates a typical case where one of the equations is linear and the other
transcendental. One possible technique is to use the change of variable as
⎫ ⎫
x+y =5⎪
⎬ x+y =5⎪⎬  
ln x
5⎪ ∴ ln x ln y 5 change of variable: = t
logy x + logx y = ⎭ + = ⎪⎭ ln y
2 ln y ln x 2

As there are two log functions, there are two conditions that must be respected: for ln x ⇒ x >
0 and for ln y ⇒ y > 0. Failing to immediately recognize these two conditions would imply
the final solutions to this system that are not correct. Thus, the second equation is transformed
into its equivalent quadratic form as

1 5
t+ = ∴ 2t 2 − 5t + 2 = 0 ∴ 2t 2 − t − 4t + 2 = 0 ∴ (t − 2)(2t − 1) = 0
t 2
1
t1 = 2, t2 =
2
5.4 Logarithmic Equations 163

and therefore,

ln x
= 2 ∴ ln x = 2 ln y ∴ x = ln y 2 ∴ x = y 2
ln y

which is to say that the equivalent system of equations is resolved as

√ √
x+y =5 −1 ± 1 − 4(1)(−5) −1 ± 21
∴ y 2 + y − 5 = 0 ∴ y1,2 = =
x = y2 2 2

However,
√ √
−1 + 1 − 4(1)(−5) −1 + 21
y1 = = >0 
2 2
√ √
−1 − 1 − 4(1)(−5) −1 − 21
y2 = = <0
2 2

which leaves y1 as the only valid solution of this quadratic equation that may be used as log
argument in ln y; thus, the first (x1 , y1 ) solution is
√
−1 + 21
y1 = 
2
√ √
−1 + 21 11 − 21
x1 = 5 − y1 = 5 − = >0 
2 2

Nevertheless, as there is quadratic (or square root) relation between x and y, it is also possible

x+y =5   √  √ 
√ ∴ y > 0 ∴ x + x − 5 = 0 ∴ change of variable: x = t
y =± x
√
−1 + 21
t + t − 5 = 0 ∴ t1 =
2
2

so that the second (x2 , y2 ) solution is

√ √ √ √ √
√ −1 + 21 21 − 1 21 − 1 21 − 2 21 + 1 11 − 21
x2 = ∴ x2 = = = >0 
2 2 2 4 2
√ √
11 − 21 −1 + 21
y2 = 5 − x2 = 5 − = 
2 2

Note high symmetry of forms in this example that is consequence of quadratic/square root
relationships between two variables x and y constrained by log functions. Misunderstanding
of this kind of relationships is the principal source of many calculation errors.
164 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

5.89. Exponent may be used to eliminate log function of the same base, as

3x 2y = 576 3x 2y = 576 3x 2y = 576

∴ ∴
log2 (y − x) = 2 2AHH2 (y−x)
log
=2 2
y−x =4

Which leads into

 
3x 2y = 576 y = x + 4 ∴ 3x 2x+4 = 576 ∴ 3x 2x 24 = 576 ∴ 6x = 36
 
∴ x =2 y =x+4 ∴ y =6

5.90. Due to log function, there is one limitation as log y ⇒ y > 0, then

2 log y + 4 = 3x 2 log y + 4 = 3x
∴
x + log y =3 log y =3−x

So that,

2(3 − x) + 4 = 3x ∴ 5x − 10 = 0 ∴ x = 2
log y = 3 − 2 = 1 ∴ y = 10

5.91. Due to four log functions, there are the following conditions

log(x − y) ⇒ x − y > 0 ∴ x > y

log(x + y) ⇒ x + y > 0 ∴ x > −y
log x ⇒ x > 0
log y ⇒ y > 0

which may be summarized as 0 < y < x. Thus,

log(x − y) − 2 log 2 = 1 − log(x + y) log(x − y) + log(x + y) = 1 + 2 log 2

∴
log x − log 3 = log 7 − log y log x + log y = log 7 + log 3

Which is equivalent to
 
= 1+ log 4 ZZ
Z −y 2 )
ZZ
= 101 Z
2
log (x−y)(x+y) 10log(x
= 101+log 4 x 2 −y 2 10log4
∴ ∴
log(xy) = log 21 xy = 21 xy = 21

that is to say

x2 − y2 = 40 
∴ x 2 = 40 + y 2 ∴ 40 + y 2 y = 21 ∴ (40 + y 2 ) y 2 = 212
xy = 21
5.5 Exponential-Logarithmic Equations 165

and
 
y 4 + 40y 2 − 212 = 0 biquadratic, change of variable: y 2 = t
t 2 + 40t − 441 = 0 ∴ t 2 − 9t + 49t − 441 = 0 ∴ (t − 9)(t + 49) = 0

then

y12 = 9 ∴ y1 = 3 but, y22 = −49

21
x1 y1 = 21 ∴ x1 = =7
3

which satisfies the initial conditions between x and y.

5.5 Exponential-Logarithmic Equations

Equations that contain various composite exp/log forms are resolved with successive use of identities
that gradually simplify the original form.

5.92. By using the identities for log and exp functions, it follows
   
x log3 x = 9 ∴ log3 x log3 x = log3 9 ∴ log3 x log3 x = log3 32

log
∴ log3 x log3 x = 2  :1

33
 2 √ √
∴ log3 x log3 x = 2 ∴ log3 x = 2 ∴ log3 x = ± 2 ∴ 3log3 x = 3± 2
√
∴ x = 3± 2

5.93. By exploiting exponential/logarithmic identities, it follows that

2
 
2
4(log4 x) + x log4 x = 512 a b = a b b = (a b )b
 H 
H4 x log4 x + x log4 x = 512
4Alog
x log4 x + x log4 x = 512
2 x log4 x = 512
x log4 x = 256
   
log4 x log4 x = log4 256 log a b = b log a, 256 = 44
 2
log4 x log4 x = H logH4 4A4 = 4 ∴ log4 x = 4 ∴ log4 x = ±2
4AH H4 x = 4±2 ∴ x = 4±2
log

1
x1 = 42 = 16, x2 = 4−2 =
16
166 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

5.94. As a consequence of exponential and logarithmic identities, any real number can be
written as exponent of an arbitrary base logarithm, e.g., 2 = 5log5 2 , thus

52(log5 2+x) − 2 = 5x+log5 2

  b 
a b+c = a b a c ; a = nlogn a ; x ab = x a

52 log5 2 52x − 5log5 2 = 5x 5log5 2

 2
5log5 2 52x − 5log5 2 − 5x 5log5 2 = 0
 
5AHH5 2 5log5 2 52x − 1 − 5x = 0
log

 
2 5log5 2 52x − 1 − 5x = 0
5AHH5 2 52x − 5x − 1 = 0
log

2 × 52x − 5x − 1 = 0

By the change of variables technique, the last equation is converted into a quadratic equation.
 2  
2 × 5x − 5x − 1 = 0 5x = t
2t 2 − t − 1 = 0
2t 2 − 2t + t − 1 = 0
2t (t − 1) + (t − 1) = 0
(t − 1)(2t + 1) = 0 ∴
1
t1 = 1 or t2 = − ∴
2
1
5x = − not possible because 5x > 0 ∀x
2
5x = 1 ∴ x = 0

This solution may be illustrated by finding the intersection point between the left and right
sides of equation (see Fig. 5.15), i.e.,

f1 (x) = 52(log5 2+x) − 2

f2 (x) = 5x+log5 2

5.95. After applying identities related to log(x) and exp(x) functions

2  2   
x 2 log x
= 10x ∴ log x 2 log x = log(10x) log x n = n log x, log(ab) = log a + log b
: 1 + log x

log10
2 log2 x log x = 
2 log3 x − log x − 1 = 0
5.5 Exponential-Logarithmic Equations 167

Fig. 5.15 P.5.94, nonlinear

equations may be resolved
graphically, where the left side of
the equation is one function, here
f1 (x), and the right side is another
function, here f2 (x). To say that
f1 (x) = f2 (x) is to say that they
have a common point, here at
x = 0, which is the desired solution

change of variable, log x = t results in cubic equation that is resolved as

 
2t 3 − t − 1 = 0 ∴ t1 = 1 see Viète formulas in Ch. 2

then, by long division

(2t 3 − t − 1) ÷ (t − 1) = 2t 2 + 2t + 1
−(2t 3 − 2t 2 )
2t 2 − t
− (2t 2 − 2t)
t −1
− (t − 1)
=0

Roots of 2t 2 + 2t + 1 = 0 are complex as

1 1
t2,3 = − ± j
2 2

Therefore,

log x = t ⇒ x = 10t ∴ t1 = 1 ⇒ x1 = 10
1 1
t2,3 = − ± j ⇒ x2,3 = 10−(1∓j )/2
2 2

In summary, one solution, x1 , is real, and the other two, x2 and x3 , are complex conjugate.
168 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

5.6 Exponential Inequalities

Similar to their equation counterparts, exponential inequalities result in nonunique answers. Instead,
the solution set consists of one or multiple intervals. In general, exponential forms are considered
easier to solve, because basic exponential functions are well defined and positive.

5.96. The main idea is to transform the inequality terms until it is possible to compare powers
of the same base, i.e.,
 1/x
1  −1/x
2 x+2
> ∴ 2x+2 > 4−1/x ∴ 2x+2 > 22 ∴ 2x+2 > 2−2/x
4

Therefore, this inequality is equivalent to

2 2
x+2>− ∴ x+2+ >0
x x

Note that for this inequality x = 0 due to division by zero in inverse function “2/x,” it is
necessary to examine two intervals:

1. x > 0 : Obviously, within this interval, the inequality is always satisfied, because all three
terms on the left side are positive. Therefore, one solution is the interval x > 0.
2. x < 0 : Within this interval, the two terms that include x are obviously negative, while
“+2” term is always positive. Thus,

2 x 2 + 2x + 2
x+2+ >0 ∴ >0
x x

Note that, given x < 0 interval, numerator “x 2 + 2x + 2” is always positive, while

denominator “x” is always negative. Consequently, rational term on the left side of
inequality is always negative, not positive.

In conclusion, solution to this inequality is “x > 0” interval.

5.97. Given double strict inequality with the absolute expression |x 2 − x| = |x(x − 1)|, there
are two expressions to be considered:
⎧
⎪x(x − 1) > 0 ∴
⎪
⎪
x > 0 and x − 1 > 0 ∴ x > 1 ⇒ |x 2 − x| = x 2 − x
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x < 0 and x − 1 < 0 ∴ x < 0 ⇒ |x 2 − x| = x 2 − x
⎪
⎪
⎨
|x(x − 1)| = x 2 − x < 0 ∴ x > 0 and x − 1 < 0 ∴ 0 < x < 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⇒ |x 2 − x| = −(x 2 − x)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
x < 0 and x − 1 > 0 ⇒ (empty interval)

Therefore,
5.6 Exponential Inequalities 169

2
−x
1. x > 1 or x < 0 : 1 < 3x <9

1 < 3x
2
−x
log
∴ : 0 H 3x 2 −x ∴ 0 < x 2 − x ⇒ x > 1 or x < 0

3 1 < log
H3A
2
−x 2
−x
3x < 9 ∴ 3x < 32 ∴ x 2 − x < 2 ∴ x 2 −x − 2 < 0 ∴ x 2 −2x + x − 2 < 0
∴ x(x − 2) + x − 2 < 0
(x − 2)(x + 1) < 0 ⇒ x > −1 and x < 2
x < −1 and x > 2 (empty interval)

2. 0 < x < 1 : 1 < 3−(x −x)

2
<9

1 < 3−(x
2
−x)
log
∴ : 0 H 3−(x 2 −x) ∴ 0 < −(x 2 − x) ∴ x 2 − x < 0 ⇒ 0 < x < 1

3 1 < log
H3A

3−(x −x)
< 9 ∴ 3−(x −x)
2 2
< 32 ∴ x − x 2 < 2 ∴ −x 2 + x − 2 < 0  (x ∈ ∀x)

In summary, the solution set is in interval (note strict inequalities)

⎫
−1 < x < 2 ⎪
⎪
⎬
x > 1 or x < 0 ∴ x ∈ (−1, 2) interval, where, x = (−1, 0, 1, 2)
⎪
⎪
⎭
0<x<1

This solution set is illustrated by non-shaded region in Fig. 5.16a (left). As a comparison, the
rational term itself that is bounded by “1” and “9” is shown in Fig. 5.16a (right), where points
excluded due to strict inequalities are crossed.

5.98. Following the idea of reducing all terms to the same base, we write

9x − 3x+2 > 3x − 9
 2

32x − 3x 32 > 3x − 32 


Fig. 5.16 P.5.97 —inequalities define an intervals not a single number

170 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

3

2x
3
− 3x 32 > 2x
− 2 × 3x 32 + 34
2 × 3x 32 − 3x 32 > 34

3x 32 > 34 2 ∴ x > 2

5.99. Terms may be grouped to arrive at the same base, as

2
−1 2
+1
92x+2 3x − 10 · 30.5x 9x + 3 ≤ 0
2
−1 2
+1
34(x+1) 3x − 10 · 30.5x 32x + 3 ≤ 0
x 2 +4x+2
2
+4x+2
3 · 3x − 10 · 3 2 + 3 ≤ 0
   
3 · 3x +4x+2 − 10 · 3x 2 +4x+2 + 3 ≤ 0 change of variable: 3x 2 +4x+2 = t
2

so that,

3t 2 − 10t + 3 ≤ 0 ∴ 3t 2 − 1t − 9t + 3 ≤ 0 ∴ (t − 3)(3t − 1) ≤ 0

Recall that the product of two terms AB ≤ 0 when A and B terms have opposite signs, which
may be analyzed as

t 1/3 3
(3t − 1) − 0 + + +
(t − 3) − − − 0 +
(t − 3)(3t − 1) + 0 − 0 +

to show that 3t 2 − 10t + 3 ≤ 0 is satisfied within interval t ∈ (1/3, 3), end points are included,
and after returning to the original variable,
 1
3x 2 +4x+2 = = 3−1 ∴ 3x +4x+2 = 3−2 ∴ x 2 + 4x + 2 = −2
2

3
∴ (x + 2)2 = 0 ∴ x1,2 = −2

3x 2 +4x+2 = 3 ∴ 3x +4x+2 = 32 ∴ x 2 + 4x + 2 = 2 ∴ x(x + 4) = 0
2

∴ x3 = 0, x4 = −4

In conclusion: After t → x transformation, interval t ∈ (1/3, 3) maps back into x ∈ (−4, 0)

interval that satisfies the given inequality. Note that point x = −2 is within the interval x ∈
(−4, 0), and, moreover, it is double root; thus the overall sign does not change (see Vol. II on
function analysis).
5.7 Logarithmic Inequalities 171

5.7 Logarithmic Inequalities

Similar to their equation counterparts, logarithmic inequalities result in nonunique answers, and the
solution set consists of one or multiple intervals. In general, solving logarithmic forms is a bit more
involved due to constrains of basic logarithmic functions.

5.100. Logarithmic function is positive when its argument is superior to one, i.e.,

x−1 x−1
log >0 ∴ > 1 where, x = −2
x+2 x+2

The solution set may be deduced as follows:

x−1 x−1 x − 1 − xA − 2 −3
>1 ∴ −1>0 ∴ A >0 ∴ >0 ∴ x+2<0
x+2 x+2 x+2 x+2
∴ x < −2

Therefore, x < −2 is the solution set.

5.101. Given inequality

ln x 2
log2x+3 x 2 < 1 ∴ <1
ln(2x + 3)

Note that logarithm’s argument must be strictly positive, thus x = 0. It is important to

distinguish logarithms whose base is inferior to “1” from those whose base is superior to
“1.” Note that two logarithmic functions with the inverse bases are symmetric relative to the
horizontal axis. Also, note that “1” can be written as an arbitrary base logarithm of that base,
for example,

1 = log2x+3 (2x + 3)
Case 1: 0 < 2x + 3 < 1
⎫
3⎪
0 < 2x + 3 ∴ x>− ⎬ 3
2 ⇒− <x<1
⎪
∴ x < −1 ⎭
2
2x + 3 < 1

Then,

log2x+3 x 2 < 1
log2x+3 x 2 < log2x+3 (2x + 3)
∴ x 2 > 2x + 3 ∴ x 2 − 2x − 3 > 0 ∴ x 2 − 3x + x − 3 > 0
∴ x(x − 3) + x − 3 > 0 ∴ (x + 1)(x − 3) > 0
172 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Fig. 5.17 P.5.101—solution interval may exclude single point(s)

(x + 1) > 0 and (x − 3) > 0 ∴ x > 3 (note, x < 1 )

or,
(x + 1) < 0 and (x − 3) < 0 ∴ x < −1

Case 2: 2x + 3 > 1 ∴ x > −1, then

log2x+3 x 2 < 1
log2x+3 x 2 < log2x+3 (2x + 3) ∴ x 2 < 2x + 3 ∴ x 2 − 2x − 3 < 0
∴
(x + 1) > 0 and (x − 3) < 0 ∴ −1 < x < 3
or,
(x + 1) < 0 and (x − 3) > 0 (empty interval)

Therefore, the complete solution set is x ∈ (−3/2, 3) interval, where points that are not
included due to strict inequalities are (x = −3/2, −1, 0, 3). This solution set is illustrated
by non-shaded region in Fig. 5.17a (left). As a comparison, the arbitrary base logarithm term
itself that is bounded by “1” is shown in Fig. 5.17a (right), where points excluded due to strict
inequalities are crossed.

5.102. Logarithm function of an arbitrary base may be evaluated by converting given function
into ratio of two logarithmic functions as
 
ln b ln(2x + 2)
log2x 2 −x (2x + 2) < 1 loga b = ∴ <1
ln a ln(2x 2 − x)

Basic properties of log(x) function are x > 0, if (0 < x < 1), log(1) = 0 then log x < 0, and
if (x > 1) then log x > 0. Thus,
5.7 Logarithmic Inequalities 173

1. Rational function is not defined when denominator equals to zero, i.e., the result of division
is either infinity or undetermined, thus

ln(2x 2 − x) = 0 ∴ 2x 2 − x = 1 ∴ 2x 2 − x − 1 = 0
1
∴ x = 1, x = −
2
1
ln(2x 2 − x) < 0 ∴ 0 < x(2x − 1) < 1 ∴ 0 < x <
2

and this logarithm function is defined for positive argument, i.e.,

1
2x 2 − x > 0 ∴ x(2x − 1) > 0 ∴ x < 0 or, x >
2

2. Similarly, logarithm in the numerator is defined for

2x + 2 > 0 ∴ x > −1 and,

1
ln(2x + 2) < 0 ∴ 0 < 2x + 2 < 1 ∴ x < −
2

3. Condition of inequality gives

ln(2x + 2)
f (x) = < 1 ∴ ln(2x + 2) < ln(2x 2 − x)
ln(2x 2 − x)
∴ 2x + 2 < 2x 2 − x
∴ 0 < 2x 2 − 3x − 2
∴ 0 < 2(x + 1)(x − 2)

which is satisfied when x > 2, because values x < −1 are already excluded.

In summary, the solution set is

1
−1 < x < 0 and < x < 1 and x > 2
2

This solution set is illustrated by non-shaded region in Fig. 5.18a (left). As a comparison, the
arbitrary base logarithm term itself that is bounded by “1” is shown in Fig. 5.18a (right), where
points excluded due to strict inequalities are crossed.

5.103. Due to log function term, there is condition

log(5x + x + 20) ⇒ 5x + x + 20 > 0 ⇒ x > −20 

(because (5x > 0 ∀x) plus positive (x + 20) term)
174 5 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Fig. 5.18 P.5.102 —example of multiple solution intervals

Then, the inequality may be resolved by grouping log terms together, so that the combined
argument may be liberated, as

log(5x + x + 20) > x − x log 2

log(5x + x + 20) > x − log 2x
log(5x + x + 20) + log 2x > x
   
ZZ
10Zlog 5x +x+20)2x
> 10x 10x = (2 · 5)x
2
(5x + x + 20) x
2
>x x
5
5
x
5
+ x + 20 > x
0 ∴ x > −20
 Part II
Trigonometry and Complex Algebra
Elements of Analytic Geometry
6

Important to know:

1. Cartesian coordinate system: consists of two perpendicular coordinate lines (axis) whose intersect
point is called the origin. The two axis are used to measure signed (i.e., both positive and negative)
distances from the origin point in each of the two perpendicular directions.
2. Absolute value of a difference is commutative; the order of two different terms is not relevant as

|a − b| = |b − a|

which is easily interpreted as the geometrical distance (i.e., the line length) between points a and
b.
3. Pythagoras’ theorem: given a right triangle (a, b, c), where a and b are catheti and c is
hypotenuse, then its three side lengths are related as

c2 = a 2 + b2

4. Thales’ theorem: if A B is the diameter of a circle, then a right angle is formed at any given point
on the circle, e.g., C , D , or E (see Fig. 6.1), so that A B is hypotenuse of a right triangle.
5. Right triangle altitude theorem: given a right triangle (a, b, c), then its height h on hypothenuse
c is related to the two catheti a and b as

h2 = ab

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 177
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_6
178 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.1 Illustration of Thales’

theorem showing that any given point
on a circle forms a right triangle with
the circle’s diameter. Together with
Pythagoras’ theorem it is considered
fundamental to geometry and by
extension to mathematics in general.
Probably the simplest proof of
Thales’ theorem is by looking at the
sum of angles within two isosceles
triangles formed by a line segment
(i.e., radius) connecting the circle
center and given point

Problems

6.1 Points

Given the coordinates of two points in P.6.1 to P.6.6, calculate their respective distances from the
origin of a Cartesian coordinate system, as well as the distance between them.

√
6.1. (0, 1); (1, 0) 6.2. (3, 0); (0, 4) 6.3. ( 2, 0); (0, 1)

6.4. (−1, −1); (1, 1) 6.5. (4, 1); (1, 5) 6.6. (2, −3); (5, 1)

Given the coordinates of two points in P.6.7 to P.6.12, calculate coordinates of a point on the x-axis
so that it is found at equal distance from each of the two given points. Repeat the same exercise for a
point on the y-axis.

6.7. (2, −3); (5, 1)

6.8. (7, −4); (1, −2) 6.9. (2, −4); (6, −2)

6.10. 6.11. 6.12. (−2, 4); (1, 1)

(−6, 0); (4, −2) (−5, 3); (−2, −4)

Given A ; B ; c as in P.6.13 to P.6.18, calculate the missing x or y coordinate of point A so that its
distance to point B equals c, if

6.13. 6.14. 6.15.

(x, 3); (−4, 8); 13 (x, 10); (4, 2); 17 (x, 5); (−1, −2); 25
6.2 Line 179

6.16. 6.17. 6.18.

(−2, y); (2, 3); 5 (6, y); (2, −1); 5 (10, y); (−2, −3); 13

Given coordinates of three vertex points as in P.6.19 to P.6.24, calculate the areas of the constructed
triangles.

6.19. (0, 0); (3, 0); (0, 5) 6.20. (0, 0); (−3, 0); (−3, 4)

6.21. (−1, 1); (4, 1); (−1, 5) 6.22. (−3, 0); (3, 0); (0, 5)

6.23. (−2, 3); (8, −2); (3, 8) 6.24. (−2, 0); (6, 2); (2, 6)

Given (x, y, z) coordinates of a 3D point as in P.6.25 to P.6.30, calculate its distance to the origin as
well as the area of the right triangle whose hypotenuse is a line segment connecting the origin with
the given point.

6.25. (−3, 4, 0) 6.26. (0, −4, −4) 6.27. (2, 0, 5)

6.28. (1, 1, 1) 6.29. (−2, 3, 5) 6.30. (3, −1, −4)

6.2 Line

Given the coordinates of two points A ; B as in P.6.31 to P.6.36,

1. Derive the equation of line y(x) that crosses these two points.
2. What are the coordinates of two points where y(x) crosses the x- and y-axes?
3. Derive the equation of line yp (x) that is normal (perpendicular) to line y(x).

6.31. (0, 0); (1, 1) 6.32. (1, −1); (0, 0) 6.33. (0, 1); (1, 0)

6.34. (1, 2); (−2, −1) 6.35. 6.36. (0, 1); (0, 4)
(5/2, 3); (−3/2, −5)

 
Given an angle and point coordinates θ, (x, y) as in P.6.37 to P.6.42, derive the equation of line
y(x) that creates angle θ with the horizontal axis and given point A .
180 6 Analytic Geometry

   
6.37. 0, (0, 0) 6.38. π/4, (2, 2) 6.39. 
−π/4, (3/2, −3/2)

   √ 
6.40. 3π/4, (5, −2) 6.41.
 √  6.42. 150◦ , ( 3, 1)
2π/3, (−3 3, 6)

Given a point and line equation (x, y); f (x, y) = 0 as in P.6.43 to P.6.48,

1. Derive the equation of line y (x) through a given point that is parallel to a given line.
2. Derive the equation of line y⊥ (x) through a given point that is normal to a given line.

6.43. (2, 3); x + y − 2 = 0 6.44. (7, −4); 9x + 7y − 25 = 0

6.45. (1, 2); 2x + 3y − 1 = 0 6.46. (−1, −2); x + y − 3 = 0

√ √
6.47. (0, π ); y − 2π x − 1 = 0 6.48. (2, − 10); y − 5 − x = 0

Given linear equation f (x, y, p) = 0 as in P.6.49 to P.6.54,

1. Calculate parameter p so that the given line is parallel with the horizontal axis.
2. Recalculate parameter p so that the given line is parallel with the vertical axis.

x
6.49. p x + y + 1 = 0 6.50. 2y − =0
p

√
2
6.51. y − x − 2π = 0 6.52. (p + 1)x + y + 1 = 0
p

6.53. x − y(p − 2) + 2(1 − p) = 0 6.54. (2p + 1)x + (3p − 5)y + 4p = 0

Given equations of two sides and one vertex point coordinate (x, y) of a right triangle as in P.6.55 to
P.6.60, derive the line equation y(x) of the third side and calculate the triangle’s area.

6.55. y = 1, x + y = 0, (0, 0)
6.56. x = 0, 3x + 2y = 6, (2, 0)

6.57. y = 4, x − y = −1, (−4, −3) 6.58. x = 6, −8x + 7y = −13, (6, −3)

6.59. x + 5y = −12, 2x − 3y = 2, (8, −4) 6.60. 4y + x − 15 = 0, y − x = 5, (2, 7)

 6.3 Circle 181

6.3 Circle

Basic vocabulary and definitions related to circle (see Fig. 6.2) include:
1. Circle: a curved line in a plane made of points that are all at the same distance from a given point,
the center.
2. Disc: the surface of the plane bound by a circle.
3. Radius: the distance r between any point of the circle and the center.
4. Circumference: the length of the circle.
5. Arc: the portion s of circle between two given points A and B .
6. Chord: a straight line segment A B .
7. Diameter: a chord that passes through the center of a circle, which happens when points A and B
are on the opposite sides of the circle. Equivalently, diameter d is the longest chord of that circle
and it equals to double the radius r length.
8. Tangent: a straight line a that touches the circle at only one point. (It is always perpendicular to
the radius at that point.)
9. Sector: the “pizza cut” shaded portion of a disk bound by two radii and an arc.
10. Segment: the surface “cut off” from the sector in between the chord and arc lines.
11. Radian: the unit of angle denoted by the symbol “rad” is defined relative to the sector whose
radius r and arc s are of equal length.

6.61. What is the definition of radian and how is it used to calculate the circle area and length
of an arbitrary arc?

6.62. Given an arc s whose radius is r1 and the central angle θ = π/3, derive radius r of a
circle whose circumference C equal to the given arc’s length s.

6.63. A circle and square have equal circumferences. Derive the ratio of their areas.

6.64. Given radius r and central angle θ , derive area Pθ of the associated circular sector.

6.65. Given radius r, central angle θ, and its chord h, derive the area of the associated circular
segment.

Fig. 6.2 Unit of rad is by definition

the angle θ where the length of arc s
equals to the radius r of the given
circle. Then, a half-circle covers the
π rad angle and full circle 2π rad.
Conversion between units of “rad”
and “◦ ” is that the circumference of a
circle equals 360◦ ≡ 2π rad; thus, any
intermediate angle is converted by
this simple proportion. The tangent
line a is always normal to the radius
at that point
182 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.3 Geometric figures for P.6.67 and P.6.68

6.66. Given two concentric circles so that the chord of the larger circle equal l and it touches
the inner circle, calculate the area of annulus (the region between two concentric circles).

6.67. The longer cathetus of a right triangle serves as a half-circle diameter; see Fig. 6.3a.
Given only lengths of the shorter cathetus a and chord h, derive the arc length l of this half-
circle.

6.68. A circle is centered over the equilateral triangle whose side length is 3a so that each
triangle side is split in three equal segments; see Fig. 6.3b. Derive the area P of overlapping
surface as formed by this circle and triangle.

6.4 Intersects

Given two pairs of coordinate points (one for each line) as in P.6.69 to P.6.74, calculate their intersect
point assuming (a) two straight lines, or (b) two segments.

6.69. (−1, 1), (1, 1) and (0, 0), (0, 2) 6.70. (−1, 1), (1, 1) and (2, 0), (2, 2)

6.71. (0, 2), (0, 0) and (2, 0), (2, 2) 6.72. (0, 2), (2, 2) and (2, 0), (0, 0)

6.73. (−1, 0), (1, 2) and (1, 1), (0, 1) 6.74. (−1, 3), (1, 2) and (2, 0), (1, −1)
6.4 Intersects 183

Sketch graphs of circles given in P.6.75 to P.6.82 and calculate its x- and y-axis intersect points.

6.75. x 2 + y 2 = 1 6.76. x 2 + y 2 = 4

6.77. (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1 6.78. x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 1

6.79. (x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 6.80. (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1

6.81. (x − 4)2 + (y − 2)2 = 16 6.82. (x − 3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 25

Given a circle and line equations as in P.6.83 to P.6.88, calculate:

(a) Their intersect points

(b) The arc length between intersect points
(c) The area of the triangle formed by the two intersect points and center
(d) The area of the circular sector
(e) The area of the circular segment
(f) The slope coefficients of tangent lines at these two intersect points.

6.83. x 2 + y 2 = 1, −x + y = 0 6.84. x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 = 1, x + y = 0

6.85. x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 + 2y = 0, x + y = −1 6.86. (x − 2)2 + y 2 + 2y = 0, y = 1

√
6.87. (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 4, y + x = 2(1 + 2) 6.88. (x − 2)2 +(y − 2)2 = 4, 3x+4y =14

Given two circle equations as in P.6.89 to P.6.94, calculate:

1. Their intersect points

2. The chord length (the line segment bound by the two intersect points)
3. The overlapping area between the two circles

√ 2 √
6.89. x 2 + y 2 = 1, (x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = 1 6.90. x 2 +y 2 =1, (x − 2) +(y+ 2)2 =1

6.91. x 2 + y 2 = 1, x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 4 6.92. x 2 + (y − 3)2 = 1, x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 4

6.93. x 2 +y 2 =1, (2x−1)2 +(2y−1)2 = 4 6.94. x 2 + y 2 = 1, (x − 1)2 +(y + 1)2 = 4

184 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.4 Geometrical figures for P.6.98 and P.6.99

6.95. Calculate parameter p so that line yt = px + 10 is tangent to circle x 2 + y 2 = 20.

6.96. Given circle x 2 + y 2 − 4x − 6y − 12 = 0, derive the equation of two tangent lines: one
that is parallel with 4x − 3y − 12 = 0 and one that is vertical to 3x − 4y − 10 = 0.

6.97. Given circle x 2 + y 2 − 2x − 24 = 0, derive the equation of its tangent(s) that intersects
line 7x − y = 0 at α = 45◦ angle.

6.98. There is a half-circle constructed above each side of a right triangle (a, b, c); see
Fig. 6.4a. This geometrical figure is known as “The lunes of Alhazen,” a general case of “lune
of Hippocrates.” Calculate the ratio of triangle (a, b, c) area, versus the total area of two
crescent-shaped shaded areas.

6.99. A point X is arbitrarily positioned on the half-circle diameter A B line; then other
two half-circles are constructed above diameters A X and X B , respectively; see Fig. 6.4b.
Calculate the ratio between the shaded area (a.k.a “arbelos”) of the half-circle A B versus the
area of the inscribed circle whose diameter is X C .

6.100. A circle’s diameter A D is split into three equal line segments, A B , BC , and C D .
Then, two shaded and one non-shaded subsurface are constructed by using half-circles as in
Fig. 6.5a. Calculate the ratio of the shaded versus non-shaded areas.

6.101. An equilateral triangle whose side length is a = 2 A B contains incircle. Then, the
second circle is constructed with radius r = a/2 and its center at one of the triangle’s vertices
A ; see Fig. 6.5b. Calculate the overlapping shaded area between these two circles bound by
arcs s1 and s2 .
6.4 Intersects 185

Fig. 6.5 Geometric figures for P.6.100 and P.6.101

186 6 Analytic Geometry

Answers

6.1 Points

It is highly recommended to sketch solutions to each of the examples in this chapter, similar to
Figs. 6.6a and b.

6.1. Given coordinates of any number of points A1 : (x1 , y1 ), A2 : (x2 , y2 ), A3 : (x3 , y3 ). . . ,

their respective distances to the origin O , or to any other point in space, are resolved by
Pythagoras’ theorem. The basic idea is always the same: any given point may be associated
with the corresponding right triangle (a, b, c). A right triangle may be constructed
relative to either the origin O (see Fig. 6.6a) or some other point (see Fig. 6.6b). In any
case, evidently, the distance between given point and either the origin or some other point
equal to the length of its hypotenuse, while catheti lengths are derived from (x, y) coordinates.

Therefore, the corresponding lengths of the right triangle’s sides (thus always positive
numbers, i.e., absolute values) are derived as

1. A : (x, y) = (0, 1) to O : (0, 0)


a = |x − 0| = |x| = 0 
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 1
b = |y − 0| = |y| = |1| = 1

In conclusion, as a = 0, then A : (0, 1) is a point located on the vertical axis at y = 1,

thus the trivial case of A O = 1.

Fig. 6.6 P.6.1—Illustration of right triangles in the context of analytical geometry

6.1 Points 187

2. B : (x, y) = (1, 0) to O : (0, 0)


a = |x − 0| = |x| = |1| = 1 
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 1
b = |y − 0| = |y| = 0

In conclusion, as b = 0, then B : (1, 0) is a point located on the horizontal axis at x = 1,

thus the trivial case of BO = 1.
3. A : (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 1) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 0) ; the catheti lengths are derived as the
difference between their respective xy coordinates (see Fig. 6.6b), as

a = |x2 − x1 | = |1 − 0| = |1| = 1   √
∴ c= a 2 + b 2 = 12 + 12 = 2
b = |y2 − y1 | = |0 − 1| = | − 1| = 1

Therefore, as per Pythagoras’√theorem of a right triangle whose both catheti lengths equal
to one, the distance A B = 2 (note, irrational number). Again, the absolute difference
of two numbers on the same axis is interpreted as the length (thus, positive, i.e., absolute,
number) of the line segment between these two numbers. This obvious but very important
observation is the key for correctly interpreting line segment length relative to its start/end
points and to think of a length as the absolute value of a number.

6.2. As already discussed in A.6.1, Fig. 6.6a and b, the corresponding lengths of the right
triangle’s sides are derived as

1. A : (x, y) = (3, 0) to O : (0, 0)


a = |x − 0| = |x| = |3| = 3 
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 3
b = |y − 0| = |y| = 0

In conclusion, as b = 0, then A : (3, 0) is a point located on the horizontal axis at x = 3,

thus the trivial case A O = 3.
2. B : (x, y) = (0, 4) to O : (0, 0)

a = |x − 0| = |x| = 0 
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 4
b = |y − 0| = |y| = |4| = 4

In conclusion, as a = 0, then B : (0, 4) is a point located on the vertical axis at y = 4, thus

the trivial case BO = 4.
3. A : (x1 , y1 ) = (3, 0) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 4) ; the catheti lengths are derived as differ-
ences of their respective xy coordinates, as

a = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − 3| = | − 3| = 3  
∴ c= a 2 + b 2 = 32 + 42 = 5
b = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − 0| = |4| = 4
188 6 Analytic Geometry

Therefore, as per Pythagoras’ theorem of a right triangle whose catheti lengths equal to
three and four (note, (3, 4, 5) is one of Pythagorean triples, three positive integers that
create a right triangle), distance A B = 5 .

6.3. As already discussed in A.6.1, the required distances are derived as follows:
√
1. A : (x, y) = ( 2, 0) to O : (0, 0)
√ √ 
a = |x − 0| = |x| = | 2| = 2  √
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 2
b = |y − 0| = |y| = 0
√ √
that is to say, A : ( 2, 0) is a point located on the horizontal axis at x = 2 and A O =
√
2.
2. B : (x, y) = (0, 1) to O : (0, 0)

a = |x − 0| = |x| = 0 
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 1
b = |y − 0| = |y| = |1| = 1

That is to say, B√: (0, 1) is a point located on the vertical axis at y = 1, and BO = 1.
3. A : (x1 , y1 ) = ( 2, 0) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 1) ; then,
√ √ √ 
a = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − 2| = | − 2| = 2  √ √
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 2 + 1 = 3
b = |y2 − y1 | = |1 − 0| = |1| = 1
√
Therefore, as per Pythagoras’
√ theorem of a right triangle whose catheti lengths equal to 2
and one, distance A B = 3 (note, irrational number).

6.4. As already discussed in A.6.1, the required distances are derived as follows:

1. A : (x, y) = (−1, −1) to O : (0, 0)


a = |x − 0| = |x| = | − 1| = 1  √
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 2
b = |y − 0| = |y| = | − 1| = 1
√
Therefore, the length A O = 2 (irrational number), i.e., hypotenuse of a right triangle
whose catheti lengths equal to one.
2. B : (x, y) = (1, 1) to O : (0, 0)

a = |x − 0| = |x| = |1| = 1  √
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 2
b = |y − 0| = |y| = |1| = 1
6.1 Points 189
√
Therefore, the length BO = 2 (irrational number), i.e., hypotenuse of a right triangle
whose catheti lengths equal to one.
3. A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, −1) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 1) ; then

a = |x2 − x1 | = |1 − (−1)| = |2| = 2   √ √
∴ c= a 2 + b 2 = 22 + 22 = 8 = 2 2
b = |y2 − y1 | = |1 − (−1)| = |2| = 2
√
Therefore, the length A B = 2 2 (irrational number), i.e., hypotenuse of a right triangle
whose catheti lengths equal to two.

6.5. The required distances are derived as

1. A : (x, y) = (4, 1) to O : (0, 0)


a = |x − 0| = |x| = |4| = 4   √
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 42 + 12 = 17
b = |y − 0| = |y| = |1| = 1
√
Therefore, the length A O = 17, i.e., hypotenuse of a right triangle whose catheti lengths
equal to one and four.
2. B : (x, y) = (1, 5) to O : (0, 0)

a = |x − 0| = |x| = |1| = 1   √
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 52 + 12 = 26
b = |y − 0| = |y| = |5| = 5
√
Therefore, the length BO = 26, i.e., hypotenuse of a right triangle whose catheti lengths
equal to one and five.
3. A : (x1 , y1 ) = (4, 1) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 5)

a = |x2 − x1 | = |1 − 4| = | − 3| = 3  
∴ c= a 2 + b 2 = 32 + 42 = 5
b = |y2 − y1 | = |5 − 1| = |4| = 4

Therefore, the length A B = 5, i.e., hypotenuse of a right triangle whose catheti lengths
equal to three and four (Pythagorean triple).

6.6. The required distances are derived as

1. A : (x, y) = (2, −3) to O : (0, 0)


a = |x − 0| = |x| = |2| = 2   √
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 22 + 32 = 13
b = |y − 0| = |y| = | − 3| = 3
190 6 Analytic Geometry
√
Therefore, the length A O = 13, i.e., hypotenuse of a right triangle whose catheti lengths
equal to two and three.
2. B : (x, y) = (5, 1) to O : (0, 0)

a = |x − 0| = |x| = |5| = 5   √
∴ c= a 2 + b2 = 52 + 12 = 26
b = |y − 0| = |y| = |1| = 1
√
Therefore, the length BO = 26, i.e., hypotenuse of a right triangle whose catheti lengths
equal to one and five.
3. A : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, −3) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (5, 1)

a = |x2 − x1 | = |5 − 2| = |3| = 3  
∴ c= a 2 + b 2 = 32 + 42 = 5
b = |y2 − y1 | = |1 − (−3)| = |4| = 4

Therefore, the length A B = 5, i.e., hypotenuse of a right triangle whose catheti lengths
equal to three and four (Pythagorean triple).

6.7. As already shown in A.6.1 to A.6.6, the distance between two points equal to length c of
the associated right triangle’s hypotenuse. Consequently, to say that two points are at the same
distance form the third, it is to say that their respective hypotenuses c1 and c2 to that point are
of equal length.

1. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the horizontal axis is to say that its vertical coordinate
y = 0. Thus, given a point on the horizontal axis C : (x, 0) and two points A : (2, −3)
and B : (5, 1) (see Fig. 6.7a), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = |2 − x|2 + | − 3 − 0|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 =c2 ⇒ |2 − x|2 +| − 3|2 = |5 − x|2 +12
c2 = |5 − x|2 + |1 − 0|2 ⎭

so that
 
| − 3|2 + |2 − x|2 = 12 + |5 − x|2

9 + (4 − 4x + x 2 ) = 1 + (25 − 10x + x 2 )
13
6x = 13 ∴ x=
6

In conclusion, point C : (13/6, 0) on the horizontal axis is located at the same distance
from both A : (2, −3) and B : (5, 1).

Verification:
 ⎫ ⎧  √
= |2 − x|2 + 9 ⎬ ⎨ 5 · 5 · 13
c1 = |2 − 13/6|2 + 9 = 325
36
= 6·6
= 56 13
 ∴  √
5 · 5 · 13
c2 = |5 − x|2 + 1 ⎭ ⎩ = |5 − 13/6|2 + 1 = 172
62
+1= 6·6
= 56 13
6.1 Points 191

Fig. 6.7 P.6.7—distances between arbitrary points are resolved by right triangles

2. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the vertical axis is to say that its horizontal coordinate
x = 0. Thus, given a point on the vertical axis C : (0, y) and two points A : (2, −3) and
B : (5, 1) (see Fig. 6.7b), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = |2 − 0|2 + |y − (−3)|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 = c2 ⇒ 22 + |y + 3|2 = 52 + |y − 1|2
c2 = |5 − 0|2 + |y − 1|2 ⎭

so that
 
22 + |y + 3|2 = 52 + |y − 1|2

4 + (
y2 + 6y + 9) = 25 + (
y2 − 2y + 1)
13
8y = 13 ∴ y=
8

In conclusion, point C : (0, 13/8) on the vertical axis is located at the same distance from
both A : (2, −3) and B : (5, 1).

Verification:
 ⎫ ⎧  √
c1 = 4 + |y + 3|2 ⎬ ⎨ = 4 + (13/8 + 3)2 = 4 + 37
2
= 1625 = 58 5 · 13
82 64
 ∴  √
= 25 + |y − 1|2 ⎭ ⎩ 2
c2 = 25 + |13/8 − 1|2 = 52 + 582 = 58 5 · 13

Note that given c1 = c2 it must be that (A , B , C ) is an isosceles triangle.

6.8. Following the same idea as in A.6.7,

1. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the horizontal axis is to say that its vertical coordinate
y = 0. Thus, given a point on the horizontal axis C : (x, 0) and two points A : (7, −4)
192 6 Analytic Geometry

and B : (1, −2), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that

 ⎫
c1 = | − 4 − 0|2 +|7 − x|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 =c2 ⇒ | − 4|2 +|7−x|2 = | − 2|2 +|1 − x|2
c2 = | − 2 − 0|2 +|1 − x|2 ⎭

so that
 
| − 4|2 + |7 − x|2 = | − 2|2 + |1 − x|2

16 + (49 − 14x + x 2 ) = 4 + (1 − 2x + x 2 )
12x = 60 ∴ x=5

In conclusion, point C : (5, 0) on the horizontal axis is located at the same distance from
both A : (7, −4) and B : (1, −2).
2. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the vertical axis is to say that its horizontal coordinate
x = 0. Thus, given a point on the vertical axis C : (0, y) and two points A : (7, −4) and
B : (1, −2), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = |7 − 0|2 + |y − (−4)|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 = c2 ⇒ 72 + |y + 4|2 = 1 + |y + 2|2
c2 = |1 − 0|2 + |y − (−2)|2 ⎭

so that
 
72 + |y + 4|2 = 1 + |y + 2|2

49 + (
y2 + 8y + 16) = 1 + (
y2 + 4y + 4)
4y = −60 ∴ y = −15

In conclusion, point C : (0, −15) on the vertical axis is located at the same distance from
both A : (7, −4) and B : (1, −2).

6.9. Following the same idea as in A.6.7,

1. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the horizontal axis is to say that its vertical coordinate
y = 0. Thus, given a point on the horizontal axis C : (x, 0) and two points A : (2, −4)
and B : (6, −2), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = | − 4 − 0|2 +|2 − x|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 =c2 ⇒ | − 4|2 +|2 − x|2 = | − 2|2 +|6 − x|2
c2 = | − 2 − 0|2 +|6 − x|2 ⎭

so that
 
| − 4|2 + |2 − x|2 = | − 2|2 + |6 − x|2
6.1 Points 193

16 + (4 − 4x + x 2 ) = 4 + (36 − 12x + x 2 )
5
8x = 20 ∴ x=
2

In conclusion, point C : (5/2, 0) on the horizontal axis is located at the same distance from
both A : (2, −4) and B : (6, −2).
2. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the vertical axis is to say that its horizontal coordinate
x = 0. Thus, given a point on the vertical axis C : (0, y) and two points A : (2, −4) and
B : (6, −2), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = |2 − 0|2 + |y − (−4)|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 = c2 ⇒ 22 + |y + 4|2 = 6 + |y + 2|2
c2 = |6 − 0|2 + |y − (−2)|2 ⎭

so that
 
22 + |y + 4|2 = 6 + |y + 2|2

4 + (
y2 + 8y + 16) = 36 + (
y2 + 4y + 4)
4y = 20 ∴ y=5

In conclusion, point C : (0, 5) on the vertical axis is located at the same distance from both
A : (2, −4) and B : (6, −2).

6.10. Following the same idea as in A.6.7,

1. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the horizontal axis is to say that its vertical coordinate
y = 0. Thus, given a point on the horizontal axis C : (x, 0) and two points A : (−6, 0)
and B : (4, −2), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = |0 − 0|2 + | − 6 − x|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 = c2 ⇒ | − 6 − x|2 = | − 2|2 + |4 − x|2
c2 = | − 2 − 0|2 + |4 − x|2 ⎭

so that
 
| − 6 − x|2 = | − 2|2 + |4 − x|2

36 + 12x + x 2 = 4 + (16 − 8x + x 2 )
4
20x = −16 ∴ x=−
5

In conclusion, point C : (−4/5, 0) on the horizontal axis is located at the same distance
from both A : (−6, 0) and B : (4, −2).
2. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the vertical axis is to say that its horizontal coordinate
x = 0. Thus, given a point on the vertical axis C : (0, y) and two points A : (−6, 0) and
B : (4, −2), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
194 6 Analytic Geometry

 ⎫
c1 = | − 6 − 0|2 + |y − 0|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 = c2 ⇒ | − 6|2 + |y|2 = |4|2 + |y + 2|2
c2 = |4 − 0|2 + |y − (−2)|2 ⎭

so that
 
| − 6|2 + |y|2 = |4|2 + |y + 2|2

36 + 
y2 = 16 + (
y2 + 4y + 4)
4y = 16 ∴ y=4

In conclusion, point C : (0, 4) on the vertical axis is located at the same distance from both
A : (−6, 0) and B : (4, −2).

6.11. Following the same idea as in A.6.7,

1. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the horizontal axis is to say that its vertical coordinate
y = 0. Thus, given a point on the horizontal axis C : (x, 0) and two points A : (−5, 3)
and B : (−2, −4), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = |3 − 0|2 + | − 5 − x|2 ⎬
 ∴
c2 = | − 4 − 0|2 + | − 2 − x|2 ⎭
 
if c1 = c2 ⇒ |3|2 + | − 5 − x|2 = | − 4|2 + | − 2 − x|2

so that
 
|3|2 + | − 5 − x|2 = | − 4|2 + | − 2 − x|2

9 + (25 + 10x + x 2 ) = 16 + (4 + 4x + x 2 )
7
6x = −14 ∴ x=−
3

In conclusion, point C : (−7/3, 0) on the horizontal axis is located at the same distance
from both A : (−5, 3) and B : (−2, −4).
2. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the vertical axis is to say that its horizontal coordinate
x = 0. Thus, given a point on the vertical axis C : (0, y) and two points A : (−5, 3) and
B : (−2, −4), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = | − 5 − 0|2 + |y − 3|2 ⎬
 ∴
c2 = | − 2 − 0|2 + |y − (−4)|2 ⎭
 
if c1 = c2 ⇒ | − 5|2 + |y − 3|2 = | − 2|2 + |y + 4|2

so that
6.1 Points 195

 
| − 5|2 + |y − 3|2 = | − 2|2 + |y + 4|2

25 + (
y2 − 6y + 9) = 4 + (
y2 + 8y + 16)
14y = 14 ∴ y=1

In conclusion, point C : (0, 1) on the vertical axis is located at the same distance from both
A : (−5, 3) and B : (−2, −4).

6.12. Following the same idea as in A.6.7,

1. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the horizontal axis is to say that its vertical coordinate
y = 0. Thus, given a point on the horizontal axis C : (x, 0) and two points A : (−2, 4)
and B : (1, 1), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = |4 − 0|2 +| − 2 − x|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 =c2 ⇒ |4|2 +| − 2 − x|2 = |1|2 +|1 − x|2
c2 = |1 − 0|2 +|1 − x|2 ⎭

so that
 
|4|2 + | − 2 − x|2 = |1|2 + |1 − x|2

16 + (4 + 4x + x 2 ) = 1 + (1 − 2x + x 2 )
6x = −18 ∴ x = −3

In conclusion, point C : (−3, 0) on the horizontal axis is located at the same distance from
both A : (−2, 4) and B : (1, 1).
2. To say that an arbitrary point C is on the vertical axis is to say that its horizontal coordinate
x = 0. Thus, given a point on the vertical axis C : (0, y) and two points A : (−2, 4) and
B : (1, 1), by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
 ⎫
c1 = | − 2 − 0|2 +|y − 4|2 ⎬  
 ∴ if c1 =c2 ⇒ | − 2|2 +|y − 4|2 = |1|2 +|y − 1|2
c2 = |1 − 0|2 +|y − 1|2 ⎭

so that
 
| − 2|2 + |y − 4|2 = |1|2 + |y − 1|2

4 + (
y2 − 8y + 16) = 1 + (
y2 − 2y + 1)
6y = 18 ∴ y=3

In conclusion, point C : (0, 3) on the vertical axis is located at the same distance from
bothA : (−2, 4) and B : (1, 1).
196 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.8 P.6.13, given a point B in

2D space, there is an infinity of points
around it at the same distance. That
case is known as the circle. However,
given additional constrains to the
point’s distance, for example, that
y = 3, then due to the symmetry there
are only two points that satisfy both
distance and y coordinate conditions

6.13. To say that an arbitrary point A is at distance c from a given point B is to say that
the hypotenuse of the associated right triangle is equal to c; see Fig. 6.6b. Thus, given points
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (x, 3) and B : (x2 , y2 ) = (−4, 8) that are separated by distance c = 13, then
by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that

c2 = |x2 − x1 |2 + |y2 − y1 |2
132 = | − 4 − x|2 + |8 − 3|2
132 = 16 + 8x + x 2 + 25
x 2 + 8x − 128 = 0
x 2 − 8x + 16x − 128 = 0
x(x − 8) + 16(x − 8) = 0
(x − 8)(x + 16) = 0 ∴ x1 = −16, x2 = 8

which is to say that there are two points A1 : (−16, 3) and A2 : (8, 3) that are at the same
distance from point B : (−4, 8) (see Fig. 6.8), which is equivalent to say on the same circle
centered at B : (−4, 8). Note that the sides of right triangles are (5, 12, 13), i.e., second
Pythagorean triple.

6.14. Following the same idea as in A.6.13, given points A : (x, 10) and B : (4, 2) separated
by c = 17, then by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that

c2 = |x2 − x1 |2 + |y2 − y1 |2
172 = |4 − x|2 + |2 − 10|2
172 = 16 − 8x + x 2 + 64
x 2 − 8x − 209 = 0
x 2 − 19x + 11x − 209 = 0
x(x − 19) + 11(x − 19) = 0
6.1 Points 197

(x − 19)(x + 11) = 0 ∴ x1 = −11, x2 = 19

which is to say that there are two points A1 : (−11, 10) and A2 : (19, 10) at the same distance
from B : (4, 2). The sides of right triangles are (8, 15, 17), i.e., another Pythagorean triple.

6.15. Given points A : (x, 5) and B : (−1, −2) that are separated by c = 25, then

c2 = |x2 − x1 |2 + |y2 − y1 |2
252 = | − 1 − x|2 + | − 2 − 5|2
252 = 1 − 2x + x 2 + 49
x 2 + 2x − 575 = 0
x 2 + 25x − 23x − 209 = 0
x(x + 25) − 23(x + 25) = 0
(x + 25)(x − 23) = 0 ∴ x1 = −25, x2 = 23

which is to say that there are two points A1 : (−25, 5) and A2 : (23, 5) at the same distance
from B : (−1, −2). The sides of right triangles are (7, 24, 25), i.e., another Pythagorean triple.

6.16. Given points A : (−2, y) and B : (2, 3) that are separated by c = 5, then

c2 = |x2 − x1 |2 + |y2 − y1 |2
52 = |2 − (−2)|2 + |3 − y|2
25 = 16 + 9 − 6y + y 2
y 2 − 6y = 0
y(y − 6) = 0 ∴ y1 = 0, y2 = 6

which is to say that there are two points A1 : (−2, 0) and A2 : (−2, 6) at the same distance
from point B : (2, 3). Sides of the two associated triangles are (3, 4, 5), i.e., Pythagorean
triple.

6.17. Given points A : (6, y) and B : (2, −1) that are separated by c = 5, then

c2 = |x2 − x1 |2 + |y2 − y1 |2
52 = |2 − 6|2 + | − 1 − y|2
25 = 16 + 1 + 2y + y 2
y 2 + 2y − 8 = 0
y 2 + 4y − 2y − 8 = 0
198 6 Analytic Geometry

y(y + 4) − 2(y + 4) = 0
(y + 4)(y − 2) = 0 ∴ y1 = −4, y2 = 2

There are two points A1 : (6, −4) and A2 : (6, 2) at the same distance from point B : (2, −1).
The sides of right triangles are (3, 4, 5), i.e., Pythagorean triple.

6.18. Given points A : (10, y) and B : (−2, −3) that are separated by c = 13, then

c2 = |x2 − x1 |2 + |y2 − y1 |2
132 = | − 2 − 10|2 + | − 3 − y|2
169 = 144 + 9 + 6y + y 2
y 2 + 6y − 16 = 0
y 2 + 8y − 2y − 16 = 0
y(y + 8) − 2(y + 8) = 0
(y + 8)(y − 2) = 0 ∴ y1 = −8, y2 = 2

There are two points A1 : (10, −8) and A2 : (10, 2) at the same distance from point B :
(−2, −3). Sides of the two associated triangles are (5, 12, 13), i.e., Pythagorean triple.

6.19. Given three points A : (0, 0) , B : (3, 0) , and C : (0, 5), three sides of this triangle
are:

1. A B :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |3 − 0| = |3| = 3  
∴ c1 = a 2 + b 2 = 32 + 02 = 3
b = |y2 − y1 | = |0 − 0| = |0| = 0

i.e., this side is horizontal because |y| = |y2 − y1 | = 0.

2. A C :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − 0| = |5| = 0  
∴ c2 = a 2 + b2 = 02 + 52 = 5
b = |y2 − y1 | = |5 − 0| = |5| = 5

i.e., this side is vertical because |x| = |x2 − x1 | = 0; the two points are one above the
other.
3. BC :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |3 − 0| = |3| = 3   √
∴ c3 = a 2 + b2 = 32 + 52 = 34
b = |y2 − y1 | = |5 − 0| = |5| = 5

i.e., this is the longest side. It is a good idea to verify if this is a right triangle, by Pythagoras’
theorem
6.1 Points 199

c32 = c12 + c22

?

34 = 32 + 52 = 34 

which confirms that these three points form a right triangle. Therefore, its area is equal to half
of the rectangular area formed by the two catheti. This is because the diagonal of a rectangle
formed by c1 × c2 is identical to hypotenuse c3 and at the same time it splits the rectangular
surface into two identical right angle triangles. Thus, area P is

c1 c2 3·5 15
P = = =
2 2 2

6.20. Given three points A : (0, 0) , B : (−3, 0) , and C : (−3, 4), three sides of this
triangle are:

1. A B :

a = |x2 − x1 | = | − 3 − 0| = | − 3| = 3  
∴ c1 = a 2 + b 2 = 32 + 02 = 3
b = |y2 − y1 | = |0 − 0| = |0| = 0

i.e., this side is horizontal because |y| = |y2 − y1 | = 0.

2. A C :

a = |x2 − x1 | = | − 3 − 0| = | − 3| = 3  
∴ c2 = a 2 + b2 = 32 + 42 = 5
b = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − 0| = |4| = 4

3. BC :

a = |x2 − x1 | = | − 3 − (−3)| = |0| = 0  
∴ c3 = a 2 + b 2 = 02 + 42 = 4
b = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − 0| = |4| = 4

i.e., this side is vertical because |x| = |x2 − x1 | = 0; the two points are one above the
other.

Note that lengths of these three sides (3, 4, 5) are well-known Pythagorean triple, which
confirms that these three points form a right triangle. Therefore, its area P is equal to

c1 c2 3·4
P = = =6
2 2

6.21. Given three points A : (−1, 1) , B : (4, 1) , and C : (−1, 5), three sides of this
triangle are:
200 6 Analytic Geometry

1. A B :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |4 − (−1)| = |5| = 5  
∴ c1 = a 2 + b 2 = 52 + 02 = 5
b = |y2 − y1 | = |1 − 1| = |0| = 0

i.e., this side is horizontal because |y| = |y2 − y1 | = 0l.

2. A C :

a = |x2 − x1 | = | − 1 − (−1)| = |0| = 0  
∴ c2 = a 2 + b2 = 02 + 42 = 4
b = |y2 − y1 | = |5 − 1| = |4| = 4

i.e., this side is vertical because |x| = |x2 − x1 | = 0; the two points are one above the
other.
3. BC :

a = |x2 − x1 | = | − 1 − 4| = | − 5| = 5   √
∴ c3 = a 2 + b2 = 52 + 42 = 41
b = |y2 − y1 | = |5 − 1| = |4| = 4

i.e., this is the longest side. Verification if this is a right triangle,

c32 = c12 + c22

?

41 = 52 + 42 = 41 

confirms that these three points form a right triangle. Therefore, its area P is equal to half of
the rectangular area formed by the two catheti, as

c1 c2 5·4
P = = = 10
2 2

6.22. Given three points A : (−3, 0) , B : (3, 0) , and C : (0, 5), three sides of this triangle
are:

1. A B :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |3 − (−3)| = | − 6| = 6  
∴ c1 = a 2 + b 2 = 62 + 02 = 6
b = |y2 − y1 | = |0 − 0| = |0| = 0

i.e., this side is horizontal because |y| = |y2 − y1 | = 0.

2. A C :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − (−3)| = |3| = 3   √
∴ c2 = a 2 + b2 = 32 + 52 = 34
b = |y2 − y1 | = |5 − 0| = |4| = 5
6.1 Points 201

3. BC :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |3 − 0| = |3| = 3   √
∴ c3 = a 2 + b2 = 32 + 52 = 34
b = |y2 − y1 | = |0 − 5| = | − 5| = 5

Note that, as c2 = c3 , these three points form an isosceles triangle with base at c1 , which can be
visualized as two right triangles “back to back”; see Fig. 6.9. Due to its symmetry, the height
line h to the base of an isosceles triangle splits the base line in half. Thus, one cathetus of right
triangle is equal c1 /2 = 3. Also, for the reason of symmetry, the height line h of an isosceles
triangle serves as the other cathetus of two right triangles. The height h is then calculated as

c1 2
h2 = c32 − = 34 − 9 ∴ h=5
2

As there are two right triangle areas, the total area of an isosceles triangle is P = 5 · 3 = 15.

6.23. Given three points A : (−2, 3) , B : (8, −2) , and C : (3, 8), three sides of this
triangle are:

1. A B :

a = |x2 − x1 | = | − 2 − 3| = | − 5| = 5   √
∴ c1 = a 2 + b2 = 52 + 102 = 125
b = |y2 − y1 | = |8 − (−2)| = |10| = 10

2. A C :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |8 − 3| = |5| = 5   √
∴ c2 = a 2 + b2 = 52 + 52 = 50
b = |y2 − y1 | = |3 − (−2)| = |5| = 5

Fig. 6.9 P.6.22, by definition, at least

two sides of an isosceles triangle are
of equal length. The special case of all
three sides being equal is known as
equilateral triangle. For each side,
there is one height segment that is
vertical to that side and connects to
the opposite vertex. The three height
segments intersect in a single point
known as “orthocenter” that splits
these height segments in proportion
202 6 Analytic Geometry

3. BC :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |8 − (−2)| = |10| = 10   √
∴ c3 = a 2 + b2 = 102 + 52 = 125
b = |y2 − y1 | = |3 − 8| = | − 5| = 5

Evidently, as sides A B = BC , this is an isosceles

√ triangle with the base A C . Therefore, the
intersect of height h and the base is at A C /2 = 50/2, then,

2
h2 = A B − (A C /2)2

50 225 225 15
h = 125 −
2
= ∴ h= =√
4 2 2 2

Therefore, area P of an isosceles triangle is twice the area of the two right triangles whose
catheti are h and A C /2, (Fig. 6.10) as

√ 
AC 15 50 15  25

50 75
P =h =√ = =
2 2 2 2 2
2

6.24. Given three points A : (−2, 0) , B : (6, 2) , and C : (2, 6), three sides of this triangle
are:

1. A B :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |6 − (−2)| = |8| = 8   √
∴ c1 = a 2 + b2 = 82 + 22 = 68
b = |y2 − y1 | = |2 − 0| = |0| = 2

2. A C :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |2 − (−2)| = |4| = 4   √
∴ c2 = a 2 + b2 = 42 + 62 = 52
b = |y2 − y1 | = |6 − 0| = |6| = 6

Fig. 6.10 P.6.23, isosceles triangle

arbitrarily positioned in 2D space.
Sides c1 and c3 are of equal length;
thus, c2 side is the base side. Height h
and half-base side are used to
calculate the area of one right
triangle. Due to symmetry, there are
two right triangles in total; thus, the
total area of an isosceles triangle is
equal to the area of a c2 × h rectangle
6.1 Points 203

3. BC :

a = |x2 − x1 | = |2 − 6| = | − 4| = 4   √
∴ c3 = a 2 + b2 = 42 + 42 = 32
b = |y2 − y1 | = |6 − 2| = |4| = 4

Evidently, as all three sides have different lengths this triangle is irregular. Then, the idea is to
split it into two right triangles by construction of the height line h at any of triangle’s sides.
For example, a point on the BC side splits it into x1 and x2 line segments that define two right
triangles: (x1 h c1 ) and (x2 h c2 ) (see Fig. 6.11). Then by inspection it follows that

h2 = c12 − x12 = 68 − x12
∴ 68 − x12 = 52 − x22
h2 = c22 − x22 = 52 − x22
√
c3 = x1 + x2 = 32

This system of two equations may be resolved as

√ √
x1 + x2 = 32 ⇒ x2 = 32 − x1
x12 − x22 = 68 − 52 ⇒ (x1 + x2 )(x1 − x2 ) = 16

√  √  24 6
32 x1 − ( 32 − x1 ) = 16 ∴ x1 = √ = √
32 2
√ 2
∴ x2 = 32 − x1 = √
2

The last unknown is the actual value of h (it serves as the second cathetus), as
 2
6 √ √
h = 68 −
2
x12 = 68 − √ = 50 ∴ h= 50 = 5 2
2

To conclude, the sum of two right triangle areas is

√ ⎫
h x1 5 2 6
3 ⎪
⎪
P1 = = √ = 15 ⎪
⎪
2 2
 2 ⎬
√ ∴ P = P1 + P2 = 20
5 ⎪
⎪
h x2 2 2
⎪
⎪
P2 = = √ =5 ⎭
2 2
 2
204 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.11 P.6.24, the area of an

irregular triangle may be resolved by
splitting it into two right angle areas.
One of the three height segments h
splits the facing side into two
segments x1 and x2 . Once the
resulting two-equation system is
resolved and the length h calculated,
the total triangle area is the sum of
two right triangle areas

Fig. 6.12 P.6.25, a point in 3D space

forms a cuboid relative to the origin
point. The diagonal of that cuboid is
aligned with the hypotenuse of the
vertical (d1 z d2 ) right triangle. At
the same time its cathetus d1 is
aligned with the hypotenuse of a
planar (x y d1 ) right triangle

6.25. The given coordinates (x, y, z) = (−3, 4, 0) of a point in 3D space are relative to the
origin. The diagonal of a cuboid formed by the origin and given point as in Fig. 6.12 may be
resolved in two steps: first, its projection in 2D xy plane as in Fig. 6.12 (left) and then in 3D
space as in Fig. 6.12 (right).

1. (x, y) plane: the diagonal d1 of the base rectangle, Fig. 6.12 (left), is derived by Pythagoras’
theorem from (x, y) coordinates, as

d12 = x 2 + y 2 = (−3)2 + 42 = 25 ∴ d1 = 5

2. Vertical plane: the z coordinate and d1 serve as catheti of the right triangle whose diagonal
is d2 ; see Fig. 6.12 (right). However, to say that z = 0 (as in this case) is to say that the
given point is contained strictly in the (x, y) plane. Or, equivalently, there is no cuboid,
only the base rectangle. Formally, it may be also stated that d2 = d1 .
3. Right triangle area: there is only a right triangle in the (x, y) plane; thus, its area is P =
|x| · |y|/2 = 3 · 4/2 = 6.

6.26. Following the explanations in A.6.25, to say that x = 0 in A : (x, y, z) = (0, −4, −4)
is to say that there is no 3D cuboid; all points are contained strictly in the vertical (y, z) plane.

1. (y, z) plane: diagonal d2 of the vertical rectangle is derived by Pythagoras’ theorem from
(y, z) coordinates, as
6.1 Points 205

√
d22 = y 2 + z2 = (−4)2 + (−4)2 = 32 ∴ d2 = 32

2. Right triangle area: There is only a right triangle in the (y, z) plane; thus, its surface is
P = |y| · |z|/2 = 4 · 4/2 = 8.

6.27. Following the explanations in A.6.25, to say that y = 0 in A : (x, y, z) = (2, 0, 5) is

to say that there is no 3D cuboid; all points are contained strictly in the vertical (x, z) plane.

1. (x, z) plane: diagonal d2 of the vertical rectangle is derived by Pythagoras’ theorem from
(x, z) coordinates, as
√
d22 = x 2 + z2 = 22 + 52 = 29 ∴ d2 = 29

2. Right triangle area: there is only a right triangle in the (x, z) plane; thus, its surface is
P = |x| · |z|/2 = 2 · 5/2 = 5.

6.28. Given point in 3D space A : (x, y, z) = (1, 1, 1), then

1. (x, y) plane: Diagonal d1 of the planar rectangle is derived by Pythagoras’ theorem from
(x, y) coordinates, as
√
d12 = x 2 + y 2 = 12 + 12 = 2 ∴ d1 = 2

2. Vertical plane: the z coordinate and d1 serve as catheti to d2 to form a right triangle; thus
√
d22 = d12 + z2 = 2 + 12 = 3 ∴ d2 = 3

3. Right triangle area: the vertical right triangle in (x, y, z)√is formed by d1 and z as catheti
and d2 as hypotenuse; thus, its area is P = |d1 | · |z|/2 = 2/2

6.29. Given point in 3D space A : (−2, 3, 5), then

1. (x, y) plane: the diagonal d1 of the planar rectangle is derived by Pythagoras’ theorem from
(x, y) coordinates, as
√
d12 = x 2 + y 2 = (−2)2 + 32 = 13 ∴ d1 = 13

2. Vertical plane: the z coordinate and d1 serve as catheti to d2 to form a right triangle; thus
√
d22 = d12 + z2 = 13 + 52 = 38 ∴ d2 = 38

3. Right triangle area: the vertical right triangle in (x, y, z) is√formed by d1 and z as catheti
and d2 as hypotenuse; thus, its area is P = |d1 | · |z|/2 = 5 13/2
206 6 Analytic Geometry

6.30. Given point in 3D space A : (3, −1, −4), then

1. (x, y) plane: diagonal d1 of the plane rectangle is derived by Pythagoras’ theorem from
(x, y) coordinates, as
√
d12 = x 2 + y 2 = 32 + (−1)2 = 10 ∴ d1 = 10

2. vertical plane: the z coordinate and d1 serve as catheti to d2 to form a right triangle; thus
√
d22 = d12 + z2 = 10 + (−4)2 = 38 ∴ d2 = 26

is formed by d1 and z as catheti and d2

3. right triangle area: vertical right triangle in (x, y, z)√
as hypotenuse; thus, its area is P = |d1 | · |z|/2 = 2 10

Reminder: Note how distance to the origin develops as the number of space dimensions
increases from 1D to 2D to 3D, . . .
√
1D: line, A : (x) d1 = |x| =
def
x2

2D: plane surface, A : (x, y) d2 = d12 + y 2 = x2 + y2

3D: volume, A : (x, y, z) d3 = d22 + z2 = x 2 + y 2 + z2

Humans cannot visualize higher-order space dimensions so that each axis is perpendic-
ular to all others, but the mathematical trend continues to n dimensions.

6.2 Line

The mathematical area of analytic geometry formalizes relationships between abstract mathematical
objects, such as y = f (x), with physical objects, such as set of points in space. Mastering visual
connections between analytic and physical forms of the same objects may be considered as the
prerequisite for any advanced mathematical topic.

6.31. Any point in 2D space is set by its two coordinate (x, y) pair. For example, (1, 2) pair
is to say that x = 1 and y = 2 and it may be written formally as y(1) = 2 (reads as follows:
when x = 1, then y = 2 or, more formally, “y of one is two”). As it is well known, infinitely
many lines may share one given point but only one line can cross two given points. Thus, in
order to the find general equation of the line crossing two points, it is necessary to write one
separate equation for each point that expresses the relation of its (x, y) pair.

1. Line equation: the first-order (or, linear) polynomial in the form ax + b and its variants
are equivalent to a line in 2D space whose (x, y) relation may be written in the analytic l
form as
6.2 Line 207

y(x) = ax + b (explicit form)

or,
cx + dy + e = 0 (implicit form)

where a, b, c, d, e ∈ R. Given two points A : (0, 0) and B : (1, 1), there are two equations
as
A : (x, y) = (0, 0):

y(x) = ax + b
0 = a·0 + b ⇒ b = 0

B : (x, y) = (1, 1):

 
y(x) = ax + b b=0
1 = a·1 + 0 ⇒ a = 1

As a = 1 and b = 0, the general equation of a line crossing A : (0, 0) and B : (1, 1) is

y1 (x) = x

To note: this equation states that the two coordinates are always equal, i.e., y = x.
Geometrically, it is to say that relative to the origin this line forms a right triangle whose
catheti are of equal length.

Reminder: Special right triangles are constructed with 0, 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , and90◦ or,
equivalently 0, π/6, π/4, π/3, andπ/2 angles. One angle being 90◦ , recall that the
sum of internal angles of a triangle in Euclidian space is 180◦ . For example, two
catheti being of equal length implies that two facing angles are equal too, which is to
say they must be 45◦ each.

2. Line intersects with axes: to say that line intersects the horizontal or vertical axes is to say
that y = 0 (i.e., it intersects the horizontal axis), or x = 0 (i.e., it intersects the vertical
axis); see Fig. 6.13a. In the general case, the intersect points (x0 , 0) and (0, y0 ) are derived
as

b
y = 0 : 0 = a x0 + b ⇒ x0 = −
a
x = 0 : y0 = a · 0 + b ⇒ y0 = −b

as b = 0, then y = x line intersects both axes at the origin (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0).
3. Line slope: or equivalently its angle, is one of the key parameters not only for the current
topic, but also for the whole mathematics. In the linear equation form “ax + b,” it is the
value of a that controls its line slope. The parameter b is simply the amount of vertical offset
208 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.13 P.6.31—parameters of a line and its perpendicular line

from the origin. It is important to adapt interpretation of the parameter a (“the slope”) as
the change (also, “the sensitivity”) of y elevation for every unit change of x distance; see
Fig. 6.13a.
Formally, the “change”  is the difference between values at the ‘end’ and the “beginning.”
That is, x = x2 − x1 and y = y2 − y1 . The slope is then the ratio r (or “gain” in
engineering terms: the output equals gain times input) as

y −bA
y = r x ∴ r = = =a
def

x −bA/a

which is to say that the slope of a line is equal to a; in this example y = 1 · x the slope
a = 1. Note that the slope of a line does not depend at which point or for what size of 
it is calculated. Again, the right triangle is used to define the slope (a.k.a. “derivative” in
calculus).

Perpendicular line: to say that one line is perpendicular to the other is to say that the two
lines form a right angle; formally to say that the product of their slopes a1 and a2 equals
“−1” as

1
a1 a2 = −1 ∴ a2 = −
def
(i.e., negative inverse of each other)
a1

In this example, the slope of y = x is a1 = 1; therefore, its perpendicular line yp has slope
of a2 = −1/1 = −1, or yp = −x + n, where n ∈ R; see Fig. 6.13b.

Reminder: It is important to note that any line in the form of yp = (−1/a) x + n is

perpendicular to y = ax + m, where a, n, m ∈ R.
6.2 Line 209

6.32. Following up on the discussion in A.6.31, given two points A : (1, −1) and B :
(0, 0)

1. Line equation: there are two equations as

(a) B : (x, y) = (0, 0):

y(x) = ax + b
0 = a·0 + b ⇒ b = 0

(b) A : (x, y) = (1, −1):

 
y(x) = ax + b b=0
−1 = a · 1 + 0 ⇒ a = −1

Thus, as (a, b) = (−1, 0), then the equation of a line crossing both A : (1, −1) and
B : (0, 0) is

y(x) = −x

2. Line intersects with axes: the intersect points (x0 , 0) and (0, y0 ) are derived as

y = 0 : 0 = −x0 ⇒ x0 = 0

x = 0 : y0 = 0 ⇒ y0 = 0

as b = 0, then y = −x line intersects both axes at the origin (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0).
3. Line slope: as y = −1 · x, its slope is a = −1.
Perpendicular line: given a1 = −1, then the slope of yp is

1
a2 = − ⇒ a2 = 1
a1

therefore, perpendicular lines are in the form of yp = x + m, where m ∈ R.

6.33. Following up on the discussion in A.6.31, given two points A : (0, 1) and B : (1, 0)

1. Line equation: there are two equations as

A : (x, y) = (0, 1):

y(x) = ax + b
1 = a·0 + b ⇒ b = 1

B : (x, y) = (1, 0):

 
y(x) = ax + b b=1
210 6 Analytic Geometry

0 = a · 1 + 1 ⇒ a = −1

Thus, as (a, b) = (−1, 1), then the equation of a line crossing both A : (0, 1) and B :
(1, 0) is

y(x) = −x + 1

2. Line intersects with axes: the intersect points (x0 , 0) and (0, y0 ) are derived as

y = 0 : 0 = −x0 + 1 ⇒ x0 = 1

x = 0 : y0 = 0 + 1 ⇒ y0 = 1

i.e., intersect points with axes of this line are at (x0 , 0) = (1, 0) and (0, y0 ) = (0, 1).
3. Line slope: as y = −1 · x + 1, its slope is a = −1.
Perpendicular line: given a1 = −1, then the slope of yp is

1
a2 = − ⇒ a2 = 1
a1

therefore, perpendicular lines are yp = x + m, where m ∈ R.

6.34. Given two points A : (1, 2) and B : (−2, −1)

1. Line equation: there are two equations at A : (x, y) = (1, 2) and B : (−2, −1):

2 = a·1 + b
−1 = a · (−2) + b

3 = 3a ⇒ a = 1 ∴ 2=1+b ⇒b =1

Thus, as (a, b) = (1, 1), then the equation of a line crossing both A : (1, 2) and B :
(−2, −1) is

y(x) = x + 1

2. Line intersects with axes: the intersect points (x0 , 0) and (0, y0 ) are derived as

y = 0 : 0 = x0 + 1 ⇒ x0 = −1

x = 0 : y0 = 0 + 1 ⇒ y0 = 1

i.e., intersect points of this line are at (x0 , 0) = (−1, 0) and (0, y0 ) = (0, 1).
3. Line slope: as y = 1 · x + 1, its slope is a = 1.
6.2 Line 211

Perpendicular line: given a1 = 1, then the slope of yp is

1
a2 = − ⇒ a2 = −1
a1

therefore, perpendicular lines are in the form of yp = −x + m, where m ∈ R.

6.35. Given two points A : (5/2, 3)) and B : (−3/2, −5)

1. Line equation: there are two equations at A : (5/2, 3)) and B : (−3/2, −5):

5
3 = a· +b
2
 
3
−5 = a · − +b
2

8 = 4a ⇒ a = 2 ∴ 3 = 5 + b ⇒ b = −2

As (a, b) = (2, −2) then line equation at A : (5/2, 3)) and B : (−3/2, −5) is

y(x) = 2x − 2

2. Line intersects with axes: the intersect points (x0 , 0) and (0, y0 ) are derived as

y = 0 : 0 = 2x0 − 2 ⇒ x0 = 1

x = 0 : y0 = 0 − 2 ⇒ y0 = −2

i.e., this line intersecting at (x0 , 0) = (1, 0) and (0, y0 ) = (0, −2).
3. Line slope: as y = 2 · x − 2, its slope is a = 2.
Perpendicular line: given a1 = 2, then the slope of yp is

1 1
a2 = − ⇒ a2 = −
a1 2

therefore, perpendicular lines are in the form of yp = −x/2 + m, where m ∈ R.

6.36. Given two points A : (0, 1)) and B : (0, 4) ,it is evident that both points are on the
vertical axis. In other words, on vertical line x = 0. By consequence, there is only one intersect
point with the horizontal axis at the origin (0, 0). By definition, as x is fixed to zero thus due
to division by zero of y/x = y/0 = ∞, that is to say a vertical line has infinite slope.
Naturally, a line perpendicular to the vertical axis is the horizontal axis, y = 0. Or, formally,
its slope is a negative inverse of the infinity, which is zero.

6.37. Given zero angle is to say that the line is horizontal, and given point A : (0, 0) is to
say that the line crosses the origin; therefore, y = 0, the horizontal axis.
212 6 Analytic Geometry

6.38. Given π/4 angle is to say that line is aligned with the hypotenuse of a right triangle
whose catheti are equal. Given point A : (2, 2), i.e., x = y, forms a right triangle with the
origin O : (0, 0). In conclusion, y = x; see A.6.31.

6.39. Given −π/4 angle is to say that line is aligned with the hypotenuse of a right triangle
whose catheti are equal. Given point A : (3/2, −3/2), i.e., y = −x forms a right triangle
with the origin O : (0, 0) whose hypotenuse is a line slanted at −π/4 (i.e., π/4 clockwise);
see A.6.32.

6.40. Given angle 3π/4 is supplementary with −π/4 because their sum equals π . Recall that
the sides of 180◦ form a straight line. That being so, to say that the slope of a line is equal
3π/4 is equivalent to saying that its slope equals −π/4 as measured relative to the horizontal
axis; see Fig. 6.14. There is an infinity of parallel lines with the slope of −π/4, but only one
that includes A : (5, −2) point.

In order to derive the analytic form of this line, first, coordinates of a second point on this line
must be deduced. Given slope and angle, there are an infinity of right triangles that may be
constructed. One possible right triangle whose hypotenuse is aligned with the given angle may
be constructed as follows:

1. Horizontal cathetus: horizontal line at A : (5, −2) intersects the y-axis at B : (0, −2).
Thus, that is the location of the right angle vertex. This cathetus length is therefore a =
A B = 5.
2. Vertical cathetus: given B , then the second cathetus b may be formed along the y-axis.
When the hypotenuse slope equals −π/4, it is to say that two catheti must be of the same
length, i.e., five. As the third vertex is five units apart, starting from the initial point B :
(0, −2), it follows that it must be at C : (0, 3) so that b = BC = 5.
3. Hypotenuse of the newly formed right triangle is aligned with the y(x) = ax + b line,
where its two parameters a, b ∈ R are resolved at A : (5, −2) and C : (0, 3) points as

C : (0, 3) ∴ 3 = a·0 + b ⇒ b = 3

Fig. 6.14 P.6.40, illustration of

supplementary angles (two angles
whose sum is π). Any right triangle
whose hypotenuse is aligned with the
given line may be used to derive its
slope. Hypotenuse’s angle of 45◦ ,
either positive or negative, implies
that catheti of its right triangle are of
the same length
6.2 Line 213

 
A : (5, −2) ∴ −2 = a · 5 + 3 b=3

5a = −5 ⇒ a = −1 ∴ y = −x + 3

Note that this line may be seen as y = −x (the origin crossing line whose slope equal “−1”)
that is translated up by three. As already mentioned, there are infinitely many parallel lines
y = −x + b with the same slope a = −1, but only one that is translated by b = 3 and
therefore crosses (5, −2) point.

6.41. Given angle 2π/3 is supplementary with −π/3 (i.e., −60◦ ). Hence, to say that the slope
of a line is equal 2π/3 (i.e., measured as positive) is to say that its slope equals α = −60◦
(i.e., measured as negative slope). It is useful to remember that π/3 is one of friendly angles
that form special right triangles. If one angle in the right triangle is α = π/3, then the second
angle must be β = π/2 − π/3 = π/6. This special right triangle is constructed by setting the
cathetus to hypotenuse ratio a : c = 1 : 2; see Fig. 6.15. Consequently,
 √ √ √
b= c2 − a 2 = 4 − 1 = 3 that is to say a : c : b = 1 : 2 : 3

and, due to similarity of triangles, this proportion is true for any a length, which is here
normalized to “one.” One possible right triangle whose hypotenuse is aligned with the given
angle may be constructed as follows.
√
1. Horizontal cathetus: horizontal line at A : (−3 3, 6) intersects the y-axis at B : (0, 6).
Thus, that√is the location of the right angle vertex. This cathetus length is therefore a =
A B = 3 3.
2. Vertical cathetus: given B , then the second cathetus b may be formed along the y-axis.
In this √ √ the horizontal and vertical catheti are proportional as a : b =
√ special right triangle,
1 : 3; hence, b = 3 3 3 = 9. As the third vertex is nine units apart, starting from the
initial point B : (0, 6), it follows that it must be at C : (0, −3) so that b = BC = 9.

Fig. 6.15 P.6.41, illustration of a

special right triangle whose internal
angles are 30◦ , 90◦ , and 60◦ . Given
that shorter cathetus length is
normalized to one and hypotenuse
length to √
two, then the other cathetus’
length is 3, i.e., √
a : c : b = 1 : 2 : 3 (note the
√
irrational number 3). Due to
triangle similarity, this proportion is
true for any other length of a = A B
214 6 Analytic Geometry

3. Hypotenuse of the newly formed right triangle is aligned √ with the y(x) = ax + b line,
where its two parameters a, b ∈ R are resolved at A : (−3 3, 6) and C : (0, −3) define
the hypotenuse and at the same time are found on the y(x) = ax + b line as

C : (0, −3) ∴ −3 = a · 0 + b ⇒ b = −3
√ √  
A : (−3 3, 6) ∴ 6 = a · (−3 3) − 3 b = −3

√
√ 3 3 √ √
9
3 = −3
3 a ⇒ a = − √ √ = − 3 ∴ y = − 3x − 3
3 3
√
√ that this line may be seen as y = − 3 x (the origin crossing line whose slope equal
Note
“− 3”) that is translated
√ down by three. As already mentioned,
√ there are infinitely many
parallel lines y = − 3 x + b with the√same slope a = − 3, but only one that is translated
by b = −3 and therefore crosses (−3 3, 6) point.

6.42. Following the same idea as in A.6.41, given angle θ = 150◦ is supplementary with
“−30◦ ,” it is to say that its slope may be measured as α = −30◦ (i.e., negative slope). The
remaining angle in this special right triangle therefore must be β = 60◦ .
√
1. Horizontal cathetus: given point A : ( 3, 1) (in the first quadrant: positive
√ x, positive y)
means that the horizontal line crosses the y-axis at (0, 1); thus, b = 3. (Note symmetry
of triangles in the first versus second quadrant, etc √
. assuming the same slope.) √
2. Vertical cathetus: given horizontal cathetus b = 3 and negative slope at A : ( 3, 1),
it has to be that b is longer of the two catheti, and then by the proportions of this special
triangle, the vertical cathetus along the y-axis must be a = 1 and hypotenuse c = 2. Hence,
the vertex of this special right
√ triangle is on the vertical axis at (0, 2).
3. Hypotenuse: two points ( 3, 1) and (0, 2) are on hypotenuse, that is to say on the y(x) =
ax + b line as well,

(0, 2) ∴ 2 = a·0 + b ⇒ b = 2
√ √  
( 3, 1) ∴ 1 = a · ( 3) + 2 b = 2

√ √ √
√ 1 3 3 3
3 a = −1 ⇒ a = − √ √ = − ∴ y=− x+2
3 3 3 3

Verification:
√
√ √ 3 √
A : ( 3, 1) ∴ y( 3) = − 3 + 2 = −1 + 2 = 1 
3

6.43. The explicit form of a given line x + y − 2 = 0 is

x + y − 2 = 0 ∴ y = −x + 2 thus, its slope is a = −1

6.2 Line 215

Fig. 6.16 P.6.43, given line a y and

all of its parallel lines y , then
perpendicular line y⊥ is normal to all
of them. By extension, all lines
parallel to y⊥ are also normal to y

1. Parallel line: to say “parallel line” is to say “with the same slope.” There is an infinity of
parallel lines with a = −1 in the form of y = −x + n, n ∈ R, but only one that crosses
a given point, as

A : (2, 3) ∴ 3 = −1(2) + n ∴ n = 5 ∴ y = −x + 5

2. Perpendicular line: by definition, given a line slope a, then the slope of the perpendicular
line a⊥ is calculated by definition as

1
a a⊥ = −1 ∴ a⊥ = −
def

There is an infinity of vertical lines with given a⊥ in the form of y⊥ = a⊥ x + m, m ∈ R,

but only one that crosses a given point, (Fig. 6.16) as
 
A : (2, 3) ∴ y⊥ = a⊥ x + m a = −1 ∴ a⊥ = 1
3 = 1(2) + m ∴ m = 1 ∴ y⊥ = x + 1

6.44. Following the same idea as in A.6.43, the explicit form of a given line 9x +7y −25 = 0
is

9 25 9
9x + 7y − 25 = 0 ∴ y = − x + thus, its slope is a = −
7 7 7

1. Parallel line: in the form of y = −(9/7) x +n, n ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,

9 9
A : (7, −4) ∴ −4 = − (7) + n ∴ n = 5 ∴ y = − x + 5
7 7
216 6 Analytic Geometry

2. Perpendicular line: by definition, the slope of a perpendicular line is

1 7
a⊥ = − =
a 9

where a⊥ in the form of y⊥ = a⊥ x + m, m ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,

85 7 85
A : (7, −4) ∴ ∴ −4 = (7/9) (7) + m ∴ m = − ∴ y = x −
9 9 9

6.45. Following the same idea as in A.6.43, the explicit form of a given line 2x + 3y − 1 = 0
is

2 1 2
2x + 3y − 1 = 0 ∴ y = − x + thus, its slope is a = −
3 3 3

1. Parallel line: in the form of y = −(2/3) x +n, n ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,

2 8 2 8
A : (1, 2) ∴ 2 = − (1) + n ∴ n = ∴ y = − x +
3 3 3 3

2. Perpendicular line: by definition, the slope of a perpendicular line is

1 3
a⊥ = − =
a 2

where a⊥ in the form of y⊥ = a⊥ x + m, m ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,

3 1 3 1
A : (1, 2) ∴ ∴ 2= (1) + m ∴ m = ∴ y⊥ = x +
2 2 2 2

6.46. The explicit form of a given line x + y − 3 is

x + y − 3 ∴ y = −x + 3 thus, its slope is a = −1

1. Parallel line: in the form of y = −x + n, n ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,

A : (−1, −2) ∴ −2 = −(−1) + n ∴ n = −3 ∴ y = −x − 3

2. Perpendicular line: by definition, the slope of a perpendicular line is

1
a⊥ = − =1
a

where a⊥ in the form of y⊥ = a⊥ x + m, m ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,

A : (−1, −2) ∴ ∴ −2 = (−1) + m ∴ m = −1 ∴ y⊥ = x − 1

6.2 Line 217

6.47. The explicit form of a given line x + y − 3 is

y − 2π x − 1 = 0 ∴ y = 2π x + 1 thus, its slope is a = 2π

1. Parallel line: in the form of y = 2π x + n, n ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,

A : (0, π ) ∴ π = 2π(0) + n ∴ n = π ∴ y = 2π x + π

2. Perpendicular line: by definition, the slope of a perpendicular line is

1 1
a⊥ = − =−
a 2π

where a⊥ in the form of y⊥ = a⊥ x + m, m ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,

1 1
A : (0, π ) ∴ ∴ π =− (0) + m ∴ m = π ∴ y⊥ = − x+π
2π 2π

6.48. The explicit form of a given line x + y − 3 is

√ √
y− 5 − x = 0 ∴ y = x + 5 thus, its slope is a = 1

1. Parallel line: in the form of y = x + n, n ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,
√ √ √ √
A : (2, − 10) ∴ − 10 = (2) + n ∴ n = −2 − 10 ∴ y = x − 2 − 10

2. Perpendicular line: by definition, the slope of a perpendicular line is

1
a⊥ = − = −1
a

where a⊥ in the form of y⊥ = a⊥ x + m, m ∈ R, and one that crosses a given point,

√ √ √ √
A : (2, − 10) ∴ ∴ − 10 = −1(2) + m ∴ m = 2 − 10 ∴ y⊥ = −x + 2 − 10

6.49. The given line may be written in its explicit form as

px +y +1 = 0 ∴ y = −p x − 1

1. To say that a line is parallel with the x-axis is to say that it is horizontal, in other words that
its slope equal zero, and thus,

y = −p x − 1 ⇒ −p = 0 ∴ p = 0 ∴ y = −1
218 6 Analytic Geometry

2. To say that a line is parallel with the y-axis is to say that it is vertical, in other words that
its slope is infinite, and thus,

y = −p x − 1 ⇒ p = ±∞

6.50. The given line may be written in its explicit form as

x x
2y − =0 ∴ y=
p 2p

1. To say that a line is parallel with the x-axis is to say that it is horizontal, in other words that
its slope equal zero, and thus,

x 1
y= ⇒ =0 ∴ p=∞ ∴ y=0
2p 2p

2. To say that a line is parallel with the y-axis is to say that it is vertical; in other words its
slope is infinite, and thus,

x 1
y= ⇒ =∞ ∴ p=0
2p 2p

6.51. The given line may be written in its explicit form as

√
2 p 2π p
y − x − 2π = 0 ∴ y= √ x+ √
p 2 2

1. To say that a line is parallel with the x-axis is to say that it is horizontal, in other words that
its slope equal zero, and thus,

p 2π p p
y= √ x+ √ ⇒ √ =0 ∴ p=0 ∴ y=0
2 2 2

2. To say that a line is parallel with the y-axis is to say that it is vertical; in other words its
slope is infinite, and thus,

p 2π p p
y= √ x+ √ ⇒ √ =∞ ∴ p = ±∞
2 2 2

6.52. The given line may be written in its explicit form as

(p + 1)x + y + 1 = 0 ∴ y = −(p + 1)x − 1

6.2 Line 219

1. To say that a line is parallel with the x-axis is to say that it is horizontal, in other words that
its slope equal zero, and thus,

−(p + 1) = 0 ⇒ p + 1 = 0 ∴ p = −1 ∴ y = −1

2. To say that a line is parallel with the y-axis is to say that it is vertical; in other words its
slope is infinite, and thus,

−(p + 1) = ∞ ⇒ p = ±∞

6.53. The given line may be written in its explicit form as

x 2(1 − p)
x − y(p − 2) + 2(1 − p) = 0 ∴ y= +
p−2 p−2

1. To say that a line is parallel with the x-axis is to say that it is horizontal, in other words that
its slope equal zero, and thus,

1
= 0 ⇒ p − 2 = ∞ ∴ p = ±∞
p−2

2. To say that a line is parallel with the y-axis is to say that it is vertical; in other words its
slope is infinite, and thus,

1
=∞ ⇒ p−2=0 ∴ p =2
p−2

6.54. The given line may be written in its explicit form as

2p + 1 4p
(2p + 1)x + (3p − 5)y + 4p = 0 ∴ y=− x−
3p − 5 3p − 5

1. To say that a line is parallel with the x-axis is to say that it is horizontal, in other words that
its slope equal zero, and thus,

2p + 1 1
− = 0 ⇒ 2p + 1 = 0 ∴ p = −
3p − 5 2

2. To say that a line is parallel with the y-axis is to say that it is vertical; in other words its
slope is infinite, and thus,

2p + 1 5
− = ∞ ⇒ 3p − 5 = 0 ∴ p =
3p − 5 3
220 6 Analytic Geometry

6.55. Given two lines and one vertex

y1 = 1 i.e., horizontal line, zero slope: a1 = 0

x+y =0 ∴ y2 = −x i.e., slope: a2 = −1
A : (0, 0)

as a1 a2 = −1, it means y1 and y2 do not form a right angle. Hence, there are two possibilities
to create a right angle: one is with a line perpendicular to y1 and the other with a line
perpendicular to y2 .

1. As line y1 = 1 is horizontal, then its perpendicular line must be vertical, i.e., x = n, n ∈ R.

Furthermore, A : (0, 0) limits x = 0 as the only vertical line. In summary, the equations
of this right triangle’s sides are

x = 0 (vertical cathetus)
y1 = 1 (horizontal cathetus)
y2 = −x (hypotenuse)

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(0, 0)
B : y1 = y2 ∴ x = −1 ∴ B :(−1, 1)
C : x = 0, y1 = 1 ∴ C :(0, 1)

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 0) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 1)


x = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − 0| = 0
∴ a : AC =1
y = |y2 − y1 | = |1 − 0| = 1

and
B : (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 1) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 1)

x = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − (−1)| = 1
∴ b : BC = 1
y = |y2 − y1 | = |1 − 1| = 0

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

ab 1·1 1
P = = =
2 2 2
6.2 Line 221

Verification: for the sake of completeness, this triangle must satisfy Pythagoras’ theorem
where its hypotenuse is the line segment

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 0) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (−1, 1)


x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 1 − 0| = 1  
∴ c : AB = (x)2 + (y)2 = 12 + 12
y = |y2 − y1 | = |1 − 0| = 1
√
= 2

thus, it must be that

c2 = a 2 + b2
√
( 2)2 = (12 + 12 )
2=2 

2. As line y2 = −x has slope a2 = −1, its perpendicular line must be y⊥ = x + m, m ∈ R.

Furthermore, A : (0, 0) limits x = 0 and y = 0; hence, m = 0 and y⊥ = x. In summary,
equations of this right triangle’s sides are then

y1 = 1 (hypotenuse)
y2 = −x (cathetus)
y3 = x (cathetus)

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(0, 0)
B : y1 = y2 ∴ x = −1 ∴ B : (−1, 1)
C : y1 = y3 ∴ 1 = x ∴ C : (1, 1)

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 0) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (−1, 1)


x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 1 − 0| = 1 √
∴ a : AB = 2
y = |y2 − y1 | = |1 − 0| = 1

and
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 0) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 1)

x = |x2 − x1 | = |1 − 0)| = 1 √
∴ b : AC = 2
y = |y2 − y1 | = |1 − 0| = 1
222 6 Analytic Geometry

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

√ √
ab 2 2
P = = =1
2 2

6.56. Given two lines and one vertex

x = 0 i.e., vertical line, infinite slope: a1 = ∞

3 3
3x + 2y = 6 ∴ y2 = − x + 3 i.e., slope: a2 = −
2 2
A : (2, 0)

as a1 a2 = −1, it means x = 0 and y2 do not form a right angle. Hence, there are two
possibilities to create a right angle: one is with a line perpendicular to x = 0 and the other
with a line perpendicular to y2 .

1. As x = 0 is vertical, its perpendicular line must be a horizontal line. Furthermore, A :

(2, 0) limits y3 = 0 as the only horizontal line. In summary, the lines forming this right
triangle are

x = 0 (vertical cathetus)
3
y2 = − x + 3 (hypotenuse)
2
y3 = 0 (horizontal cathetus)

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(2, 0)
3
B : x = 0, y2 = − x + 3 ∴ B :(0, 3)
2
C : x = 0, y = 0 ∴ C :(0, 0)

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 0) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 0)


x = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − 2| = 2
∴ a : AC =2
y = |y2 − y1 | = |0 − 0| = 0

and
B : (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 3) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 0)

x = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − 0| = 0
∴ b : AC =3
y = |y2 − y1 | = |0 − 3| = 3
6.2 Line 223

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

ab 2·3
P = = =3
2 2

Verification: for the sake of completeness, this triangle must satisfy Pythagoras’ theorem
where its hypotenuse is the line segment

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 0) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 3)


x = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − 2| = 2  
∴ c : BC = (x)2 + (y)2 = 22 + 32
y = |y2 − y1 | = |3 − 0| = 3
√
= 13

thus, it must be that

c2 = a 2 + b2
√
( 13)2 = (22 + 32 )
13 = 13 

2. As line y2 has slope a2 = −3/2, its perpendicular line must be y⊥ = (2/3) x + m, m ∈ R.

Furthermore, A : (2, 0) limits perpendicular line to

2 4 2 4
A : (2, 0) ∴ 0= (2) + m ∴ m = − ∴ y⊥ = x −
3 3 3 3

In summary, the line equations of this right triangle are

x = 0 (hypotenuse)
3
y2 = − x + 3 (cathetus)
2
2 4
y⊥ = x − (cathetus)
3 3

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(2, 0)
3
B : x = 0, y2 = − x + 3 ∴ B :(0, 3)
2
2 4
C : x = 0 ∴ y⊥ (0) = (0) − ∴ C :(0, −4/3)
3 3

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

224 6 Analytic Geometry

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 0) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 3)


x = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − 2| = 2 √
∴ a : AB = 13
y = |y2 − y1 | = |3 − 0| = 3

and
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 0) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, −4/3)
 √
x = |x2 − x1 | = |0 − 2)| = 2 52
∴ b : AC =
y = |y2 − y1 | = | − 4/3 − 0| = 4/3 3

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

√ √
ab 13 52 13
P = = =
2 6 3

6.57. Given two lines and one vertex

y1 = 4 i.e., horizontal line, slope: a1 = 0

x − y = −1 ∴ y2 = x + 1 i.e., slope: a2 = 1
A : (−4, −3)

as a1 a2 = −1, it means y1 and y2 do not form a right angle. Hence, there are two possibilities
to create a right angle: one is with a line perpendicular to y1 and the other with a line
perpendicular to y2 .

1. As y1 = 4 is horizontal, its perpendicular line must be vertical. Furthermore, A : (−4, −3)

limits x = −4 as the only vertical line. In summary, the line equations of this right triangle
are

y1 = 4 (horizontal cathetus)
x = −4 (vertical cathetus)
y2 = x + 1 (hypotenuse)

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(−4, −3)
B : x = −4, y1 = 4 ∴ B :(−4, 4)
C : y1 = y2 ∴ 4 = x + 1 ∴ C :(3, 4)

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

6.2 Line 225

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−4, −3) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (−4, 4)


x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 4 − (−4)| = 0
∴ a : AB =7
y = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − (−3)| = 7

and
B : (x1 , y1 ) = (−4, 4) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (3, 4)

x = |x2 − x1 | = |3 − (−4)| = 7
∴ b : BC = 7
y = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − 4| = 0

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

ab 7·7 49
P = = =
2 2 2

Verification: for the sake of completeness, this triangle must satisfy Pythagoras’ theorem
where its hypotenuse is the line segment

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−4, −3) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (3, 4)


x = |x2 − x1 | = |3 − (−4)| = 7  
∴ c : AC = (x)2 + (y)2 = 72 + 72
y = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − (−3)| = 7
√
= 98

thus, it must be that

c2 = a 2 + b2
√
( 98)2 = (72 + 72 )
98 = 98 

2. As slope of y2 is a2 = 1, then the slope of its perpendicular line must be y⊥ = −x+m, m ∈

R. Furthermore, A : (−4, −3) limits perpendicular line to

A : (−4, −3) ∴ −4 = −(−3) + m ∴ m = −7 ∴ y⊥ = −x − 7

In summary, the line equations of this right triangle are

y1 = 4 (hypotenuse)
y2 = x + 1 (cathetus)
y⊥ = −x − 7 (cathetus)
226 6 Analytic Geometry

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(−4, −3)
B : y1 = y⊥ ∴ 4 = −x − 7 ∴ B :(−11, 4)
C : y1 = y2 ∴ 4 = x + 1 ∴ C :(3, 4)

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−4, −3) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (−11, 4)


x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 11 − (−4)| = 7  √
∴ a : AB = 72 + 72 = 7 2
y = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − (−3)| = 7

and
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−4, −3) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (3, 4)

x = |x2 − x1 | = |3 − (−4)| = 7  √
∴ b : AC = 72 + 72 = 7 2
y = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − (−3)| = 7

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

√ √
ab 7 2·7 2
P = = = 49
2 2

6.58. Given two lines and one vertex

x = 6 i.e., vertical line, slope: a1 = ∞

8 13 8
−8x + 7y = −13 ∴ y2 = x− i.e., slope: a2 =
7 7 7
A : (6, −3)

as a1 a2 = −1, it means x = 6 and y2 do not form a right angle. Hence, there are two
possibilities to create a right angle: one is with a line perpendicular to x = 6 and the other
with a line perpendicular to y2 .

1. As x = 6 is vertical, its perpendicular line must be horizontal. Furthermore, A : (6, −3)

limits y3 = −3 as the only horizontal line. In summary, the line equations of this right
triangle are

x = 6 (vertical cathetus)
8 13
y2 = x− (hypotenuse)
7 7
y3 = −3 (horizontal cathetus)
6.2 Line 227

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(6, −3)
8 13 8 13
B : x = 6, y2 = x− ∴ y2 = (6) − ∴ B :(6, 5)
7 7 7 7
8 13
C : y2 = y3 ∴ x− = −3 ∴ x = −1 ∴ C :(−1, −3)
7 7

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (6, −3) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (6, 5)


x = |x2 − x1 | = |6 − 6| = 0
∴ a : AB =8
y = |y2 − y1 | = | − 5 − (−3)| = 8

and
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (6, −3) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (−1, −3)

x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 1 − 6| = 7
∴ b : AC =7
y = |y2 − y1 | = | − 3 − (−3)| = 0

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

ab 7·8
P = = = 28
2 2

Verification: for the sake of completeness, this triangle must satisfy Pythagoras’ theorem
where its hypotenuse is the line segment

B : (x1 , y1 ) = (6, 5) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (−1, −3)


x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 1 − 6| = 7  
∴ c : BC = (x)2 + (y)2 = 72 + 82
y = |y2 − y1 | = | − 3 − 5| = 8
√
= 113

thus, it must be that

c2 = a 2 + b2
√
( 113)2 = (72 + 82 )
113 = 113 

2. As slope of y2 is a2 = 8/7, then the slope of its perpendicular line must be y⊥ = −(7/8)x +
m, m ∈ R. Furthermore, A : (6, −3) limits perpendicular line to
228 6 Analytic Geometry

7 9 7 9
A : (6, −3) ∴ −3 = − (6) + m ∴ m = ∴ y⊥ = − x +
8 4 8 4

In summary, the line equations of this right triangle are

x = 6 (hypotenuse)
8 13
y2 = x− (cathetus)
7 7
7 9
y⊥ = − x + (cathetus)
8 4

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(6, −3)
8 13
B : x = 6 ∴ y2 = (6) − ∴ y2 = 5 ∴ B :(6, 5)
7 7
 
8 13 7 9 230 230 53
C : y2 = y⊥ ∴ x− =− x+ ∴ x= ∴ C : ,
7 7 8 4 113 113 113

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

C : (x1 , y1 ) = (230/113, 53/113) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (6, 5)

448 
x = |x2 − x1 | = |6 − 230/113| = 113 64
∴ a : CB = √
y = |y2 − y1 | = |5 − 53/113| = 512
113
113

and
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (6, −3) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (230/113, 53/113)

x = |x2 − x1 | = |230/113 − 6| = 448
113 56
∴ b : AC = √
y = |y2 − y1 | = |53/113 − (−3)| = 392
113
113

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

ab 1 64 56 1 792
P = = √ ·√ =
2 2 113 113 113

6.59. Given two lines and one vertex

x 12 1
x + 5y = −12 ∴ y1 = −− i.e., slope: a1 = −
5 5 5
2x 2 2
2x − 3y = 2 ∴ y2 = − i.e., slope: a2 =
3 3 3
A : (8, −4)
6.2 Line 229

as a1 a2 = −1, it means y1 and y2 do not form a right angle. Hence, there are two possibilities
to create a right angle: one is with a line perpendicular to y1 and the other with a line
perpendicular to y2 .

1. As slope a1 = −1/5, then the slope of its perpendicular line must be y3 = 5x +m, m ∈ R.
Furthermore, A : (8, −4) limits the perpendicular line to

A : (8, −4) ∴ −4 = 5(8) x + m ∴ m = −44 ∴ y3 = 5x − 44

In summary, as y1 ⊥ y3 , the line equations of this right triangle are

x 12
y1 = − − (cathetus)
5 5
2x 2
y2 = − (hypotenuse)
3 3
y3 = 5x − 44 (cathetus)

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(8, −4)
x 12 2x 2
B : y1 = y2 ∴ − − = − ∴ x = −2 ∴ B :(−2, −2)
5 5 3 3
2x 2
C : y2 = y3 ∴ − = 5x − 44 ∴ x = 10 ∴ C :(10, 6)
3 3

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (8, −4) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (−2, −2)


x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 2 − 8| = 10  
∴ a : AB = (x)2 +(y)2 = 102 +22
y = |y2 − y1 | = | − 2 − (−4)| = 2
√
= 104

and
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (8, −4) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (10, 6)

x = |x2 − x1 | = |10 − 8| = 2  
∴ b : AC = (x)2 + (y)2 = 22 + 102
y = |y2 − y1 | = |6 − (−4)| = 10
√
= 104

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

√ √
ab 104 104
P = = = 52
2 2
230 6 Analytic Geometry

Verification: for the sake of completeness, this triangle must satisfy Pythagoras’
theorem where its hypotenuse is the line segment

B : (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, −2) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (10, 6)


x = |x2 − x1 | = |10 − (−2)| = 12  
∴ c : BC = (x)2 + (y)2 = 122 + 82
y = |y2 − y1 | = |6 − (−2)| = 8
√
= 208

thus, it must be that

c2 = a 2 + b2
√ √ √
( 208)2 = ( 104)2 + ( 104)2
208 = 104 + 104
208 = 208 

2. As slope a2 = 2/3, then the slope of its perpendicular line must be y3 = −(3/2)x +
m, m ∈ R. Furthermore, A : (8, −4) limits perpendicular line to

3 3
A : (8, −4) ∴ −4 = − (8) x + m ∴ m = 8 ∴ y3 = − x + 8
2 2

In summary, as y2 ⊥ y3 , the line equations of this right triangle are

x 12
y1 = − − (hypotenuse)
5 5
2x 2
y2 = − (cathetus)
3 3
3
y3 = − x + 8 (cathetus)
2

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(8, −4)
x 12 2x 2
B : y1 = y2 ∴ − − = − ∴ x = −2 ∴ B :(−2, −2)
5 5 3 3
2x 2 3
C : y2 = y3 ∴ − = − x + 8 ∴ x = 4 ∴ C :(4, 2)
3 3 2

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

6.2 Line 231

C : (x1 , y1 ) = (4, 2) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (−2, −2)


x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 2 − 4| = 6  
∴ a : CB = (x)2 + (y)2 = 62 + 42
y = |y2 − y1 | = | − 2 − 2| = 4
√
= 52

and
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (8, −4) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (4, 2)

x = |x2 − x1 | = |4 − 8| = 4 √
∴ b : AC = 52
y = |y2 − y1 | = |2 − (−4)| = 6

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

√ √
ab 52 52
P = = = 26
2 2

6.60. Given two lines and one vertex

x 15 1
4y + x − 15 = 0 ∴ y1 = − + i.e., slope: a1 = −
4 4 4
y−x =5 ∴ y2 = x + 5 i.e., slope: a2 = 1
A : (2, 7)

as a1 a2 = −1, it means y1 and y2 do not form a right angle. Hence, there are two possibilities
to create a right angle: one is with a line perpendicular to y1 and the other with a line
perpendicular to y2 .

1. As slope a1 = −1/4, then the slope of its perpendicular line must be y3 = 4x +m, m ∈ R.
Furthermore, A : (2, 7) limits a perpendicular line to

A : (2, 7) ∴ 7 = 4(2) x + m ∴ m = −1 ∴ y3 = 4x − 1

In summary, as y1 ⊥ y3 , the line equations of this right triangle are

x 15
y1 = − + (cathetus)
4 4
y2 = x + 5 (hypotenuse)
y3 = 4x − 1 (cathetus)
232 6 Analytic Geometry

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(2, 7)
x 15
B : y1 = y2 ∴ − + = x + 5 ∴ x = −1 ∴ B :(−1, 4)
4 4
 
x 15 19 19 59
C : y1 = y3 ∴ − + = 4x − 1 ∴ x = ∴ C : ,
4 4 17 17 17

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

C : (x1 , y1 ) = (19/17, 59/17) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (−1, 4)

⎫
36 ⎪
x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 1 − 19/17| = ⎪
⎬
17  9
∴ a : C B = (x)2 + (y)2 = √
9 ⎪
⎪ 17
y = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − 59/17| = ⎭
17

and
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 7) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (19/17, 59/17)

15 
x = |x2 − x1 | = |19/17 − 2| = 17  15
∴ b : AC = (x)2 + (y)2 = √
y = |y2 − y1 | = |59/17 − 7| = 60
17
17

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

ab 1 9 15 135
P = = √ √ =
2 2 17 17 34

2. As slope a2 = 1, then the slope of its perpendicular line must be y3 = −x + m, m ∈ R.

Furthermore, A : (2, 7) limits perpendicular line to

A : (2, 7) ∴ 7 = −(2) x + m ∴ m = 9 ∴ y3 = −x + 9

In summary, as y2 ⊥ y3 , the line equations of this right triangle are

x 15
y1 = − + (hypotenuse)
4 4
y2 = x + 5 (cathetus)
y3 = −x + 9 (cathetus)

(a) Vertices are found at intersect points as

A :(2, 7)
x 15
B : y1 = y2 ∴ − + = x + 5 ∴ x = −1 ∴ B :(−1, 4)
4 4
6.3 Circle 233

x 15
C : y1 = y3 ∴ − + = −x + 9 ∴ x = 7 ∴ C :(7, 2)
4 4

(b) Line segments of two catheti are deduced as

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 7) to B : (x2 , y2 ) = (−1, 4)


x = |x2 − x1 | = | − 1 − 2| = 3  √
∴ a : CB = (x)2 + (y)2 = 3 2
y = |y2 − y1 | = |4 − 7| = 3

and
A : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 7) to C : (x2 , y2 ) = (7, 2)

x = |x2 − x1 | = |7 − 2| = 5  √
∴ b : AC = (x)2 + (y)2 = 5 2
y = |y2 − y1 | = |2 − 7| = 5

So that area is computed as (recall: half area of rectangle a · b)

ab 1 √ √
P = = 3 2 5 2 = 15
2 2

6.3 Circle

6.61. Once it was established that the ratio of a circle’s circumference C to its diameter d is
constant regardless of circle’s size, i.e.,

C
π= ∴ C = d π = 2r π
d

it may be stated that a circumference (i.e., the full circle’s length) is computed as radius
multiplied by the associated angle, that is to say if

s
C = r · (2 π ) then, in general s = r · θ or, θ =
r

which, in the special case of r = s, leads into θ = 1 and that specific angle is declared as
the unit of 1 rad. Naturally, angles may be measured in degrees and the two units are easily
converted by a simple proportion: full circle is split into 360◦ , and thus, circumference C may
be written in both units as

◦ 180◦
Ar · 360 ≡ Ar · 2 π rad ∴ 360◦ ≡ 2 π rad ∴ 180◦ ≡ π rad ∴ rad ≡ ≈ 57.295 . . . ◦
π

By inspection of Fig. 6.2 it may be estimated that it takes approximately 3 s to cover one
half-circle C/2 length or, to be exact, it takes exactly π · s. Note that arc is longer than chord,
i.e., s > A B .
234 6 Analytic Geometry

Irrational constant π also appears in the area of a circle as P = π r 2 (see Vol. II). In addition,
it is very convenient to introduce “unit circle” whose r = 1 where C = 2π and all other
variables are similarly normalized to r = 1, i.e., P = π , etc .; see chapter in trigonometry.

6.62. As introduced in A.6.61,

π ⎫
s = r1 θ = r1 ⎬
3 
π r1
∴ s = C ⇒ r1 = r 2
π ∴ r=
⎭ 3 6
C = r 2π

6.63. By definitions of a circle with radius r and square whose side is a,

rπ ⎫
C◦ = C ∴ r 2
π = 4
2 a ∴ a = ⎪
⎪
2 ⎪
⎬ P a2 r 2 π 2 π
P◦ =r π 2 ∴ = 2 = =
⎪
⎪ P◦ r π 4r 2
π 4
⎪
⎭
P = a2

6.64. As introduced in A.6.61, in general, area Pθ of circular sector bound by θ rad is

a “pizza slice” portion of the circle area as in Fig. 6.2, and it may be derived by a simple
proportion. A circle area covers a full angle of 2π , and consequently, the sector area is directly
proportional to its θ as well, which may be expressed by proportion as

P 2π θ θ
= ∴ Pθ = 
π r2 = r2
Pθ θ 2
π 2

Note that as arc length is r θ, then area Pθ of the circular sector may be expressed as

θ rθ s
Pθ = r 2 =r =r
2 2 2

6.65. Circular segment is created by cutting out a triangle (A OB ) from circular sector
bound by two radii r and arc s; see Fig. 6.17. Equally, it is surface bound by arc s and chord
h = A B . Knowing sector area Pθ as derived in A.6.64 and area P of triangle (A OB ),
then the circular segment area P is

P = Pθ − P

where

1. Sector area Pθ is

θ
Pθ = r 2
2
6.3 Circle 235

Fig. 6.17 P.6.65, illustration of a

circular segment. It is defined by
circle radius r, central angle θ that
forms arc s, and chord h = A B at
two intersect points at circle. The area
of the circular segment is derived as a
leftover cutout from the associated
circular sector left after the isosceles
triangle (r, r, h) is removed

2. Isosceles triangle (A OB ) area P consists of two right triangle areas. Knowing radius
r and chord h = A B , then three sides of a right triangle are
⎫
h ⎪ 
a= (cathetus) ⎬  h2
2 ∴ b = c2 − a 2 = r 2 −
⎪
c = r (hypotenuse)⎭
4

As there are two right triangles, then P area is


ab h h2
P = 2
= r2 −
2
2 4

In summary, by this two-step procedure circular segment area is derived as


θ h h2
P = Pθ − P = r −
2
r2 −
2 2 4

6.66. Given chord length l = A B as in Fig. 6.18, then the shaded area P between two
circles is computed as large disk area minus small disk area:

P = r22 π − r12 π = (r22 − r12 ) π

At the same time, by Pythagoras’ theorem, the right triangle formed by r2 as hypotenuse and
l/2 with r1 as catheti must obey relation
 2  2
l l
r22 = + r12 ∴ r22 − r12 =
2 2

Therefore, by back substituting r22 − r12 , it follows that

l2 π
P = (r22 − r12 ) π =
4
236 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.18 P.6.66, chord l = A B

constructed as tangent to the inner
circle forms a right triangle. Due to
the equivalent relationship between a
circle and a right triangle (Thales’ and
Pythagoras’ theorems), in order to
calculate annulus (the region between
two concentric circles), it is sufficient
to know the cord’s length l

Fig. 6.19 P.6.67, given right triangle

(a, b, (x + y)), half-circle over its
diagonal b forms another right
triangle (b, h, x) at the intersect
point A (Thales’ theorem)

6.67. Given angle π of demicircle, the circular arc length is then l = r π , where r = b/2
is half length of the longer cathetus; see Fig. 6.19. In respect to the intersect point (yet to be
determined) with the arc, hypotenuse is c = x + y; thus,

bπ
l=
2

where cathetus b is unknown. Recall that any point on a circle is vertex of a right angle. The
given geometrical form may be decomposed into three right triangles as

b 2 = x 2 + h2 (6.1)
a 2 = y 2 + h2 (6.2)
(x + y)2 = a 2 + b2 ∴ (6.1) + (6.2) → (6.3) (6.3)

(x + y)2 = x 2 + y 2 + 2h2
h2
x 2 + 2Axy + 
y2 = x 2 + 
y2 + 2Ah2 ∴ xy = h2 ∴ y = ∴ (6.4) → (6.2) (6.4)
x

b2 = x 2 + h2 ∴ x 2 = b2 − h2 ∴ (6.5) → (6.6) (6.5)

h4
a2 = + h2 (6.6)
x2
6.3 Circle 237

h4
a2 = + h2
b 2 − h2

The only unknown variable is b:

h4 h4 h4
a2 = + h2 ∴ a 2 − h2 = 2 ∴ b 2 − h2 = 2
b2 −h 2 b −h 2 a − h2
b2 h2 h2 + a 2 − h2 a 2 h2 ah
= 2 +1= ∴ b2 = 2 ∴ b= √
h 2 a −h 2 a −h
2 2 a − h2 a 2 − h2

Therefore,

bπ ahπ
l= = √
2 2 a 2 − h2

6.68. As described, a circle superimposed over a large equilateral triangle constructs a

hexagon; see Fig. 6.20. As each side of the large equilateral triangle equals 3a, then each side
of a newly created hexagon corresponds to line segment length A B = a. As all three angles
of the equilateral triangle are π/3, then there are in total six smaller equilateral triangles in
the circle. Finally, as positioned, it has to be that circle radius r = a as well. This is due to the
circle center being at the intersect of three height lines in the large equilateral triangle.

The total overlapping area P is then the sum of this hexagon’s area Ph and combined area P3
of three circular segments as outlined in Fig. 6.20.

1. Circle area is P1 = r 2 π = a 2 π .
2. Hexagon area Ph consists of six equilateral triangles whose side length is a. Area of
equilateral triangle is computed as two areas of a right triangle whose sides are catheti
a/2 and b and hypotenuse a; see Fig. 6.20. First,
 √
a 2 a2 a 3
a =b +
2 2
∴ b= a2 − ∴ b=
2 4 2

then, as each of six equilateral triangles consists of two right angle triangles, then
√ √
a a a 3 3 3 2
Ph = 6 b = 6
3 = a
2 2
2 2

3. By inspection of Fig. 6.20, however, it may be deduced that the total overlapping area P
may be expressed either as the sum of combined areas P3 and Ph or as disk area P1 reduced
by the area of three remaining circular segments that are left outside of hexagon. Formally.
238 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.20 P.6.68, in combination

with a circle whose r = a, equilateral
triangle whose side length equal 3a
forms a hexagon. This highly
symmetrical structure is due to the
circle being centered at the intersect
of three height lines in an equilateral
triangle (not shown)

 
P = Ph + P3 hexagon plus three arc segments
as well as
 
P = P1 − P3 disk area minus three arc segments

After adding these two equations it follows that

P1 + P2
2P = P1 + P2 ∴ P =
2
∴
 √ 
1 3 3 2 a2 √ 
P = a π+
2
a = 2π + 3 3
2 2 4

It is interesting to find that it was not necessary to explicitly calculate arc segment areas as
they are evenly split inside and outside of the overlapping area.

6.4 Intersects

6.69. The given two points A : (−1, 1) and B : (1, 1) define one line, and two points
C : (0, 0) and D : (0, 2) define another line. Analytical forms of these two lines in function
of their (x, y) coordinates (see A.6.31) are therefore

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 1); B : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 1)


y1 = ax1 + b ∴ 1 = a(−1) + b
∴ 2b = 2 ⇒ b = 1 ∴ a=0 ⇒y=1
y2 = ax2 + b ∴ 1 = a(1) + b
6.4 Intersects 239

and the second line is

C : (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 0); D : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 2)


y1 = ax1 + b ∴ 0 = a(0) + b
⇒ b = 0 and b = 2 ∴ it is possible only at x = 0
y2 = ax2 + b ∴ 2 = a(0) + b

In conclusion, the given two pairs of points define two lines: one horizontal y = 1 and one
vertical x = 0.

To say that two lines intersect is to say that there is one point I : (x, y) that belongs to both
lines. Visually (i.e., geometrically) two lines may:

(a) Intersect at only one shared point, thus only one I solution.
(b) Be parallel, thus no shared points.
(c) Be on top of each other (an identity), and thus, all points are shared, there is an infinity of
I solutions.

There are two types of intersects:

1. Line intersects: both lines are assumed infinitely long; that is to say they consist of infinitely
many points whose coordinates x, y are computed as y = ax+b, a, b ∈ R. In this example,
analytical forms of the two lines are

y = 1 therefore, x ∈ (−∞, +∞) and y = 1 (6.7)

x = 0 therefore, x = 0 and y ∈ (−∞, +∞) (6.8)

in respect to (6.8) Eq. (6.7) is possible only for x = 0, therefore (x, y) = (0, 1) is their
shared point (i.e., intersect). At the same time, in respect to (6.7) Eq. (6.8) is possible only
for y = 1; therefore, (x, y) = (0, 1) is their shared point (i.e., intersect).
In conclusion, as two results are not contradictory, the line–line intersect point is I : (0, 1);
see Fig. 6.21.

Fig. 6.21 P.6.69, intersect point at

(0, 1) of x = 0 and y = 1 lines in
comparison to the intersect of line
segments A B and C D
240 6 Analytic Geometry

2. Line segment intersects: at least one of the two lines is limited to the interval between given
points, i.e., x ∈ (x1 , x2 ) and y ∈ (y1 , y2 ) intervals that define the line interval. That being
the case, if exists, the intersect point must be confined within these x and y intervals as

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 1); B : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 1)

∴ segment is limited within intervals
x ∈ (x2 , x1 ) = (−1, 1) and
y ∈ (y2 , y1 ) = (1, 1) ⇒ y = 1

as well as

C : (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 0); D : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 2)

∴ segment is limited within intervals
x ∈ (x2 , x1 ) = (0, 0) ⇒ x = 0 and
y ∈ (y2 , y1 ) = (2, 0)

Coordinate x = 0 of I : (0, 1) is within the x ∈ (−1, 1) interval, as well as the y = 1

coordinate that is within the y ∈ (0, 2) interval; thus, I : (0, 1) point is shared by these
two segments; see Fig. 6.21.

6.70. Following up discussion in A.6.69, given two pairs of points A : (−1, 1) with B :
(1, 1) and C : (2, 0) with D : (2, 2), analytical forms of these two lines are

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 1); B : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 1)

 
A : y1 = ax1 + b ∴ 1 = a(−1) + b 2b = 2 ⇒b=1
∴
B : y2 = ax2 + b ∴ 1 = a(1) + b ∴ 1 = a(−1) + 1 ⇒ a = 0 ∴ y = 1

evidently it is a horizontal line, and the second line is

C : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 0); D : (x2 , y2 ) = (2, 2)


C : y1 = ax1 + b ∴ 0 = a(2) + b
∴ x = 2 and 0 = 2 ∴ i.e., vertical line at x = 2
D : y2 = ax2 + b ∴ 2 = a(2) + b

In conclusion, the given two pairs of points define two lines: one horizontal y = 1 and one
vertical x = 2.

Intersects points are as follows.

1. Line intersects: both lines are assumed infinitely long, as

y = 1 therefore, x ∈ (−∞, +∞) and y = 1 (6.9)

6.4 Intersects 241

Fig. 6.22 P.6.70, intersect point at

(2, 0) is valid for two lines x = 2 and
y = 1. However, the line segment
A B , x ∈ (−1, 1) does not include
point (2, 0); thus, the given two line
segments do not intersect

x = 2 therefore, x = 2 and y ∈ (−∞, +∞) (6.10)

in respect to (6.10) Eq. (6.9) is possible only for x = 2, therefore (x, y) = (2, 1). At the
same time, in respect to (6.9) Eq. (6.10) is possible only for y = 1; therefore, (x, y) =
(2, 1).
In conclusion, as two results are not contradictory, the line–line intersect point is I : (2, 1);
see Fig. 6.22.
2. Line segment intersects: as there is only one intersect point I : (2, 1) for given lines, it
must be either the same intersect point for these two line segments, or they do not intersect.
If exists, the intersect point must be confined within these x and y intervals as

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 1); B : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 1)

∴ segment is limited within intervals
x ∈ (x2 , x1 ) = (−1, 1) and
y ∈ (y2 , y1 ) = (1, 1) ⇒ y = 1

The second line is at

C : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 0); D : (x2 , y2 ) = (2, 2)

∴ segment is limited within intervals
x ∈ (x2 , x1 ) = (2, 2) ⇒ x = 2 and
y ∈ (y2 , y1 ) = (2, 0)

In conclusion, x coordinate of point I : (2, 1) is outside of x ∈ (−1, 1) interval; thus,

these two line segments do not share any point; see Fig. 6.22.

6.71. Given two pairs of points A : (0, 2) with B : (0, 0) and C : (2, 0) with D : (2, 2),
then following up discussions in A.6.69 to A.6.70, evidently these two lines are both vertical
(thus, parallel) and separated; one is at x = 0 and one at x = 2. That being the case, there are
no intersect points neither line–line nor (consequently) for their line intervals.
242 6 Analytic Geometry

6.72. Given two pairs of points A : (0, 2) with B : (2, 2) and C : (2, 0) with D : (0, 0), then
following up discussions in A.6.69 to A.6.71, evidently these two lines are both horizontal
(thus, parallel) and separated; one at y = 0 and one at y = 2. That being the case, there are no
intersect points neither line–line nor (consequently) for their line intervals.

6.73. Given two pairs of points A : (−1, 0) with B : (1, 2) and C : (1, 1) with D : (0, 1),
then

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 0); B : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 2) ∴ segment is limited within intervals

x ∈ (x2 , x1 ) = (−1, 1) and y ∈ (y2 , y1 ) = (0, 2)

and the line equation is


A : y1 = ax1 + b ∴ 0 = a(−1) + b
∴ 2a = 2 ⇒ a = 1 ∴ b = 1
B : y2 = ax2 + b ∴ 2 = a(1) + b

therefore, this line equation is y = x + 1 . The second line is at

C : (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 1); D : (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 1) ∴ segment is limited within intervals

x ∈ (x2 , x1 ) = (0, 1) and y ∈ (y2 , y1 ) = (1, 1) ⇒ y = 1

1. Line intersects: these two lines, y = 1 and y = x + 1, share the same y coordinate at

y =1
∴ x + 1 = 1 ⇒ x = 0 and y = 1
y =x+1

In conclusion, there is only one line–line intersect point at I : (0, 1).

2. Line segment intersects: as there are the following limitations derived above, then

x ∈ (−1, 1)
⇒ x ∈ (0, 1) (it satisfies both limits)
x ∈ (0, 1)
and

y ∈ (0, 2)
⇒ y ∈ (0, 2) (it satisfies both limits)
y =1

Thus, if the I : (0, 1) point is within the x and y intervals, then it is also a segment–
segment intersect. As x ∈ (0, 1) and y ∈ (0, 2), it follows that I : (0, 1) is the only
segment–segment intersect point as well (it is the first point in the x ∈ (0, 1) interval).
6.4 Intersects 243

6.74. Given two pairs of points A : (−1, 3) with B : (1, 2) and C : (2, 0) with D : (1, −1),
then

A : (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 3); B : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, 2) ∴ segment is limited within intervals

x ∈ (x2 , x1 ) = (−1, 1) and y ∈ (y2 , y1 ) = (2, 3)

and the line equation is


A : y1 = ax1 + b ∴ 3 = a(−1) + b 1 5
∴ 2a = −1 ⇒ a = − ∴ b=
B : y2 = ax2 + b ∴ 2 = a(1) + b 2 2

therefore, this line equation is y = −x/2 + 5/2 . The second line is at

C : (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 0); D : (x2 , y2 ) = (1, −1) ∴ segment is limited within intervals
x ∈ (x2 , x1 ) = (1, 2) and y ∈ (y2 , y1 ) = (−1, 0)

and the line equation is


C : y1 = ax1 + b ∴ 0 = a(2) + b
∴ a = 1 ∴ b = −2
D : y2 = ax2 + b ∴ −1 = a(1) + b

therefore, this line equation is y = x − 2

1. Line intersects: these two lines, y = −x/2 + 5/2 and y = x − 2, share the same (x, y)
points at
⎫
x 5⎪
y =− + ⎬ x 5
2 2 ∴ x − 2 = − + ⇒ x = 3 and y = 1
⎪
=x−2 ⎭
2 2
y

In conclusion, there is one line–line intersect point at I : (3, 1).

2. Line segment intersects: as there are the following limitations derived above, then

x ∈ (−1, 1)
I : (3, 1) ⇒ x = 1 (it satisfies both limits)
x ∈ (1, 2)
and

y ∈ (2, 3)
I : (3, 1) ⇒ y = 1 (none y satisfies both limits)
y ∈ (−1, 0)

Thus, I : (3, 1) is outside of both bounding intervals; therefore, there is no segment–

segment intersect point.
244 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.23 P.6.75, illustration of the

equivalence between Thales’ and
Pythagoras’ theorems. The explicit
form of the circle equation is positive
for y ≥ 0 and negative for y ≤ 0
because of the square root property.
Side lengths of a right triangle are all
positive numbers; thus, only positive
(principal) value of the square root is
taken

6.75. The analytical equation of a circle centered at (0, 0) is in the same form as Pythagoras’
theorem:

x 2 + y 2 = r 2 a circle centered at (0, 0) whose radius is r

a 2 + b2 = c2 Pythagorian triangle whose hypotenuse equal c

where A : (x, y) is an arbitrary point on circle, r is its radius, and (a, b, c) are the catheti and
hypotenuse of the right triangle at point B : (a, b); see Fig. 6.23.

Reminder: Recall the property of square root operation:

 √
y = + f (x)
y = f (x) ⇒
2
√
y = − f (x)

that is to say, √
the square root
√ operation generates two solutions, one positive and one
negative, e.g., 4 = 2 and 4 = −2 because (±2)2 = 4.

If the circle equation is to be written explicitly, there are two equations—one for the upper
half-circle (y ≥ 0) and one for the lower half-circle (y ≤ 0) (see Fig. 6.23)—as

y = + r 2 − x2

y = − r 2 − x2

In conclusion, x 2 + y 2 = 1 is the equation of a circle whose r = 1 and its center is at the origin
(0, 0).
Intersect points with the x, y axes are

x = 0 x 2 + y 2 = 1 ∴ y 2 = 1 ∴ y = ±1
6.4 Intersects 245

y = 0 x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ x2 = 1 ∴ x ± 1

that is to say, there are two intersect points with the x-axis (where y = 0) at (1, 0) and (−1, 0).
Also, there are two intersect points with the y-axis (where x = 0) at (0, −1) and (0, 1).

6.76. Following up to discussion in A.6.75,

x 2 + y 2 = 22

is the equation of a circle whose r = 2 and its center is at the origin (0, 0). Intersect points
with x, y axes are

x = 0 x 2 + y 2 = 4 ∴ y 2 = 4 ∴ y = ±2
y = 0 x2 + y2 = 4 ∴ x2 = 4 ∴ x ± 2

that is to say, there are two intersect points with the x-axis (where y = 0) at (2, 0) and (−2, 0).
Also, there are two intersect points with the y-axis (where x = 0) at (0, −2) and (0, 2).

6.77. Recall that adding a constant to the x or y coordinate simply translates that function
horizontally or vertically, respectively. Thus, the given circle equation may be written in
general form as

(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = 12
(x − 1)2 + (y − 0)2 = 12

which is to say, its radius is r = 1 and the circle center is at x − 1 = 0 ∴ x0 = 1 and y0 = 0

coordinates, i.e., it is translated horizontally to O : (1, 0); see Fig. 6.24. Intersect points are
calculated at x = 0 and y = 0 as

x = 0 : (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1 ∴ (−1)2 + y 2 = 1 ⇒ y = 0

y = 0 : (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1 ∴ (x − 1)2 = 1 ∴ x − 1 = ±1 ⇒ x1 = 0 and x1 = 2

In summary, there is only one intersect point at the y-axis at (0, 0) and two intersect points at
the x-axis at (0, 0) and (2, 0).

Reminder: a circle with radius r may be shifted from the origin point (x, y) = (0, 0) to
an arbitrary (x, y) = (a, b) position by adding these constants to the (x, y) coordinates
as

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2

where constants (a, b) ∈ R themselves may be either positive or negative. Evidently, by

setting a = 0 and b = 0 the circle is translated back to the origin.
246 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.24 P.6.77, the general form of

a circle equation is written as follows:
(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = r 2 explicitly
states that the circle radius equals r
and its center is translated to
O : (x0 , y0 ) coordinates. Note that by
themselves x0 , y0 numbers may be
zero, positive or negative; however,
the preceding minus signs in (x − x0 )
and (y − y0 ) are extra

6.78. Adding a constant to x or y coordinate simply translates that function horizontally or

vertically respectively. Thus, the given circle equation

x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 12

states that the circle radius is r = 1 and the circle center is at x = 0 and y +1 = 0 ∴ y = −1
coordinates, i.e., it is translated down to O : (0, −1). Intersect points are calculated at x = 0
and y = 0 as

x = 0 : x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ y + 1 = ±1 ⇒ y1 = 0 and y1 = −2

y = 0 : x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ x 2 + 12 = 1 ⇒ x = 0

In summary, there is only one intersect point at the x-axis at (0, 0) and two intersect points at
the y-axis at (0, 0) and (0, −2).

6.79. The given circle equation

(x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 12

states that the circle radius is r = 1 and the circle center is at x + 1 = 0 ∴ x = −1 and
y + 1 = 0 ∴ y = −1 coordinates, i.e., it is shifted vertically down and horizontally left to
O : (−1, −1). Intersect points are calculated at x = 0 and y = 0 as

x = 0 : (x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ 12 + (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ y + 1 = 0 ⇒ y = −1

y = 0 : (x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ (x + 1)2 + 12 = 1 ∴ x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = −1

In summary, there are only two intersect points in total, one with the x-axis at (−1, 0) and one
with the y-axis at (0, −1).
6.4 Intersects 247

6.80. The given circle equation

(x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 12

states that the circle radius is r = 1 and the circle center is at x − 2 = 0 ∴ x = 2, and
y + 1 = 0 ∴ y = −1 coordinates, i.e., it is shifted to O : (2, −1). Intersect points are
calculated at x = 0 and y = 0 as

x = 0 : (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ (−2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1

∴ (y + 1)2 = −3 ⇒ no real solution
y = 0 : (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ (x − 2)2 + 12 = 1 ∴ x − 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 2

In summary, there is only one intersect point with x-axis at (2, 0).

6.81. The given circle equation

(x − 4)2 + (y − 2)2 = 42

states that the circle radius is r = 4 and the circle center is at x − 4 = 0 ∴ x = 4, and
y − 2 = 0 ∴ y = 2 coordinates, i.e., it is translated to O : (4, 2). Intersect points are
calculated at x = 0 and y = 0 as

x = 0 : (x − 4)2 + (y − 2)2 = 16 ∴ (−4)2 + (y − 2)2 = 16 ∴ (y − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ y = 2

y = 0 : (x − 4)2 + (y − 2)2 = 16 ∴ (x − 4)2 + (−2)2 = 16

√
∴ (x − 4)2 = 12 ⇒ x = 4 ± 2 3

In summary, there is√only one intersect

√point at the y-axis at (0, 2) and two intersect points at
the x-axis at (4 − 2 3, 0) and (4 + 2 3, 0).

6.82. The given circle equation

(x − 3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 52

states that the circle radius is r = 5 and the circle center is at x − 3 = 0 ∴ x = 3, and
y − 4 = 0 ∴ y = 4 coordinates, i.e., it is translated to O : (3, 4). Intersect points are
calculated at x = 0 and y = 0 as

x = 0 : (x − 3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 25 ∴ (−3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 25 ∴ (y − 4)2 = 16

⇒ y = 4 ± 4 ∴ y1 = 0 , y2 = 8

y = 0 : (x − 3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 25 ∴ (x − 3)2 + (−4)2 = 25 ∴ (x − 3)2 = 9

⇒ x = 3 ± 3 ∴ x1 = 0 , x2 = 6
248 6 Analytic Geometry

In summary, there is two intersect points with x-axis at (0, 0) and (6, 0), and two intersect
points with y-axis at (0, 0) and (0, 8).

6.83. Given the circle and line

(a) Intersect points are

√ 
x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ y = ± 1 − x2 
∴ ± 1 − x 2 = x ∴ 1 − x 2 = x 2 ∴ 2x 2 = 1
−x + y =0 ∴ y=x
√
2
∴ x1,2 =±
2

as √y = √ x, then there
√ are√ two intersect points between this circle and line:
(− 2/2, − 2/2) and ( 2/2, 2/2); see Fig. 6.25.
(b) The arc length: as y = x and r = 1, then the center of this circle at (0, 0) is also on y = x
line; in other words this circuit is split in two half-circles; thus, each arc is long:

l = rθ = r π = π
def r=1

(c) Area of the triangle bound by the two intersection points and center: as two intersect and
center points are aligned, this is a trivial case of the “side view” of a triangle, in other
words a line; thus, area P = 0.
(d) Area of the circular sector: equals half-circle (see A.6.64), i.e.,

r 2θ r 2 π r=1 π
P = = =
def

2 2 2

(e) Area of the circular segment : as a circle diameter is the longest chord, then in this trivial
case the area between the chord and arc is the same as the area of circular sector, P = π/2.
(f) Coefficients of tangent lines at these two intersection points: the equation of the intersect
line is y = x; therefore, its slope coefficient is a = 1. By definition, the tangent line yt
is perpendicular; that is to say its slope coefficient is at = −1, and yt = −x. As y = x
cuts the circle in two symmetrical halves, there are two parallel tangent lines, one at each
intersect point.

6.84. Given the circle and line

(a) Intersect points are

√ 
x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 = 1 ∴ (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1 ∴ yc = ± x(2 − x)
⇒
x+y =0 ∴ yl = −x
 
∴ x coordinate is the intersect of two lines

yc = yl ∴ ± x(2 − x) = −x ∴ 2x − x 2 = x 2 ∴ 2x(x − 1) = 0 ∴ x1 = 0, x2 = 1
6.4 Intersects 249

Fig. 6.25 P.6.83, circle at the origin

x 2 + y 2 = 1 and line −x + y = 0
intersect at two points. Tangent lines
are perpendicular to the associated
radius. The longest chord is
equivalent to the circle diameter

That is to say, circle center is at O : (1, 0). As y = −x and r = 1, then the y coordinates
of two intersect points between this circle and line (see Fig. 6.26) are

(x, y) = (0, 0) : ∴ x = 0 and y = −x ⇒ y = 0 intersect point is at (0, 0)

(x, y) = (1, −1) : ∴ x = 1 and y = −x ⇒ y = −1 intersect point is at (1, −1)

(b) The arc length: by inspection of Fig. 6.26, evidently the arc angle is θ = π/2; thus, the arc
length is
π
s=rθ =
def r=1

2
(c) Area of the triangle bound by the two intersection points and center: this right triangle
is formed by two catheti of length a = 1 and b = 1, and then the right triangle area is
P = a b/2 = 1/2.
(d) Area of the circular sector: the central arc angle is π/2; thus, the circular sector area is
1/4 of the full disk area, i.e., P = (r 2 π )/4 = π/4.
(e) Area of the circular segment: as already calculated areas of the circular sector, as well
as the associated triangle, then the desired area is computed as the difference of these
two (imagine the leftover after the right triangle is cut off from the pizza-shaped circular
sector), i.e.,

π 1 π −2
P = − =
4 2 4

(f) Coefficients of tangent lines at these two intersection points: as the circle touches the y-
axis at (0, 0), that is to say that the y-axis is its tangent, i.e., the vertical x = 0 line. The
circle also touches the (1, −1) point; that is to say that y = −1 is its horizontal tangent.

6.85. General form of circle equation is derived as

 
x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 + 2y +1 = 0 +1 (a + b)2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2
(x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1
250 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.26 P.6.84, intersect points

form 90◦ angle relative to the circle
center at (1, 0). The area of the
circular segment is derived as a
leftover cutout from the associated
circular sector left after the isosceles
triangle is removed

 2  2
x − (−1) + y − (−1) = ( 1)2

which states t that r = 1 and the circle center is at (x, y) = (−1, −1).

(a) Thus, the x coordinates of circle and line intersect points are
 
(x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ y1 = −1 ± 1 − (x + 1)2
⇒
x+y = −1 ∴ y2 = −x − 1

by the equality of two lines


y1 = y2 ∴ −1 ± 1 − (x + 1)2 = −x − 1

± 1 − (x + 1)2 = −x
1 − (x + 1)2 = x 2
1
− x 2 = x 2 + 2x + 1

2x(x + 1) = 0 ∴ x1 = 0, x2 = −1

which leads into the y coordinate of two intersect points (see Fig. 6.27) as

x1 = 0 ∴ y = −x − 1 = −1 ∴ intersect point is at (0, −1)

x=0

x2 = −1 ∴ y = −x − 1 = 0 ∴
x=-1
intersect point is at (−1, 0)

(b) The arc length: as y = −1 − x and r = 1, by inspection of Fig. 6.27, evidently the arc
angle is θ = π/2; thus, the arc length is s = r θ = π/2.
(c) Area of the triangle bound by the two intersection points and center: this right triangle
is formed by two catheti of length a = 1 and b = 1, and then the right triangle area is
P = a b/2 = 1/2.
(d) Area of the circular sector: the arc angle is π/2; thus, the circular sector area is 1/4 of the
circle area, i.e., P = (r 2 π )/4 = π/4.
6.4 Intersects 251

Fig. 6.27 P.6.85, intersect points

form 90◦ angle relative to the circle
center at (−1, −1). The area of the
circular segment is derived as a
leftover cutout from the associated
circular sector left after the isosceles
triangle is removed

(e) Area of the circular segment: as already calculated areas of the circular sector as well as
the associated triangle, then the area of the circular segment is computed as the difference
of these two areas as

π 1 π −2
P = − =
4 2 4

(f) Coefficients of tangent lines at these two intersection points: as the circle touches the y-
axis at (0, −1), that is to say that the y-axis is its tangent, i.e., it is a vertical x = 0 line.
The circle also touches the (−1, 0) point; that is to say that y = 0 is its horizontal tangent.

6.86. General form of circle equation is derived as

(x − 2)2 + y 2 + 2y +1 = 0 +1
(x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1

which states that r = 1 and the circle center is at (x, y) = (2, −1). Given the circle and line
intersect as
 
(x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 ∴ y1 = −1 ± 1 − (x − 2)2
⇒
y2 = 1

by the equality of two lines


y1 = y2 ∴ −1 ± 1 − (x − 2)2 = 1

± 1 − (x − 2)2 = 2
1 − (x − 2)2 = 4
(x − 2)2 = −3 ∴ no real solution

and therefore there are no intersect points, consequently, no arc, no circular sector, etc.
252 6 Analytic Geometry

6.87. General form of circle equation is derived as

(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 4 ∴ (x − 2)2 + (y − 0)2 = 22

thus, r = 2 and the circle center is at (x, y) = (2, 0). Given the circle and line intersect as
 ⎫
(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 4 ∴ y1 = ± 4 − (x − 2)2 ⎬
√ √ ⇒
y + x = 2(1 + 2) ∴ y2 = 2(1 + 2) − x ⎭

by the equality of two lines, the x coordinate of the intersect points is

 √
y1 = y2 ∴ ± 4 − (x − 2)2 = 2(1 + 2) − x
 √ 2
4 − (x − 2)2 = 2(1 + 2) − x
 √   √ 
−x 2 + 4x = x 2 − 4 1 + 2 x + 4 2 2 + 3
 √   √ 
0 = 2x 2 − 4 1 + 2 x − 4x + 4 2 2 + 3
 √   √ 
2
x 2 − 4
2 2 + 2 x + 4
2 2 2 + 3 = 0
 √ 2 √
x − ( 2 + 2) = 0 x1,2 = 2 + 2
√ 
which is to say that the circle and line share only one double point at x1,2 = 2 + 2 whose
y coordinate is then
√  √ √  √
x1,2 = 2+2 ∴ y + x = 2(1 + 2) ∴ y + 2 + 2 = 2(1 + 2)
√ √  √
y = 2(1 + 2) − 2 + 2 = 2
√  √ 
∴ intersect point is at 2+2 , 2

As there is only one intersect point between y1 circle and y2 line, that is to say at this point
this line is tangent to the circle, and therefore, there are no intersect areas.

6.88. As the general form given circle is

(x − 2)2 + (y − 2)2 = 22

thus r = 2 and the circle center is at O : (2, 2). Line 3x + 4y = 14 at x = 2 results in

14 − 3x
3x + 4y = 14 ∴ y = ∴ y=2
x=2

which is to say that this line includes the circle’s center at O : (2, 2) or, in other words, the
circle is split in half.
6.4 Intersects 253

(a) Circle and line intersect as

 ⎫
(x − 2)2 + (y − 2)2 = 4 ∴ y1 = 2 ± 4 − (x − 2)2 ⎪
⎬
14 − 3x ⇒
y2 = ⎪
⎭
4

by the equality of two lines, x coordinates of intersect points are

 14 − 3x
2± 4 − (x − 2)2 =
4
 6 − 3x
± 4 − (x − 2)2 =
4
 
6 − 3x 2
4 − (x − 2) =
2
4
9 2
−x 2 + 4x = (x − 4x + 4)
16
−16x 2 + 64x = 9x 2 − 36x + 36
2 18
25x 2 − 100x + 36 = 0 ∴ x1 = , x2 =
5 5

Coordinates of two intersect points are therefore

 
2 14 − 3x x=2/5 16 2 16
x1 = ∴ y= = ∴ intersect point is at ,
5 4 5 5 5
 
18 14 − 3x x=18/5 4 18 4
x2 = ∴ y= = ∴ intersect point is at ,
5 4 5 5 5

(b) The arc length: as r = 2 and this circle is cut in half, thus each arc is l = rπ = 2π .
(c) Area of the triangle bound by the two intersection points and center: as two intersect and
center are aligned, this is a trivial case of only a line projection of triangle; thus, area
P = 0.
(d) Area of the circular sector: as the circle is cut in half, the area of each circular sector is
P = r 2 π/2 = 2π .
(e) Area of the circular segment: in this trivial case as well as the circular sector, P = 2π .
(f) Coefficients of tangent lines at these two intersection points: the slope of the intersect line
is a = −3/4; therefore, the slopes of both tangent are a = 4/3.

6.89. Given two circles c1 : x 2 + y 2 = 1 and c2 : (x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = 1, evidently,

they are centered at (0, 0) and (1, 1), respectively, and both radius r = 1; see Fig. 6.28.
Furthermore, their intersect points with x- and y-axes, respectively, are as follows.

x-axis, i.e., y = 0:

x 2 + y 2 = 1 ∴ x 2 = 1 ∴ x = ±1 ∴ (−1, 0) and (1, 0)

y=0
254 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.28 P.6.89, intersect area of

two circles

(x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = 1 ∴ (x − 1)2 + 1
= 1
0 ∴ x = 1 ∴ (1, 0)

y=0

y-axis, i.e., x = 0:

x 2 + y 2 = 1 ∴ y 2 = 1 ∴ y = ±1 ∴ (0, −1) and (0, 1)

x=0

(x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = 1 ∴ (y − 1)2 + 1
= 1
0 ∴ y = 1 ∴ (0, 1)

x=0

As it happens, these two circles intersect at (0, 1) and (1, 0) points.

1. Chord: given two intersect points (0, 1) and (1, 0), the corresponding chord is therefore
the
√ hypotenuse √ of the right triangle whose both catheti a = b = 1, which is to say h =
a 2 + b2 = 2.
2. Overlapping area: consists of two segments bound by the chord; each segment area is
calculated (see A.6.85) as area of the circular sector minus the corresponding triangle
area. The right triangle sets θ = π/2, and thus, sector area is P1 = r 2 θ/2 = π/4. The
corresponding triangle area is P = ab/2 = 1/2 so that the total overlapping area P is
 
π −2 π −2
P = 2
=
4
2 2
√ √
6.90. Given two circles c1 : x 2√+ y 2 √ = 1 and c2 : (x − 2)2 + (y + 2)2 = 1, evidently,
c1 is centered at (0, 0) and c2 at ( 2, − 2), respectively, and both radius r = 1. Furthermore,
their intersect points are derived as follows:

x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ y = ± 1 − x2
√ 2 √ √ √
(x − 2) + (y + 2)2 = 1 ∴ y = ± 1 − (x − 2)2 − 2

equality of these two equations is

 √ √  
± 1 − x 2 = ± 1 − (x − 2)2 − 2 both sides squared, as
6.4 Intersects 255

√ 2 √ √
1 − x 2 = 1 − (x − 2) + 2 − 2 1 − (x − 2)2 2
√ √ √
1
− x 2 0 = −22 −x 2 + 2 2 x − 1 − x 2 + 2x 2 + 1

 
√ √
0 = −2 2 −x 2 + 2 2x − 1 − x

that is to say

√ √ √
−x 2 + 2 2x − 1 = x ∴ −x 2 + 2 2x − 1 = x 2 ∴ 2x 2 − 2 2x + 1 = 0
√
1 √ 2 2
∴ 2x − 2 ∴ x1,2 =
2 2

which means there is only one intersect point at the y coordinate

 √ 2  √
2 1 2
x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ + y2 = 1 ∴ y= 1− =
2 2 2

That being the case, there are two possible positions for two circles to have only one intersect
point. Either the two circles only touch from the outside and therefore the overlapping area
equals zero or the smaller circle is completely covered by the larger circle while making the
one point contact from the inside. In that case the overlapping area is equal to the area of the
inner smaller circle.

One possible method to verify if two circles are touching from the outside is to find out if the
two centers are separated by distance equal to the sum of two radii forming a straight line.
Given the coordinates of two center points, their distance d is by Pythagoras’ theorem

√ 2 √ 2
d 2 = (x)2 + (y)2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 = ( 2−0 + (− 2−0 = 4 ∴ d = 2

which
√ is √
exactly the sum of two radii. In summary, there is only one common point
( 2/2, − 2/2) between these two circles touching from the outside; by consequence there
is zero length arc, zero area sector, and zero overlapping area.

6.91. Given two circles c1 : x 2 + y 2 = 1 and c2 : x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 4, evidently, c1 is

centered at (0, 0) with r1 = 1 and c2 at (0, −1), respectively, with r2 = 2. Furthermore, their
intersect point(s) are derived as follows:

x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ y = ± 1 − x2

x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 4 ∴ y = −1 ± 4 − x 2

by the equality of these two equations

 
± 1 − x 2 = −1 ± 4 − x 2
256 6 Analytic Geometry

   
± 4 − x 2 ± 1 − x 2 = 1 both sides squared, as
  
(4 − x 2 ) + (1 − x 2 ) + 2 (4 − x 2 )(1 − x 2 ) = 1 (+) × (+) = (+), (−) × (−) = (+)

(4 − x 2 )(1 − x 2 ) = −2 + x 2
(4 − x 2 )(1 − x 2 ) = (x 2 − 2)2

x 4 − 5x 2 + 4
= x 4 − 4x 2 + 4
∴ x2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0

that is to say the y coordinate of the intersect point(s) is

x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ 02 + y 2 = 1 ∴ y1,2 = ±1
x=0

Point (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 1) should belong to both circles as

x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ 02 + 12 = 1 
x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 4 ∴ 02 + (1 + 1)2 = 4 

therefore, it is indeed an intersect point. Then, point (x2 , y2 ) = (0, −1) also should be found
to both circles as

x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ 02 + (−1)2 = 1 
x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 4 ∴ 02 + (−1 + 1)2 = 4 ∴ 0 = 4

However, point (0, −1) is the center of c2, therefore not the intersect; see Fig. 6.29. Both
circles are centered around the x = 0 vertical axis, where the c1 domain is y ∈ (−1, 1).
Circle c2 is centered at (0, −1) with r = 2; thus, its domain is y ∈ (−3, 1). By consequence,
there is only one intersect point at (0, 1) so that the smaller circle is completely covered by
the larger circle while making the one point contact from the inside. That being the case, the
overlapping area equals the area of the smaller circle.

In summary, there is only one common point (0, 1) between these two circles touching from
the outside; by consequence there is zero length arc and zero area sector. However, the
overlapping area equal P = r12 π = π .

Fig. 6.29 P.6.91, two circles with

only one intersect point. In this case
the overlapping area is equal to the
area of the inner smaller circle
6.4 Intersects 257

6.92. Given two circles c1 : x 2 + (y − 3)2 = 1 and c2 : x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 4, evidently, c1

is centered at (0, 3) with r1 = 1 and c2 at (0, −1) with r2 = 2. As both circles are centered
around the vertical axis x = 0, then the y domain of c1 is 3−1 ≤ y1 ≤ 3+1 and its x domain is
x1 ∈ (−1, 1), that is, y1 ∈ (2, 4). At the same time the y domain of c2 is −1−2 ≤ y2 ≤ −1+2
that is, y2 ∈ (−3, 1), and its x domain is x2 ∈ (−2, 2). In conclusion, these two circles are
completely separated without any intersect points.

6.93. Given two circles c1 : x 2 + y 2 = 1 and c2 : (2x − 1)2 + (2y − 1)2 = 4, evidently c1
is centered at (0, 0) with r = 1, while the explicit form of c2 is

(2x − 1)2 + (2y − 1)2 =4

     
1 2 1 2
2 x− + 2 y− =4
2 2
 2  
1 1 2
4
x − + 4
y − = 4
1
2 2
 2  
1 1 2
x− + y− =1
2 2

that is to say, it is centered at (1/2, 1/2) with r = 1.

1. Intersect points are resolved as follows:

x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ y2 = 1 − x2

(2x − 1)2 + (2y − 1)2 = 4 ⇒

 
4x 2 − 4x + 1 + 4y 2 − 4y + 1 − 4 = 0 substitute y 2 and y

Fig. 6.30 P.6.93—two circles partially overlapping

258 6 Analytic Geometry


4x 2 − 4x − 2 + 4(1 − x 2 ) − 4 1 − x 2 = 0

1 − 2x = 2 1 − x 2
1 − 4x + 4x 2 = 4 − 4x 2
√
1± 7
8x − 4x − 3 = 0
2
∴ x1,2 =
4

y coordinates are therefore

√ 2

1± 7
x +y =1 ∴
2 2
+ y2 = 1
4
√  √
4 ± 7 4± 7
y =
2
∴ y1,2 = ±
8 8

That is to say (see Fig. 6.30a), there are two intersect points (pay attention to double ±
signs in y coordinates) as
⎛ √  √ ⎞ ⎛ √  √ ⎞
1 − 7 4 + 7 1 + 7 4 − 7⎠
(x1 , y1 ) = ⎝ , ⎠ , (x2 , y2 ) = ⎝ ,−
4 8 4 8

2. Chord: given two intersect points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ), as per Pythagoras’ theorem, the
chord length s is calculated

7 7 7
s = (x) + (y) = (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 ) = +
2 2 2 2
∴ s= 2
4 4 2

where the two catheti lengths (x)2 and (y)2 (see Fig. 6.30a) are calculated as
√ √ √ √ √
1+ 7 1− 7 1
+ 7 − 1
+ 7 7 7
x = x2 − x1 = − = = ∴ (x)2 =
4 4 4 2 4

and

√ ⎛ 
 √ ⎞2 ⎛ ⎛ √  √ ⎞⎞2
4 − 7 4 + 7 4 − 7 4 + 7 ⎠⎠
(y)2 = (y2 − y1 )2 = ⎝− − ⎠ = ⎝− 1 ⎝ +
8 8 8 8
 
(a + b)2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2 , (−1)2 = 1
√ √  √  √  √ √
4A − 7 4A 1 +  7 4− 7 4+ 7 4− 7 4+ 7
= + +2 =1+2
8A 8A 1 8 8 8 8
2
1 √ √  
=1+ (4 − 7)(4 + 7) (a − b)(a + b) = (a 2 − b2 )
8
4
6.4 Intersects 259

1√ 7
=1+ 16 − 7 ∴ (y)2 =
4 4

3. Overlapping area: consists of two symmetrical segments bound by chord s and arc l.
Each segment area is calculated as the area of the circular sector P1 = r 2 θ/2 minus the
corresponding isosceles triangle area P2 bound by chord s as the base and radii r as two
sides of equal length; see A.6.85 and Fig. 6.30b.
(a) Isosceles triangle area P2 : consists of two right triangles whose hypotenuse is r, one
cathetus is a = s/2, and the other cathetus b is calculated by Pythagoras’ theorem as
  
4r 2 − s 2 ab sb s 4r 2 − s 2
b =r −a =
2 2 2
∴ P2 = 2
= =
4 2
2 2 4
   √
1 7 4 − 72 7 7
= = =
2 2 4 64 8

(b) Circular sector P1 = r 2 θ/2: in the general case when the central angle θ = π/2,
it is necessary to recall the trigonometric definition of the sin(α) function; see Vol. I
Chap. 7.

Reminder: Given a right triangle whose hypotenuse length is c and a is the length
of the cathetus opposite to angle α, then α is derived by definition as

a a
sin α = ∴ α = arcsin
def

c c

In this example, each of the two right triangles includes one angle that is equal to θ/2
(see Fig. 6.30b), which by definition is derived as

θ def s/2 θ s/2 s/2

sin = ∴ = arcsin ∴ θ = 2 arcsin
2 r 2 r r
√
s 7
∴ θ = 2 arcsin = 2 arcsin (≈ 138.6◦ )
2 8

which should be converted in radians as per proportion of circle measured in radians

and degrees, as

138.6◦ θrad 138.6◦

= ∴ θ rad = 2π ≈ 2.42 rad
360◦ 2π 360◦

therefore, the circular sector area P1 is calculated (with the angle in rad) as

θ 7
P1 = r2
= arcsin , (≈ 1.21)
2 8
260 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.31 P.6.94—irregular overlapping surface between two circles

thus, for a given chord and r = 1 segment area Pθ is

 √
7 7
Pθ = P1 − P2 = arcsin − , (≈ 0.88)
8 8

In conclusion, the total overlapping area consists of two symmetrical Pθ areas, i.e.
  √ 
7 7
P =2 arcsin − , (≈ 1.76)
8 8

6.94. Given two circles c1 : x 2 + y 2 = 1 and c2 : (x − 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 4, evidently

c1 is centered at (0, 0) with r = 1, and c2 is centered at (1, −1) with r = 2. In reference to
Fig. 6.31a, the smaller circle c1 is overlapped with the larger circle c2 , except for the crescent-
shaped area s in between the two arcs over the same chord. These two arcs, however, are set by
two different angles θ1 and θ2 ; see Fig. 6.31b. This example may be resolved by the following
calculation steps:

1. Intersect point(s) coordinates

2. Chord length
3. Segment area of smaller circle, r = 1
4. Segment area of the larger circle, r = 2
5. Area of the crescent-shaped area Ps
6. The total area equals to smaller circle area minus Ps

which gives the overlapping area between these two circles as outlined in Fig. 6.31a.

1. Intersect points coordinates are resolved as by equalizing the two circle curves, as

x2 + y2 = 1 ∴ y2 = 1 − x2
6.4 Intersects 261

(x − 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 4

 
x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 + 2y + 1 − 4 = 0 substitute y 2 and y

x 2 − 2x − 2 + (1 − x 2 ) + 2 1 − x 2 = 0

−(1 + 2x) = −2 1 − x 2
1 + 4x + 4x 2 = 4 − 4x 2
√
−1 ± 7
8x + 4x − 3 = 0
2
∴ x1,2 =
4

and y coordinate are therefore,

 √ 2
−1 ± 7
x +y =1 ∴
2 2
+ y2 = 1
4
√  √
4± 7 4± 7
y =
2
∴ y1,2 = ±
8 8

In summary, there are two intersect points (pay attention to double ± signs in y1,2
coordinates; they are symmetric) as
⎛ √  √ ⎞ ⎛ √  √ ⎞
−1 − 7 4 − 7⎠ −1 + 7 4 + 7⎠
(x1 , y1 ) = ⎝ ,− , (x2 , y2 ) = ⎝ ,
4 8 4 8

2. Chord length: given two intersect points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) (see Fig. 6.31a), the chord
length l is calculated as

7 7 7
l = (x) + (y) = (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 ) = +
2 2 2 2
∴ l= 2
4 4 2

where the two catheti lengths (x)2 and (y)2 were calculated as
√ √ √ √ √
−1 + 7 −1 − 7 −1
+ 7 + 1
+ 7 7 7
x = x2 − x1 = − = = ∴ (x)2 =
4 4 4 2 4

and

√ ⎛ √ ⎞2 ⎛ √  √ ⎞2
4 + 7 4 − 7 4 − 7 4 + 7⎠
(y)2 = (y2 − y1 )2 = ⎝ + ⎠ =⎝ +
8 8 8 8
 
(a + b)2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2 , (−1)2 = 1
262 6 Analytic Geometry

√ √  √  √  √ √
4A −  7 4A 1 +  7 4− 7 4+ 7 4− 7 4+ 7
= + +2 =1+2
8A 8A 1 8 8 8 8
2
1 √ √  
=1+ (4 − 7)(4 + 7) (a − b)(a + b) = (a 2 − b2 )
8
4
1√ 7
=1+ 16 − 7 ∴ (y)2 =
4 4

3. Segment area of smaller circle P , with r1 = 1 is calculated as the area of the circular sector
P1 = r1 θ1 minus the corresponding isosceles triangle area P12 bound by chord l as the base
and radii r1 as two sides of equal length; see A.6.93 and Fig. 6.31b.
(a) Isosceles triangle area P12 : consists of two right triangles whose hypotenuse is r1 , one
cathetus is a = l/2, and the other cathetus b is calculated by Pythagoras’ theorem as
  2 
1 7 1 1
b =
2
r12 −a =1−
2
= ∴ b=
2 2 8 8
   √
ab lb 1 7 1 1 7 7
∴ P12 = 2
= = = =
2
2 2 2 8 2 16 8

(b) Circular sector P1 = r12 θ1 /2: where θ is in rad. In general case when the central angle
θ = π/2, it is necessary to recall the trigonometric definition of the sin(α) function; see
Vol. I Chap. 7. Here, each of the two right triangles includes one angle that is equal to
θ1 /2 (see Fig. 6.31b), which by definition is derived as

θ1 def l/2 θ1 l/2 l/2

sin = ∴ = arcsin ∴ θ1 = 2 arcsin
2 r1 2 r1 r1

7
∴ θ1 = 2 arcsin (≈ 138.6◦ )
8

which should be converted in radians as per proportion of circle measured in radians

and degrees, as

138.6◦ θrad 138.6◦

= ∴ θ rad = 2π ≈ 2.42 rad
360◦ 2π 360◦

therefore, the circular sector area P1 is calculated (with the angle in rad) as

θ1 7
P1 = r12 = arcsin , (≈ 1.21)
2 8

thus, for a given chord and r1 = 1 segment area Pθ1 is

 √
7 7
Pθ1 = P1 − P12 = arcsin − , (≈ 0.88)
8 8
6.4 Intersects 263

4. Segment area of the larger circle P , with r2 = 2 is calculated as the area of the circular
sector P2 = r2 θ2 minus the corresponding isosceles triangle area P22 bound by chord l as
the base and radii r2 as two sides of equal length; see A.6.85 and Fig. 6.31b.
(a) Isosceles triangle area P22 : consists of two right triangles whose hypotenuse is r2 , one
cathetus is a = l/2, and the other cathetus b is calculated by Pythagoras’ theorem as
  2 
1 7 1 25
b =
2
r22 −a =4−
2
= ∴ b=
2 2 8 8
   √
ab lb 1 7 25 1 175 5 7
P22 = 2
= = = =
2
2 2 2 8 2 16 8

(b) Circular sector P2 = r22 θ2 /2: where θ is in rad. Here, each of the two right triangles
includes one angle that is equal θ2 /2 (see Fig. 6.31b), which by definition is derived as

θ2 def l/2 θ2 l/2 l/2

sin = ∴ = arcsin ∴ θ2 = 2 arcsin
2 r2 2 r2 r2

7
∴ θ2 = 2 arcsin (≈ 55.8◦ )
32

which should be converted in radians as per proportion of circle measured in radians

and degrees, as

138.6◦ θrad 55.8◦

◦
= ∴ θrad = 2π ≈ 0.97 rad
360 2π 360◦

therefore, the circular sector area P2 is calculated (with the angle in rad) as

θ2 7
P2 = r22 = 4 arcsin , (≈ 1.95)
2 32

thus, for a given chord and r2 = 2 segment area Pθ2 is

 √
7 5 7
Pθ2 = P2 − P22 = 4 arcsin − , (≈ 0.29)
32 8

5. Area of the crescent-shaped area Ps : is the difference between the larger segment (with
r = 2) and smaller segment (with r = 1), as so that
√  √
7 5 7 7 7
Ps = Pθ2 − Pθ1 = 4 arcsin − − arcsin +
32 8 8 8
  √
7 7 4 7
= 4 arcsin − arcsin − ≈ 0.59
32 8 8

6. Smaller circle area minus Ps : finally, the nonoverlapped crescent-shaped area Ps should be
deduced from the smaller circle area; thus, the total overlapping area P is
264 6 Analytic Geometry

  √
7 7 4 7
P = r12 π − Ps = π − 4 arcsin + arcsin + ≈ 2.55
32 8 8

which may be very roughly visually estimated by inspection of Fig. 6.31b.

6.95. Given yt = px + 10 and x 2 + y 2 = 20, it is to say that slope of tangent line yt is

p, and that circle whose r 2 = 20 is centered at the origin (0, 0). In the context of analytic
geometry and Pythagoras’ theorem, tangent lines to circle may be resolved by exploiting the
right triangle and circle properties; see Fig. 6.32a.

1. Tangent line yt = px + n, p, n ∈ R, whose slope is therefore p, intersects the horizontal

axis at point x0 when yt = 0, as

n
yt = px + n ∴ for yt = 0 ∴ x0 = −
p

2. Radius line segment yr whose slope is m connects the origin O : (0, 0) and P : (a, b)
points is

b
yr = mx = x
a

and it is perpendicular to tangent line yt , that is to say

1 a n n b
p=− =− ⇒ x0 = − = =n
m b p a/b a

3. Circle: coordinates of point P : (x, y) = (a, b) may be derived from the circle equation as

x2 + y2 = r 2
 
x · x + y · y = r2 at point P : (x, y) = (a, b) then for
r2
y=0 ∴ ax0 + b(0) = r 2 ∴ a =
x0

and after substituting x0 ,

r2 ar 2 r2 20
a= ∴ a
=
∴ b= = =2
nb nb n 10
a

4. Right triangle at point P is

a 2 + b2 = r 2
 2
r2
a2 = r 2 − = 20 − 4 = 16 ∴ a = ±4
n
6.4 Intersects 265

Fig. 6.32 P.6.95—circle and its tangent lines

5. Tangent equations: as there are two values for a, then

a
p=− = ±2 then, yt = px + n = ±2x + 10
b

there are two tangent lines that satisfy p = ±2 parameter; see Fig. 6.32b

6.96. The explicit form of the given circle equation is

x 2 + y 2 − 4x − 6y − 12 = 0
x 2 − 2 · 2x + 22 + y 2 − 2 · 3y + 32 = 12 + 22 + 32
(x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 52 ∴ center: (2, 3), r = 5

y = 3 ± 25 − (x − 2)2

Then,

(1) Explicit form of linear equation is

4x − 12 4
4x − 3y − 12 = 0 ∴ y= ∴ its slope is m =
3 3

and its parallel line therefore must have the same slope m = 4/3.
(a) The tangent line is perpendicular to the radius r line, so that their intersect point is on
the circle. To say that the radius line yr is perpendicular to tangent is to say that its
slope is mr = −1/m and, in addition, the radius line must include the circle’s center
point C : (2, 3); thus,

3
yr = − x + n ∴ at center (x, y) = (2, 3) is has to be
4
266 6 Analytic Geometry

3 9 3 9
3=− 2+n ∴ n= ∴ yr = − x +
4 2 4 2

(b) Intersect points of radius line yr with circle are found by equating the two as
 3 9
3± 25 − (x − 2)2 = − x +
4 2
 3 3
± −x 2 + 4x + 21 = − x +
4 2
9 2 9 9
−x 2 + 4x + 21 = x − x+
16 4 4
25
(x − 6)(x + 2) = 0 x1 = −2, x2 = 6
16

where y coordinates of these two intersect points may be computed at, for example,
radius line as

3 9
x1 = −2 y1 = − (−2) + =6 ∴ (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 6)
4 2
3 9
x2 = 6 y2 = − (6) + =0 ∴ (x2 , y2 ) = (6, 0)
4 2

(c) To say that tangent yt is parallel with the given line y is to say that both lines have the
same slope m; thus, the tangent equation is in the form

4
yt = x+n
3

where the parameter n is calculated at two intersect points as

4 26 4 26
(x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 6) 6 = (−2) + n ∴ n = ∴ yt = x +
3 3 3 3
4 4
(x2 , y2 ) = (6, 0) 0 = (6) + n ∴ n = −8 ∴ yt = x − 8
3 3

There are two tangent lines that are parallel with the given line; see Fig. 6.33a.
(2) Explicit form of linear equation is

3x − 10 3
3x − 4y − 10 = 0 ∴ y= ∴ its slope is m =
4 4

therefore, all parallel lines must have slope m = 3/4 and all perpendicular lines must have
slope mt = −1/m = −4/3.
(1) First, there is only one parallel line yp = mx + n that crosses the circle’s center point
(2, 3)

3 3 3 3
(x, y) = (2, 3) : ∴ 3= (2) + n ∴ n = ∴ yp = x +
4 2 4 2
6.4 Intersects 267

Fig. 6.33 P.6.96—circle and its tangents

(2) Then, intersect points of yp line and circle are common to the line and circle, thus

 3 3
3± 25 − (x − 2)2 = x +
4 2
 2
3 3
−x 2 + 4x + 21 = x+ −3
4 2
9 2 9 9
−x 2 + 4x + 21 = x − x+
16 4 4
25(x 2 − 4x − 12) = 0 ∴ 25(x + 2)(x − 6) = 0 ∴ x1 = −2, x2 = 6

so that y coordinates of the intersect points are

3 3
x1 = −2 : ∴ yp = (−2) + = 0 ∴ (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 0)
4 2
3 3
x2 = 6 : ∴ yp = (6) + = 6 ∴ (x2 , y2 ) = (6, 6)
4 2

(3) Finally, two tangent lines yt = mt x + k (i.e., perpendicular to both given line and yp )
also cross these two intersect points (see Fig. 6.33b), as a result

4 8 4 8
(x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 0) : ∴ 0 = − (−2) + k ∴ k = − ∴ yt = − x −
3 3 3 3
4 4
(x2 , y2 ) = (6, 6) : ∴ 6 = − (6) + k ∴ k = 14 ∴ yt = − x + 14
3 3

There are two tangent lines that are vertical to the given line; see Fig. 6.33b.
268 6 Analytic Geometry

Fig. 6.34 P.6.97—circle and its tangent at given angle θ

6.97. In the context of right triangles and circles, i.e., without using vector or complex
algebra, one possible technique to resolve this example may consist of the following steps:

1. The explicit form of the given circle equation is

x 2 + y 2 − 2x − 24 = 0
x 2 − 2x +1 + y 2 = 24 +1
(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 25 ∴ thus, the circle center is at (x, y) = (1, 0) and r = 5

2. The given line may be translated to the circle center as

 
7x − y = 0 ∴ y = 7x crossing point (x, y) = (0, 0), thus
 
yy = 7(x − 1) a parallel line that crosses point (x, y) = (1, 0).

3. Perpendicular line yx to yy must have negative inverse slope coefficient, i.e.,

1  
m=7 ∴ mx = − 1/7 ∴ yx = − x vertical line at point (x, y) = (0, 0), thus
7
1  
yx = − (x − 1) its parallel line translated to (x, y) = (1, 0).
7

4. As yx and yy are perpendicular, that is to say they from right angle, and they may be seen
as a coordinate system that is rotated relative to the original system so that it is aligned with
y = 7x; see Fig. 6.34a.
Line that is π/4 rotated relative to yy (and also to yx ) by consequence has to be
hypotenuse of a isosceles right triangle. In order to determine its equation, either its slope
factor or two points in space should be known.
6.4 Intersects 269

The slope of y = 7x, and inevitably any of its parallel versions such as yy = 7(x − 1),
is by definition m = y/x = 7. Then, by definition of a hypotenuse slope, if x = 1
it must be that y = 7. In other words, relative to (0, 0) origin one point that is certainly
found on y = 7x line must be at (x, y) = (1, 7). By the same argument, slope of
yx = y/x = −1/7 then another point may be (x, y) = (7, −1) (note 90◦ rotation
between yx and yy ).

However, if (x, y) = (0, 0) origin is translated horizontally to (x, y) = (1, 0), then
all points found of either hypotenuse or its parallel line (yet to be determined) are also
horizontally translated (i.e., only x coordinate is increased) by one, then A : (1, 7) moves
to A : (2, 7) and B : (7, −1) moves to B : (8, −1)
5. Given two points, A : (2, 7) and B : (8, −1), the line equation of any line parallel to
hypotenuse yt = ax + b is derived as (where n must be calculated at circle line)

A : (2, 7) ∴ 7 = a(2) + b
B : (8, −1) ∴ −1 = a(8) + b

8
4 4 4
8 = −6a ∴ a=− =− ∴ yt = − x + n
6
3 3 3

6. Tangent points on the circle are found as intersects of a line ym that is perpendicular to
yt that crosses the circle center at (1, 0). This line therefore must be in the form ym =
(3/4) x + m

3 3 3 3
(x, 7) = (1, 0) : 0 = (1) + m ∴ m = − ∴ ym = x −
4 4 4 4

7. Tangent points on circle, by the equality between circle and ym equations are

(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 25 ∴ y = ± 25 − (x − 1)2
3 3
ym = x−
4 4

 3 3
± 25 − (x − 1)2 = x −
4 4
9 2 18 9
−x 2 + 2x + 24 = x − x+
16 16 16
25
− (x − 5)(x + 3) = 0 ∴ x1 = −3 x2 = 5
16

so that y coordinates of intersect points are

3 3
x1 = −3 : ∴ y1 = (−3) − = −3 ∴ (x1 , y1 ) = (−3, −3)
4 4
3 3
x2 = 5 : ∴ y2 = (5) − = 3 ∴ (x2 , y2 ) = (5, 3)
4 4
270 6 Analytic Geometry

8. All information is now available to derive two tangent lines yt touching circle at (x1 , y1 )
and (x2 , y2 ) points, while being 45◦ relative to y = 7x line, as

4 4
(x1 , y1 ) = (−3, −3) : ∴ −3 = − (−3) + n ∴ n = 7 ∴ yt = − x + 7
3 3
4 29 4 29
(x2 , y2 ) = (5, 3) : ∴ 3 = − (5) + n ∴ n = − ∴ yt = − x −
3 3 3 3

In this special case example, the idea is to take advantage of symmetrical properties of
isosceles right triangles that are constricted with two 45◦ angles. However, in general case
when some other arbitrary angle is set, one must use rotational transformations based on
trigonometric functions.

6.98. Given lunes of Alhazen figure can be decomposed into the following sub-figures.

1. Right triangle (abc) area is

ab
P1 =
2

2. Circular sector area above cathetus a is a half-circle,

r 2π a 2 π a2 π
P2 = = =
def

2 2 2 8

3. Circular sector area above cathetus b is a half-circle,

 2
r 2π b π b2 π
P3 = = =
def

2 2 2 8

4. Circular sector area above hypotenouse c is a half-circle,

r 2π c 2 π c2 π
P4 = = =
def

2 2 2 8

Total area Pt of covered surface in Fig. 6.4a is the sum of two circular sectors above catheti
and (abc), i.e.,

ab a 2 π b2 π ab π 2
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 = + + = + (a + b2 )
2 8 8 2 8

The sum of two crescent-shaped shaded areas P is derived by “cutting out” area of circular
sector above hypotenuse from Pt , i.e.,

ab π 2 c2 π ab π 2
P = Pt − P4 = + (a + b2 ) − = + (a + b2 − c2 )
2 8 8 2 8
6.4 Intersects 271

By Pythagoras’ theorem, right triangle (a, b, c) obeys relation

a 2 + b2 = c2 ∴ a 2 + b2 − c2 = 0

which is to say that


:0
b2
ab π ab
P = Pt − P4 = + ( +
a 2 − c2 ) = = P1
2 8 2

It is interesting to find out that area of lunes of Alhazen equal to the right triangle’s area,
and that it is not function of triangle size nor of π .

6.99. Let us simply segment notations as follows: A X = a, BX = b, BC = c, A C = d,

and BX = h. Then, given figure can be decomposed into the following sub-figures.

1. Circle whose diameter is h, its area is

 2
h
P0 = r 2 π =
def
π
2

2. Circular sector area above A B = (a + b) equal to a half-circle area,

 2
r 2π a+b π (a + b)2 π
P1 = = =
def

2 2 2 8

3. Circular sector area above a equal to a half-circle area,

r 2π a 2 π a2 π
P2 = = =
def

2 2 2 8

4. Circular sector area above b equal to a half-circle area,

 2
r 2π b π b2 π
P3 = = =
def

2 2 2 8

Arbelos area Pa in Fig. 6.35 is constructed by cutting out two smaller half-circles from the
large half-circle, i.e.,

Fig. 6.35 P.6.99, Arbelos area is

constructed by cutting out two smaller
half-circles from the large half-circle
272 6 Analytic Geometry

(a + b)2 π a 2 π b2 π π  ab π
Pa = P1 − P2 − P3 = − − = a 2 +2Aab + b2 − a 2 − b2 =
8 8 8 8A 4 4
 
At the same time,  (a + b), c, d ) is a right triangle (recall, one vertex C is on the circle
line) where h is one of its height line segments. Then, by Pythagoras’ theorem it is true that

(a + b)2 = c2 + d 2
c 2 = b 2 + h2
d 2 = a 2 + h2

a 2 + 2ab + b2 = b2 + h2 + a 2 + h2
 
h2 = ab a.k.a. right triangle altitude theorem

which is to say that

 2
ab π h2 π h Pa
Pa = = = π = P0 ∴ =1
4 4 2 P0

6.100. Let us simply segment notations as follows: A D = a, A B = a/3, and A C = 2a/3.

1. Non-shaded area P1 in the upper (or, symmetrically lower) A D half-circle is computed as

area P2 of A C half-circle after cutting out P3 area of A B half-circle, i.e.,
 2
1 2a 1 a 2 1 a2π
P1 = P2 − P3 = π− π=
2 6 2 6 2 12

therefore, due to symmetry, the total non-shaded area P in the outer circle is doubled, i.e.,

a2π
P =
12

In summary, non-shaded area P covers 1/3 of the outer circle area, because the outer circle
full area is P0 = (a/2)2 π , then

a2
P0 π
= 4
1 = 3 ∴ P0 = 3 P1
P1 a 2
π
3
12

2. Shaded area P3 in the upper (or lower) half-circuit is computed as the outer circle’s half-area
minus P1 , i.e.,
6.4 Intersects 273

1 a 2 a2π 1 2 1 1 a 2 P0
P3 = π− = a π= π= ∴ P0 = 3 P1
2 2 12 24 32 2 3

Due to symmetry, the same ratio is valid for the lower half-circle, thus for the full circle as
well. In conclusion, given circle area is divided into three equal areas, two shaded and one
non-shaded.

6.101. As the given triangle is equilateral, let us simply segment notations as A B = A C =

a/2. Then, required area may be deduced with the following steps:

1. Preliminary reminder work: in the general of an isosceles triangle, height h line is vertical
to the base side a and their intersect point is at a/2. By doing so, there are two identical
right triangles formed, and then by Pythagoras’ theorem it follows that
√
a 2 3
a =h +
2 2
∴ h= a
2 2
∴
ah
P = 2
= ah
2

In this example, there are quite a few isosceles triangle to follow; nevertheless, their heights
are derived in the same manner. In addition, in the special case of an equilateral triangle all
three angles are π/3, that is to say, 1/6 of the full 2π circle.
2. In this example, there is an equilateral triangle formed whose side is a/2; see Fig. 6.36a.
By consequence, area P1 of circular sector whose r = a/2 is 1/6 of the corresponding full
circle area, i.e.,

1 a 2 a2π
P1 = π=
6 2 24

Fig. 6.36 P.6.101—equilateral triangle with external circle and incircle

274 6 Analytic Geometry

3. Area P2 of corresponding the equilateral triangle whose side is a/2 is then

√ √ ⎫
a 3 a 3⎪
⎪ √ √
h1 = = ⎬ a 3a a2 3
2 2 4 ∴ P = =
1 a
2
⎪
⎪ 4 4 16
P2 = h1 ⎭
2 2

4. The area P3 of the circular segment whose radius is r = a/2 and chord a/2 is therefore the
leftover of sector area after cutting out the triangle, i.e.,
√
a2π a2 3
P3 = P1 − P2 = −
24 16

5. Recall that the three height lines of an equilateral triangle intersect so that each line
is split in h/3 and 2h/3 √ segments; see Fig. 6.36b. Accordingly, the radius of the
incircle
√ is r = h/3
√ = a 3/6, and area P4 of an isosceles triangle whose sides are
(a 3/6, a/2, a 3/6) is
 √ 2 ⎫
a 2 3 a ⎪⎪
h22 + = a ∴ h2 = √ ⎪ ⎬ a a a2
4 6 4 3 ∴ P4 = √ = √
⎪
⎪ 4 3 4 16 3
a⎪
P4 = h2 ⎭
4

6. In this case, because the three height

√ lines h split the circle in three equal sectors, the area
of the circular sector whose r = a 3/6 is 1/3 of the total circle area, i.e.,
 √ 2
1 a 3 a2 π
P5 = π=
3 6 36
√
7. The area P6 of the circular segment whose radius is r = a 3/6 is therefore the leftover of
sector area P5 after cutting out the triangle, i.e.,

a2 π a2
P6 = P5 − P4 = − √
36 16 3

8. Area P in between two arcs is therefore

√ √ 
a2 π a2 a2π a2 3 5 2 a2 3 √
P = P6 + P3 = − √ + − = a π− + 3
36 16 3 24 16 72 16 3

a2 √ 
= 5π − 6 3
72
Trigonometry
7

All problems in this chapter are to be solved without the use of calculator. Instead, the principal
objective is to master the use of “unit circle” and “special” angles, see Fig. 7.1.
Among many trigonometric identities, some are more often used than the others, for example

Pythagorean identities

a 2 + b = c2 (Pythagoras’s theorem )
sin2 α + cos2 β = 1 (Pythagoras’s theorem in disguise, for c = 1)

| sin α| = 1 − cos2 α

| cos α| = 1 − sin2 α
sin α
tan α =
cos α

Sum to product identities,

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
 
if, α = β, (note: double angle),
sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α
cos 2α = cos2 α − sin2 α

Product to sum identities,

 
1
sin α sin β = cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)
2

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 275
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_7
276 7 Trigonometry

Fig. 7.1 Trigonometry, special

angles in the unit circle

 
1
cos α cos β = cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)
2
 
1
sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
2

Square to double angle identities,

1 − cos(2α)
sin2 α =
2
1 + cos(2α)
cos2 α =
2

Problems

Problems in this chapter are grouped in five sections. Firstly, definitions and basic calculations with
angles expressed either in degrees (◦ ) or radians (rad) are practiced, followed by basic identities,
equations, and inequalities. These examples are considered classic on this topic, so they should be
mastered by all engineering and science students.

7.1 Trigonometric Definitions

7.1 Briefly explain the concept of “similar triangles” (thus, “similar figures” in general) and
comment on their most important properties.

7.2 Using right angle triangles and Pythagoras’s theorem illustrate the definitions of sin x,
cos x, and tan x

7.3 Sketch the unit circle and illustrate how angles in I I , I I I , and I V quadrant are related
to angles found in the first quadrant.
7.2 Basic Calculations 277

7.4 With the help of Pythagoras’ theorem and unit circle, calculate sin x, cos x, and tan x for
each of the following special angles in the first quadrant: 0◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , and 90◦ .

7.2 Basic Calculations

Convert degrees into radians and vice versa in P.7.5 to P.7.14

7.5 30◦ 7.6 45◦ 7.7 60◦ 7.8 90◦ 7.9 300◦

7.10 7.11
7.12
3π
7.13
5π 7.14 2◦
330◦ −18◦ 4 12

With the help of unit circle, see Fig. 7.1, calculate exact values of terms in P.7.15 to P.7.24.

π  
7π 3π
7.15 tan 7.16 sin 7.17 cos −
3 6 4

7.18 cos 150◦ 7.19 sin 120◦ π π

7.20 sin sin2
6 3

π π π π π π π π
7.21 sin cos + cos tan 7.22 cos cos + sin cos
4 4 6 3 4 6 4 6
π π π  π 
7.23 sin2 − 1/ tan2 7.24 sin sin2
3 3 6 3

In each of examples in P.7.25 to P.7.28, is it possible to have angle α so that both conditions are
satisfied at the same time? In yes, in which quadrant?

1 3 4 1
7.25 sin α = − and cos α = 7.26 sin α = √ and cos α = √
5 5 17 17
√ √ √
7.27 sin α = − 15 and cos α = 5 7.28 sin α = − 13 and cos α = − 3 3
5 5 14 14

Calculate trigonometric terms in P.7.29 to P.7.40

7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32

tan(−45◦ ) tan(−60◦ ) cos (−7π/6) sin (−315◦ )
278 7 Trigonometry

7.33 7.34 7.35 7.36

tan (−12π ) sin(120◦ ) cos(150◦ ) tan(225◦ )

7.37 7.38 7.39 7.40

tan(300◦ ) tan(480◦ ) tan(840◦ ) cos(1320◦ )

7.3 Basic Identities

Problems in this section are resolved with the help of identities. The actual list of trigonometric
identities is much longer, however, the sum to product transformations, and vice versa are among
most often used. In addition, identities involving double angle arguments are heavily used in calculus.

Given α in P.7.41 to P.7.46, calculate sin α, cos α and tan α

7.41 α = 15◦ 7.42 α = 75◦ 7.43 α = 105◦

7.44 α = π/12 7.45 α = 5π/12 7.46 α = 7π/12

7.47 Calculate the exact values of cos α and tan α given that

1 3π
sin α = − et π < α <
3 2

Calculate expressions given in P.7.48 to P.7.57,

7.48 sin 20◦ cos 10◦ + cos 20◦ sin 10◦ 7.49 cos 43◦ cos 13◦ + sin 43◦ sin 13◦

5π 7π 1  π  π
7.50 −4 sin cos 7.51 + 2 sin 1 + cos 1 +
12 12 2 6 3
  π     
5π 5π 3π
7.52 4 sin cos 7.53 4 cos cos
8 8 8 8

   
7π 13π 7.55 tan 20◦ tan 40◦ tan 80◦
7.54 −4 sin sin
12 12

7.56 8 sin 20◦ sin 40◦ sin 80◦ 7.57 8 cos 10◦ cos 50◦ cos 70◦

7.58 Calculate sin(x + y) and sin(x − y) given that cos x = 4/5 and sin y = −3/5, where x
is in IV quadrant and y is in III quadrant.
7.4 Equations 279

7.59 Simplify the following expression

√ π 
2 cos α − 2 cos +α
π  √4
2 sin + α − 2 sin α
4

Convert given trigonometric forms of products into forms of sums, and given trigonometric sums into
forms of products, P.7.60 to P.7.64

7.60 sin α sin β 7.61 cos α cos β 7.62 sin α cos β

7.63 sin x + sin y 7.64 cos x + cos y

7.65 Given functions with double–angle arguments cos 2α, sin 2α and tan 2α, derive identi-
ties that include only functions of angle argument α.

7.4 Equations

Solve equations in P.7.66 to P.7.73.

7.66 sin x = 0 7.67 cos x = 0 7.68 sin x = sin α

7.69 sin x = cos x 7.70 sin x = sin 2x 7.71

2 sin2 x + sin x = 0

7.72 cos (x + π/6) = sin (x − π/3)

√ √ √
7.73 Solve for α in I quadrant if: tan α = 6 + 3 − 2 − 2.

Solve equations in P.7.74 to P.7.75 within given intervals

π  π   π
7.74 cos − x = cos ; 0 < x ≤ 2π 7.75 sin (3x) = sin x− ; −π < x ≤ π
3 6 2
280 7 Trigonometry

7.5 Inequalities

Solve the following inequalities for x.

7.76 2 cos x + 1 < 0 7.78 cos x − sin x < 1 7.80 | sin x| ≥

1
2
√
7.77 2 sin x − 1 > 0 7.79 sin 3x − 3
≥0 7.81
2 | sin x| ≤ sin x + 2 cos x
7.1 Trigonometric Definitions 281

Answers

7.1 Trigonometric Definitions

Building upon middle and high school knowledge of Pythagoras’s theorem, the following examples
try to emphasize its connection with fundamental trigonometric definitions and identities. Specifically,
the mastery of similar right angled triangles is essential for resolving much more complicated
problems.

7.1 Two figures are said to be similar if one figure can be derived from the other by operations
of uniform scaling, translation, rotation and/or reflection. For example, starting with triangle
OMN in Fig. 7.2, triangle OP Q is derived after multiplying each side of OMN by factor of
two, similarly any other triangle can be derived by using factor n, for example triangle OKL.
By inspection of Fig. 7.2 it is evident that, except for the scaling factors, the original triangular
form did not change, thus, all derived figures are similar. By Pythagoras’ theorem it is
easily verified that all three triangles are indeed right–angled whose corresponding sides are
proportional to each other. That proportionality of matching sides among similar right–angled
triangles is the key to define trigonometric functions of sin x, cos x, tan x, . . . etc.
Similarity includes angles as well. Note that α is shared by all similar triangles. Consequently,
knowing two angles in a triangle the third angle β is calculated so that their sum adds to
90◦ + α + β = 180◦ . In conclusion, direct consequence of similarity is that not only all
side lengths are proportional but also their corresponding angles are equal. The similarity of
right–angled triangles is among most important and exploited properties in mathematics.

Fig. 7.2 P.7.1, triangles are similar

if their corresponding angles are of
the same size. That being the case,
then lengths of all three
corresponding sides are
proportional with the same factor.
For example, if the length of side a
is increased n times, then the other
two sides are also increased by the
same factor. Similarly, ratios among
the three sides of the same triangle
stay the same for all similar
triangles. Consequently, it is very
convenient to define these
proportionality factors among the
three sides of the same triangle as
one measure of all similar triangles.
For example, ratios a/c, b/c, or
b/a are equal for all other n sized
similar triangles. Thus, the absolute
side of a triangle becomes
irrelevant.
282 7 Trigonometry

7.2 There are three basic proportions (ratios) among right triangle sides, see Fig. 7.2.

1. The cathetus a forming α (i.e. adjacent) and hypotenuse c (the side opposite the right angle)
are related as segment lengths

ON OQ OL a 2
× a
× a = const.
n
= = = = = ··· =
OM OP OK c 2
× c
×c
n

2. The cathetus opposite α and hypotenuse are related as

MN PQ KL b 2
× b
× b = const.
n
= = = = = ··· =
OM OP OK c 2
× c
×c
n

3. The cathetus opposite and adjacent to α are related as

MN PQ KL b 2
× b n×b
= = = = = ··· =
= const.
ON OQ OL a 2
× a
×a
n

These constant ratios of triangle sides relative to α are so important that they are named as

adjacent a opposite b opposite b

= = cos α, = = sin α, = = tan α
hypotenuse c hypotenuse c adjacent a

Similarly, the equivalent ratios exist relative to β, as

adjacent b opposite a opposite a

= = cos β, = = sin β, = = tan β
hypotenuse c hypotenuse c adjacent b

These ratios related to α et β do not change when triangles are rotated, scaled, translated and/or
reflected. It is only important to keep track of which is “adjacent” and which is “opposite” side
relative to the angle under consideration. In addition, it is useful to notice that by knowing sin x
and cos x, the third ratio, i.e. tan x is also known because

opposite
sin x ( ((((
hypotenuse opposite
= = = tan x
cos x adjacent adjacent
(( ( (
(
hypotenuse

Very special case, when hypotenuse c = 1, is extensively used as the normalized size for all
similar triangles. Note that, given c = 1, length of adjacent cathetus becomes numerically
equal to the ratio named cos α, i.e.

a
= cos α ∴ a = c cos α ∴ (if c = 1) a = cos α
c

Equally, given c = 1, length of opposite cathetus becomes numerically equal to the ratio
named sin α, i.e.

b
= sin α ∴ b = c sin α ∴ (if c = 1) b = sin α
c
7.1 Trigonometric Definitions 283

Finally, it is useful to visualize length of adjacent cathetus as horizontal projection of

hypotenuse, and length of opposite cathetus as vertical projection of hypotenuse relative to α.

7.3 Trigonometric functions of sin and cos are commonly summarized in a graph known as
“unit circle”, see Fig. 7.1. Note that any point at the circle is found as x 2 + y 2 = c2 , i.e. by
Pythagoras’ theorem. The circle radius, i.e. hypotenuse of the associated right–angled triangle,
is normalized to one. Consequently, the length of adjacent cathetus becomes numerically equal
cos α and the length of opposite cathetus becomes numerically equal to sin α, because

adjacent adjacent
cos α = = ∴ adjacent = cos α
hypotenuse 1
opposite opposite
sin α = = ∴ opposite = sin α
hypotenuse 1

Special angles 0◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ and 90◦ are found in the I quadrant, see Fig. 7.1. Relative to
the first quadrant, special angles in the I I quadrant are rotated by 90◦ , i.e.

30◦ + 90◦ = 120◦

45◦ + 90◦ = 135◦
60◦ + 90◦ = 150◦
90◦ + 90◦ = 180◦

Angles in the I I I quadrant are rotated again by another 90◦ , i.e. 180◦ thus

30◦ + 180◦ = 210◦

45◦ + 180◦ = 225◦
60◦ + 180◦ = 240◦
90◦ + 180◦ = 270◦

Angles in the I V quadrant are rotated again in total of 270◦ , thus

30◦ + 270◦ = 300◦

45◦ + 270◦ = 315◦
60◦ + 270◦ = 330◦
90◦ + 270◦ = 360◦ = 0◦

The symmetry among these “key” angles and their right triangles are visible in the graph, see
Fig. 7.1. Thus, the signed length (i.e. positive or negative) of its horizontal and vertical catheti
equate to their corresponding numerical values of sin α (vertical) and cos α (horizontal).
284 7 Trigonometry

For example, an arbitrary angle β = 90◦ + α in the second quadrant, see Fig. 7.3a, and its
corresponding α angle in the first quadrant create similar right–angled triangles that are rotated
by 90◦ , see Fig. 7.3b. Thus, there are quite a few identities between I and I I quadrant angles,
see Fig. 7.3c and Fig. 7.3d (keep in mind, hypotenuse length c = 1, and lengths of adjunct and
opposite catheti are signed), for example
 π
sin α + = sin β = cos α
2
 π 
− cos α + = − cos β = sin α
2

where, in the I I quadrant horizontal axis (and therefore lengths) are measured negative, thus
the negative sign of cos β. In conclusion, by knowing sin α and cos α in the first quadrant, it
is easy to conclude that cos α = sin(α + 90◦ ) and sin α = − cos(α + 90◦ ), see Fig. 7.3c. For
example, note positive and negative signs of the corresponding catheti lengths in
⎫
1
cos 120◦ = − sin 30◦ = − ⎪ ⎪ √
2⎬ ◦ 3/2
√
√ ∴ tan 120 = =− 3
3 ⎪⎪
⎭
−1/2

sin 120◦ = cos 30◦ =
2

Similarly, for example, angles in the fourth quadrant are negative values of the equivalent
angles in the second quadrant. That is because, (compare catheti lengths in Fig. 7.3c to
Fig. 7.4b),

cos α = cos(−α) and sin α = − sin(−α)

and, after rotation of 180◦ between second and fourth quadrants it follows that

cos(±α) = − cos(π ± α)
sin(π − α) = − sin(−α) = sin α

because cos(π ± α) by itself is negative, then the additional ‘−’ in front makes it positive,
which is exactly as cos(±α). In conclusion, knowing “key” angles in the first quadrant, the
unit circle is used to visually deduce sin and cos values of their corresponding angles in the
other three quadrants. Note that the alternative method of blindly memorizing all possible
relationships within the four quadrants is extremely challenging (and arguably completely
useless) exercise for most humans.

7.4 Angles between 0◦ and 90◦ are said to be “in the first quadrant” of the unit circle, see
Fig. 7.1. They are used to calculate trigonometric functions of angles in other three quadrants
by rotating their respective right–angled triangles into the first quadrant. Specifically, right–
angled triangles containing 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , and 90◦ are special and fundamental to trigonometry
calculations and transformations, see Fig. 7.5.
7.1 Trigonometric Definitions 285

Fig. 7.3 P.7.3 – sin/cos relationships in the first and second quadrants

Fig. 7.4 P.7.3 – relationships between angles in the second and fourth quadrants
286 7 Trigonometry

Fig. 7.5 Trigonometry, special

angles in the unit circle

Case: x = 0◦

In this special case, right–angled triangle whose hypothenuse equals one, degenerates into
a horizontal line segment. Consequently, the hypotenuse is found “on top” of adjacent
(horizontal) cathetus, thus the two horizontal line segments are equal. At the same time, the
opposite (vertical) cathetus of the triangle is reduced to zero. Then, by definitions, it follows
that:
 sin 0◦
cos 0◦ =  (( = 1,
adjacent 0 0
sin 0◦ = = 0, tan 0◦ = = =0
( ((
hypotenuse hypotenuse cos 0◦ 1

Case: x = 30◦ = π/6

Special right triangle in Fig. 7.5 (right) is constructed so that its hypotenuse is two times longer
than one of the two catheti. Due to symmetry, two angles must be in the same proportion, as,

90◦ + α + β = 180◦ ; α = 2β ∴ 90◦ + 3β = 180◦

β = 30◦ ∴ α = 60◦

In addition, right triangle is normalized to a = 1 and c = 2, then by Pythagoras’ theorem

√
22 = 1 2 + b 2 ∴ b = 3

Further, by definitions:
√
◦ adjacent 3 opposite 1 opposite 1
cos 30 = = , sin 30◦ = = , tan 30◦ = =√
hypotenuse 2 hypotenuse 2 adjacent 3

Case: x = 60◦ = π/3

The same special right triangle in Fig. 7.5 (right) is used, as

√ √
adjacent 1 opposite 3 opposite 3
cos 60◦ = = , sin 60◦ = = , tan 60◦ = =
hypotenuse 2 hypotenuse 2 adjacent 1
7.2 Basic Calculations 287

Case: x = 45◦ = π/4

Special right triangle in Fig. 7.5 (left) is constructed so that its two catheti are equal, and
therefore two angles must be in the same proportion. By Pythagora’s theorem, it follows that
√
c 2 = 12 + 12 = 2

Furthermore,

adjacent 1 opposite 1 opposite 1

cos 45◦ = =√ , sin 45◦ = =√ , tan 45◦ = = =1
hypotenuse 2 hypotenuse 2 adjacent 1

Case: x = 90◦

Similar to the Case: x = 0◦ , this special right triangle is constructed when its hypothenuse is
found “on top” of the opposite cathetus, thus the two vertical line segments are equal. During
that process, length of the adjacent cathetus of the triangle is reduced to zero. Thus,


sin 90◦ =  (( = 1,
0 opposite opposite 1
cos 90◦ = = 0, tan 90◦ = = =∞
hypotenuse ( ((
hypotenuse adjacent 0

7.2 Basic Calculations

Knowing the identity 180◦ = π rad, then by simple proportion it must be that

H
30H◦ 1 α π H
45H◦ 1 α π
7.5 X ◦ = ∴ α= 7.6 X ◦ = ∴ α=
X
180X6 π 6 X
180X4 π 4

60◦ 1
 α π H
45H◦ 1 α π
7.7  = ∴ α= 7.8 X ◦ = ∴ α=
 ◦
180 3 π 3 XX
180 4 π 4
X X
X
300 ◦
5 α 5π  
330◦ 11 α 11π
7.9 X ◦ = ∴ α= 7.10  = ∴ α=
X
X
180 3 π 3  ◦
180 6 π 6

−18◦ 1
7.12 X ◦ ◦ =  ∴ α = 135◦
α π α 3π
7.11 
 = ∴ α=−
 ◦
180 10 π 10 X
180X 45 4A 1
π

α 5π 2◦ 1
 α π
7.13 X ◦ = ∴ α = 75◦ 7.14
◦ 90 = π ∴ α = 90
X
X 15
180 Z
Z1
12 π 
180
288 7 Trigonometry

Fig. 7.6 P.7.16, angles in the

second and fourth quadrant that are
aligned by π have their sine values
numerically equal but with the
opposite signs. Visually, their
respective right triangles are
similar, and with the vertical catheti
(i.e. sine) of the opposite sign

7.15 By inspection of the unit circle in Fig. 7.1  π/3 is in the first quadrant, thus
√
π sin(π/3) 3/2
√
tan = = = 3
3 cos(π/3) 1/2

7.16 By inspection of unit circle in Fig. 7.1  7π/6 in the third quadrant, so that
  
7π 6π + π π
sin = sin = sin π + ≡ 210◦
6 6 6

Being in the third quadrant,  (π + π/6) has both vertical (sin) and horizontal (cos) catheti
negative, see Fig. 7.6, thus

7π  π π  1
sin = sin π + = − sin =−
6 6 6 2

  π  √
3π π 2
7.17 cos − = cos ± π = − cos = −
4 4 4 2

√
7.18 cos 150 = cos(180 − 30 ) = − cos 30 = − 3
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
2

√
7.19 sin 120◦ = cos(90◦ + 30◦ ) = cos 30◦ = 3
2

√ 2
π π 1 3 13 3
7.20 sin sin2 = = =
6 3 2 2 24 8

√
π π π π 1 1 3√ 1 3
7.21 sin cos + cos tan = √ √ + 3= + =2
4 4 6 3 2 2 2 2 2
7.2 Basic Calculations 289

√ √ 
π π π π 1 3 1 3 3
7.22 cos cos + sin cos = √ +√ =
4 6 4 6 2 2 2 2 2

√ 2
2 π 1 3 1 3 1 9−4 5
7.23 sin 3 − π = 2
− √ 2 = − =
4 3 12
=
12
tan2 3
3

π  π  √ 2
1 3 1 3 3
7.24 sin sin 2
= = =
6 3 2 2 2 4 8

7.25 Assuming a, b to be two catheti and c = 1, then by Pythagoras’ theorem,

a = cos α, b = sin α ∴ a 2 + b2 = 12 ∴ cos2 α + sin2 α = 12

which may be seen as the trigonometric form of Pythagoras’ theorem. A simple verification
gives
 2  2
1 3 1 9 2

10 2
sin α + cos α = −
2 2
+ = + = = = 1
5 5 25 25  5
25 5

that is to say, it is not possible to have angle α whose sin α = −1/5 and cos α = 3/5.

 2  2
4 1 16 1 17
7.26 sin α + cos α =
2 2
√ + √ = + = =1 
17 17 17 17 17
Both vertical (sin α) and horizontal (cos α) projections are positive, therefore α is in the I
quadrant.

√ 2 √ 2
15 5 15 5 4

20 4
7.27 sin α + cos α = −
2
+2
= + = = = 1
5 5 25 25  5
25 5
√ √
that is to say, it is not possible to have angle α whose sin α = − 15/5 and cos α = 5/5.

 2 √ 2
13 3 3 169 27 196
7.28 sin α + cos α = −
2 2
+ − = + = =1 
14 14 196 196 196
Both vertical (sin α) and horizontal (cos α) projections are negative, therefore α is in the I I I
quadrant.
290 7 Trigonometry

Fig. 7.7 P.7.31, starting with zero

angle, any other given angle may be
measured either in the positive or in
the negative direction. The sum of
these two measurements adds to
2π. It is only matter of the
convenience which one of the two
numbers is being used at any given
moment

7.29 By inspection of the unit circle in Fig. 7.1, sin and cos of a negative angle are
√
sin(−45◦ ) − sin(45◦ ) sin(45◦ ) Z2/2
tan(−45 ) = ◦
= = − = − √
Z = −1
cos(−45◦ ) cos(45◦ ) cos(45◦ ) Z2/2
Z

7.30 By inspection of the unit circle in Fig. 7.1, sin and cos of a negative angle are
√
sin(−60◦ ) − sin(60◦ ) sin(60◦ ) 3/2 √
tan(−60 ) =◦
◦
= ◦
= − ◦
=− C =− 3
cos(−60 ) cos(60 ) cos(60 ) 1/2C

7.31 Given −7π/6 angle is equivalent to 5π/6 in the positive direction, or 150◦ , see Fig. 7.7.
Either way, by inspection of unity circle it follows that
    √
7π 5π ◦ 3
cos − = cos = cos(150 ) = −
6 6 2

7.32 Given −315◦ angle is equivalent to 45◦ from the positive side, thus
√
◦ ◦ 2
sin (−315 ) = sin(45 ) =
2

7.33 Given −12π angle is equivalent to (−6 × 2π ) = 0, thus

sin 0 0
tan (−12π ) = tan (0) = = =0
cos 0 1

7.34 Given 120◦ angle may be written as the sum of 90◦ and 30◦ , as
√
  3
sin(120 ) = sin(90 + 30 ) = cos(α) = sin(90◦ + α) = cos(30◦ ) =
◦ ◦ ◦
2
7.2 Basic Calculations 291

7.35 Angle of 150◦ angle may be written as difference of 180◦ and 30◦ , as
√
◦ ◦ ◦
  3 ◦
cos(150 ) = cos(180 − 30 ) = cos(π ± α) = − cos(α) = − cos(30 ) = −
2

7.36 Angle of 225◦ may be written as the sum of 180◦ and 45◦ , as
√
sin(180◦ + 45◦ ) − sin(45◦ ) sin(45◦ ) Z2/2
◦ ◦
tan(225 ) = tan(180 + 45 ) = ◦
= = = √
Z=1
cos(180◦ + 45◦ ) − cos(45◦ ) cos(45◦ ) Z2/2
Z

7.37 Angle of 300◦ may be written as difference of 360◦ and 60◦ . Adding either positive or
negative full circle (i.e. 2π ) changes nothing, thus


   sin(−60◦ )
tan(300◦ ) = tan(
360 ◦
− 60◦ ) = ±n × 2π + α = α = tan(−60◦ ) =
cos(−60◦ )
 
= cos(−α) = cos(α), sin(−α) = − sin(α)
√
− sin(60◦ ) 3/2 √
= ◦
=− C =− 3
cos(60 ) 1/2
C

7.38 Angle of 480◦ may be written as combination of 360◦ , 120◦ , and 60◦ , as


 sin(−60◦ )
tan(480◦ ) = tan(
360 ◦
+ 120◦ ) = tan(180◦ − 60◦ ) = tan(−60◦ ) =
cos(−60◦ )
√

=
− sin(60◦ )
= −
2/2
C = −√3
cos(60◦ ) 1/2
C

7.39 Angle of 840◦ may be written, for example, as the combination of 360◦ , 180◦ , 120◦ , and
60◦ ,

tan(840◦ ) = tan(
2× ◦ + 120◦ ) = tan(120◦ ) = tan(180◦ − 60◦ ) = tan(−60◦ )
360
√
= − tan(60◦ ) = − 3

7.40 Angle of 1320◦ may be written, for example, as the combination of 360◦ , 240◦ , 180◦ ,
and 60◦ ,

cos(1320◦ ) = cos(
3× ◦ + 240◦ ) = cos(180◦ + 60◦ ) = − cos(60◦ ) = − 1
360
2
292 7 Trigonometry

7.3 Basic Identities

7.41 Trigonometric functions involving sums or differences may be resolved with the help of
trigonometric identities. For example, angle of 15◦ can be written as (45◦ − 30◦ ), so that

sin 15◦ = sin(45◦ − 30◦ )

 
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
√ √ √
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 2 3 2 1
= sin 45 cos 30 − cos 45 sin 30 = −
2 2 2 2
√
2 √
= ( 3 − 1)
4

 
cos 15◦ = cos(45◦ − 30◦ ) cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
= cos 45◦ cos 30◦ + sin 45◦ sin 30◦
√ √ √ √
2 3 2 1 2 √
= + = ( 3 + 1)
2 2 2 2 4

√
S2 √ √
sin 15◦ S ( 3 − 1) 3−1
◦
tan 15 = 4
= √ S √
◦
cos 15 S2 √ 3−1
S ( 3 + 1)
4S
√ √ √ √
( 3 − 1)( 3 − 1) 3−2 3+1 2A(2 − 3) √
= √ √ = = =2− 3
( 3 + 1)( 3 − 1) 3−1 2A

7.42 Angle of 75◦ may be decomposed as (45◦ + 30◦ ), so that

sin 75◦ = sin(45◦ + 30◦ ) = sin 45◦ cos 30◦ + cos 45◦ sin 30◦
√ √ √ √
2 3 2 1 2 √
= + = ( 3 + 1)
2 2 2 2 4

cos 75◦ = cos(45◦ + 30◦ ) = cos 45◦ cos 30◦ − sin 45◦ sin 30◦
√ √ √ √
2 3 2 1 2 √
= − = ( 3 − 1)
2 2 2 2 4
7.3 Basic Identities 293

√
S2 √ √
sin 75◦ S ( 3 + 1) 3+1
◦
tan 75 = 4
= √ S √
◦
cos 75 S2 √ 3+1
S ( 3 − 1)
4S
√ √ √ √
( 3 + 1)( 3 + 1) 3+2 3+1 2A(2 + 3) √
= √ √ = = =2+ 3
( 3 + 1)( 3 − 1) 3−1 2A

7.43 Angle of 105◦ may be seen as (60◦ + 45◦ ), so that

sin 105◦ = sin(60◦ + 45◦ ) = sin 60◦ cos 45◦ + cos 60◦ sin 45◦
√ √ √ √
3 2 1 2 2 √
= + = ( 3 + 1)
2 2 2 2 4

cos 105◦ = cos(60◦ + 45◦ ) = cos 60◦ cos 45◦ − sin 60◦ sin 45◦
√ √ √ √
1 2 3 2 2 √
= − = (1 − 3)
2 2 2 2 4

√
S2 √ √
sin 105◦ S ( 3 + 1) 1 + 3
◦
tan 105 = = √ 4 S √
cos 105◦ S 2 √ 1+ 3
(1 − 3)
4SS
√ √ √ √
( 3 + 1)( 3 + 1) 3+2 3+1 2A(2 + 3) √
= √ √ = = = −(2 + 3)
(1 − 3)(1 + 3) 1−3 H−2
H −1

7.44 Angle of π/12 may be seen as (π/3 − π/4), so that

π √ √ √ √
π π π π π π 3 2 1 2 2 √
sin = sin − = sin cos − cos sin = − = ( 3 − 1)
12 3 4 3 4 3 4 2 2 2 2 4

π √ √ √ √
π π π π π π 1 2 3 2 2 √
cos = cos − = cos cos + sin sin = + = ( 3 + 1)
12 3 4 3 4 3 4 2 2 2 2 4

√
π S2 √ √ √ √
π sin S ( 3 − 1) 3 − 1 ( 3 − 1)( 3 − 1) √
tan = 12
π = √S
4 √ = √ √ =2− 3
12 cos S2 √ 3−1 ( 3 + 1)( 3 − 1)
12 S ( 3 + 1)
4S
294 7 Trigonometry

7.45 Angle of 5π/12 may be seen as (π/4 + π/6), so that

  π √
5π π 2 √
sin = sin + = ··· = ( 3 + 1)
12 4 6 4
  π √
5π π 2 √
cos = cos + = ··· = ( 3 − 1)
12 4 6 4
  √
 
5π S2 √
5π
sin
12 S ( 3 + 1) √
tan =   = √4S = ··· = 2 + 3
12
cos
5π S2 √
( 3 − 1)
12 4SS

7.46 Angle of 7π/12 may be seen as (π/3 + π/4), so that

  π √
7π π 2 √
sin = sin + = ··· = ( 3 + 1)
12 3 4 4
  π √
7π π 2 √
cos = cos + = ··· = (1 − 3)
12 3 4 4

 
7π
  sin √
7π 12 3+1 √
tan =   = ··· = √ = −(2 + 3)
12 7π 1− 3
cos
12

7.47 Knowing the trigonometric form of Pythagoras’ theorem

cos2 α + sin2 α = 12

and given

1 3π
sin α = − et π < α <
3 2

it follows that
 
1 2
cos α + sin α = 1 ∴ cos α = 1 − sin α = 1 − −
2 2 2 2
3
 √ √
1 8 2 2
cos α = 1 − ∴ cos α = =
9 3 3

However,
√ α is in the third quadrant, therefore cos x is negative, see Fig. 7.1, i.e. cos α =
−2 2/3,
7.3 Basic Identities 295

√
sin α −1/3
1 2
tan α = = √ = √ =
cos α −2 2/3
2 2 4

7.48 Inter–products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as

sin 20◦ cos 10◦ + cos 20◦ sin 10◦ =

 
1 
sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
2
1 1 1 1
= sin(20◦ + 10◦ ) + sin(20◦ − 10◦ ) + sin(10◦ + 20◦ ) + sin(10◦ − 20◦ )
2 2 2 2
  

1 1 1 1
= sin(30◦ ) +  sin(10 ◦
) + sin(30◦ ) +  ◦ ) = sin(−x) = − sin(x)
sin(−10

2 2 2 2
1
= sin 30◦ =
2

7.49 Inter–products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as

cos 43◦ cos 13◦ + sin 43◦ sin 13◦ =

⎧ ⎫
⎪ 1 ⎪
⎪
⎨cos α cos β = cos(α + β) + cos(α − β) ⎪
⎬
2
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩sin α sin β = 1 (cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)) ⎪ ⎭
2

1 1 1 1
= cos(43◦ + 13◦ ) + cos(43◦ − 13◦ ) + cos(43◦ − 13◦ ) − cos(43◦ + 13◦ )
2 2 2 2
√
 
1 ◦ 1 1 1 3
= cos(56 ) + cos(30◦ ) + cos(30◦ ) − cos(56 ◦
) = cos 30◦ =
2 2 2 2 2

7.50 Inter–products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
 
5π 7π 1 
−4 sin cos = sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
12 12 2
    
1 5π 7π 5π 7π
= −4A 2 sin + + sin −
2A 12 12 12 12
    


12π 2Aπ  
= −2 sin + sin − sin(−x) = − sin(x)


12 Z
Z6
12
  π   
1
= −2 0 − sin = −2 − =1
6 2
296 7 Trigonometry

7.51 Inter–products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
  
1 π  π 1 
+ 2 sin 1 + cos 1 + = sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
2 6 3 2
1   π π  π π 
= + sin 1 + + 1 + + sin 1A + − 1A −
2 6 3 6 3
1   π  π 
= + sin 2 + + sin −
2 2 6
1  π   π 
= + sin + 2 − sin
2 2 6
 π   
sin + x = cos(x), see the unit circle and Fig. 7.3c
2
 
1 1
= + cos (2) −
2 2
= cos(2)

7.52 Inter–products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
  π   
5π 1
4 sin cos = sin α cos β =(sin(α + β) + sin(α − β))
8 8 2
    
1 5π π 5π π
= 4A sin + + sin −
2A 8 8 8 8
    √ 
3π π    2
= 2 sin + sin = (see the unit circle) = 2 +1
4 2 2
√
= 2+2

7.53 Inter–products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
     
5π 3π 1
4 cos cos = cos α cos β = (cos(α + β) + cos(α − β))
8 8 2
    
1 5π 3π 5π 3π
= 4A cos + + cos −
2A 8 8 8 8
 √ 
  π    2
= 2 cos (π ) + cos = (see the unit circle) = 2 −1 +
4 2
√
= 2−2

7.54 Inter–products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
     
7π 13π 1
−4 sin sin = sin α sin β = (cos(α − β) − cos(α + β))
12 12 2
7.3 Basic Identities 297

    
1 7π 13π 7π 13π
= −4A 2 cos − − cos +
2A 12 12 12 12
    
6Aπ  5π

20
= −2 cos − − cos
ZZ2
12 3

12
  
π  0
* 5π
= −2 cos − cos
 2 3
  π   
1
= −2 − cos − = −2 − =1
3 2

7.55 After replacing tan(x) functions with their equivalent sin(x)/ cos(x) ratios, the product
identities can be used to resolve numerator and denominator separately, as

sin 20◦ sin 40◦ sin 80◦

tan 20◦ tan 40◦ tan 80◦ =
cos 20◦ cos 40◦ cos 80◦

Then, numerator products are,

 
◦ ◦ ◦ 1
sin 20 sin 40 sin 80 = sin α sin β = (cos(α − β) − cos(α + β))
2
1  
= cos(20◦ − 40◦ ) − cos(20◦ + 40◦ ) sin 80◦
2
 ◦ 
1
  ◦
: cos 20
= 
cos(−20 ) − cos(60 ) sin 80◦
◦
2 
1
= [cos 20◦ sin 80◦ − cos(60◦ ) sin 80◦ ]
2
 
1
sin α cos β = (sin(α + β) + sin(α − β))
2
  √  
1 1 :
 3/2 :
 1/2
= ◦
sin 100 +  
sin 60 ◦
− 
cos 60 ◦
sin 80 ◦
2 2
 √ 
1 ◦ ◦ 3 ◦ ◦
= sin(90 + 10 ) + − sin(90 − 10 )
4 2
 
sin(90◦ + α) = sin(90◦ − α), (see unit circle)
 √ 
1 ◦( ( (
(
◦ 3 ◦( ( ((
◦
= (( + 10 ) + −( (( − 10 )
4 (
sin(90 sin(90
2
√
3
=
8
298 7 Trigonometry

Similarly, note that cos(90◦ + 10◦ ) = − cos(90◦ − 10◦ ), as per unit circle, so that
 
1
cos 20◦ cos 40◦ cos 80◦ = cos(20◦ + 40◦ ) + cos(20◦ − 40◦ ) cos 80◦
2
 ◦
1 
cos60
: 1/2 : cos 20
=  ◦
+  ◦ )
cos(−20 cos 80◦
2
 
1 1 ◦ ◦ ◦
= cos 80 + cos 20 cos 80
2 2
 
1 1 ◦ 1 ◦ 1 :
 1/2
= cos 80 + 
 cos 100 +  
cos 60 ◦
2  2 ! "  2 ! " 2
cos(90−10)◦ cos(90+10)◦

1
=
8

Therefore,
√
3/8
√
tan 20◦ tan 40◦ tan 80◦ = = 3
1/8

7.56 In the similar manner as in P.7.55,

# $
8 sin 20◦ sin 40◦ sin 80◦ = 4 cos(20◦ − 40◦ ) − cos(20◦ + 40◦ ) sin 80◦
# $
= 4 sin 80◦ cos(−20◦ ) − sin 80◦ cos 60◦
 
◦ ◦ 1 ◦
= 4 sin 80 cos(20 ) − sin 80
2
 
1 1 1
= 4 sin 100◦ + sin 60◦ − sin 80◦
2 2 2
 
sin 100◦ = sin(90◦ + 10◦ ) = sin(90◦ − 10◦ ) = sin 80◦
 √ ◦ 
10
sin(90◦ + 
◦
) 3 sin(90◦ − 
10) √
= 4A  + −  = 3
2 4A 2

7.57 In the similar manner as in P.7.55,

# $
8 cos 10◦ cos 50◦ cos 70◦ = 4 cos 60◦ + cos 40◦ cos 70◦
 
1
=4 cos 70◦ + cos 40◦ cos 70◦
2
 
1 ◦ 1 ◦ 1 ◦
=4 cos 70 + cos 110 + cos 30
2 2 2
 √ 
1 ◦ 1 ◦ 1 3
=4 cos 70 + cos 110 +
2 2 2 2
7.3 Basic Identities 299

 
cos 110◦ = cos(90◦ + 20◦ ) = − cos(90◦ − 20◦ ) = − cos 70◦
 √ 
 
◦
cos 70 − 
= 2A   
◦
cos 70 +
3
2A
√
= 3

7.58 Given Pythagoras’ theorem, unit circle in Fig. 7.1 and the sum/difference identities, then
⎧ 2 ⎫
⎪
⎪sin x + cos2 x = 1 ⎪
⎪
⎨ ⎬
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎭
sin (x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
⎧
 ⎫ ⎪ 3
cos x = 4/5 ∴ sin x = 1 − (4/5) = 3/5
2 ⎬ ⎪
⎨sin x =− (IV)
5
 ∴
sin y = −3/5 ∴ cos y = 1 − (−3/5)2 = 4/5⎭ ⎪
⎪
⎩cos y 4
= − (III)
5

Therefore,
     
3 4 4 3 12 12
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y = − − + − = − =0
5 5 5 5 25 25
     
3 4 4 3 12 12 24
sin (x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y = − − − − = + =
5 5 5 5 25 25 25

7.59 Given Pythagoras’ theorem, the unit circle in Fig. 7.1 and the sum/difference identities,
it follows that
√ 
π 
√   2
π 2 cos α − cos +α
2 cos α − 2 cos +α 2 4
π  √4 = √ 
π 
2 sin + α − 2 sin α 2
4 2 sin +α − sin α
4 2
% &
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
 

π  π  π
2A  cos α − 
cos coscos α + sin sin α
=  4 4 4 
π π  π 
2A sin cos α + cossin α −  sin α
cos
4  4 4
π
sin sin α
= 4 = tan α
π
sin cos α
4
300 7 Trigonometry

7.60 Given the sum/difference identities,

cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

it follows that

cos(α(
cos(α − β) − cos(α + β) = ( ((
cos cos(α(
β + sin α sin β − ( ((
cos β + sin α sin β
= 2 sin α sin β
∴
1 
sin α sin β = cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)
2

7.61 Given the sum/difference identities,

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

it follows that
 
cos (α + β) + cos (α − β) = cos α cos β −  α
sin sinβ + cos α cos β +  α
sin sinβ
= 2 cos α cos β
∴
1
cos α cos β = (cos (α + β) + cos(α − β))
2

7.62 Given the sum/difference identities,

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β

it follows that

 
cosα
sin (α + β) + sin (α − β) = sin α cos β +  sin cosα
β + sin α cos β −  sin β
= 2 sin α cos β
∴
1
sin α cos β = (sin(α + β) + sin(α − β))
2

Note that identities in P.7.60 to P.7.62 are fundamental for RF electronics and communication
theory.
7.3 Basic Identities 301

7.63 Given the sum identities,

1 
sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β) ∴ sin(α + β) + sin(α − β) = 2 sin α cos β
2
⎧ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ & ⎪ x+y ⎪
⎪
⎨α + β = x ⎪
⎨ α = ⎪
⎬
2
∴
⎪ ⎪ x−y ⎪
⎩α − β = y
⎪ ⎪
⎩β = ⎪
⎭
2
∴
   
x+y x−y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2

Or, in general
   
α+β α−β
sin α + sin β = 2 sin cos
2 2

7.64 Given the sum identities

1 
cos α cos β = cos(α + β) + cos(α − β) ∴ cos(α + β) + cos(α − β) = 2 cos α cos β
2
⎧ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ & ⎪ x+y ⎪
⎪
⎨α + β = x ⎪
⎨α = ⎪
⎬
2
∴
⎪ ⎪ x−y ⎪
⎩α − β = y
⎪ ⎪
⎩β = ⎪
⎭
2
∴
   
x+y x−y
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos
2 2

Or, in general
   
α+β α−β
cos α + cos β = 2 cos cos
2 2

7.65 Given trigonometric identities

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

end setting α = β it follows that

sin (α + α) = sin 2α = sin α cos α + cos α sin α = 2 sin α cos α

302 7 Trigonometry

cos (α + α) = cos 2α = cos α cos α − sin α sin α = cos2 α − sin2 α

∴
sin 2α sin α cos α + cos α sin α sin α cos α + cos α sin α
tan 2α = = =  
cos 2α cos α cos α − sin α sin α sin α sin α
cos α cos α 1 −
cos α cos α
sin α cos
α  
cosα sin α
 + 
 
= cos α cos α  cos α cos α
1 − tan2 α
2 tan α
=
1 − tan2 α

Furthermore,
⎧
& ⎪ 1 − cos 2α
cos α + sin α
2 2
=1 ⎪2 sin2 α = 1 − cos 2α
⎨ ∴ sin2 α =
2
∴
cos2 α − sin2 α = cos 2α ⎪
⎪ 1 + cos 2α
⎩2 cos2 α = 1 + cos 2α ∴ cos2 α =
2

In addition,

cos α sin α cos2 α cos2 α 1

sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α =2 = 2 tan α = 2 tan α
cos α cos α 1 cos2 α + sin2 α cos2 α sin2 α
+
cos2 α cos2 α
2 tan α
=
1 + tan2 α
 
2 sin2 α

cos α 1 −
cos2 α − sin2 α cos2 α − sin2 α cos2 α
cos 2α = = =  
1 cos α + sin α
2 2
  sin2 α

cos α 1 +
2
cos2 α
1 − tan2 α
=
1 + tan2 α

These identities are often used to integrate rational functions by trigonometric substitutions.

7.4 Equations

7.66 Equations that include periodic functions have periodic solution set. Sinusoidal function
crosses the horizontal axis every integer multiple of ±π starting with x = 0, that is to say

sin x = 0 ∴ x = nπ, where, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

7.4 Equations 303

7.67 Equations that include periodic functions have periodic solution set. Cosine function
crosses the horizontal axis every integer multiple of ±π starting with x = π/2, that is to say

π
cos x = 0 ∴ x = (2k + 1) , where, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2

7.68 Solving trigonometric equations is often done by deriving factorized form of the
equation (similar to P.7.63), then by exploiting the general property: if A × B × C = 0,
then either A = 0 or B = 0 or C = 0. Thus,

sin x = sin α ∴ sin x − sin α = 0 ∴

    
α+β α−β
sin α − sin β = 2 cos sin
2 2
   
x+α x−α
2 cos sin =0
2 2

Therefore,
 
x+α x+α π
cos =0 ∴ = (2n + 1) ∴ x = −α + (2n + 1)π
2 2 2
 
x−α x−α
sin =0 ∴ = kπ ∴ x = α + 2kπ
2 2

where, (k, n) = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . but not necessarily at the same time.

7.69 By exploiting the equivalence relationship between sin x and cos x functions (i.e. their
argument difference of π/2), their equality may be resolved as
 π π
sin x = cos x ∴ cos x − = cos x ∴ x − = ±x + 2nπ
2 2

because x takes both positive and negative signs. Therefore, there are two possible solutions
that must be reviewed as follows.
π
case ‘ + x‘ : ∴ x
− = x
+ 2nπ ∴ no solution
2
π π π
case ‘ − x‘ : ∴ x − = −x + 2nπ ∴ 2x = 2nπ + ∴ x = nπ +
2 2 4

where, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . For example, within the interval n = −2, −1, 0, 1 the solution set
304 7 Trigonometry

Fig. 7.8 P.7.69, being periodic

functions, both sine and cosine
curves repeat from negative to
positive infinity. The solution set
periodically repeats from negative
to positive infinity

⎧
⎪
⎪n = −2 ∴ x = −2π +
π
=−
8π π
+ =−
7π
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 4 4 4 4
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π 4π π 3π
⎪
⎨n = −1 ∴ x = −π + = − + =−
π 4 4 4 4
x = nπ + ∴
4 ⎪
⎪ π
⎪
⎪ n=0 ∴ x=
⎪
⎪ 4
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩n = 1 ∴ x=π+ =
π 4π
+
5π
=
5π
4 4 4 4
√
is shown in Fig. 7.8. Both sin(x) and cos(x) equal to ± 2/2 at these points.

7.70 After converting this equation into its factorized form, it follows that

sin x = sin 2x ∴ sin 2x − sin x = 0

    
α+β α−β
sin α − sin β = 2 cos sin
2 2
   
3x x
2 cos sin =0
2 2
∴
 
3x 3x π π
1) cos =0 ∴ = (2n + 1) ∴ x = (2n + 1)
2 2
2
3
x  x
2) sin =0 ∴ = kπ ∴ x = 2kπ
2 2

where, n, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . For example, within the interval n = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 the solution
set
⎧
⎪
⎪ k = −1 ∴ x = −2π
⎨
x = 2kπ ∴ n=0 ∴ x=0
⎪
⎪
⎩
n=1 ∴ x = 2π
7.4 Equations 305

Fig. 7.9 P.7.70 – trigonometric equalities have periodic set of solutions

as well as,
⎧ π
⎪
⎪n = −2 ∴ x = (−4 + 1) = −π
⎪
⎪ 3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π π
⎪
⎪ n = −1 ∴ x = (−2 + 1) = −
⎪
⎪ 3 3
⎪
⎪
π ⎨ π π
x = (2n + 1) ∴ n=0 ∴ x = (0 + 1) =
3 ⎪
⎪ 3 3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π
⎪
⎪ n=1 ∴ x = (2 + 1) = π
⎪
⎪ 3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π 5π
⎩n = 2 ∴ x = (4 + 1) =
3 3

The two solution sets where sin x = sin 2x are shown in Fig. 7.9a (left). In addition, equation

f (x) = sin x − sin 2x = 0

is shown explicitly in Fig. 7.9a (right) with the same solution set.

7.71 Using the same idea as in P.7.68 to P.7.70, factorized form of this equation is

2 sin2 x + sin x = 0 ∴ (2 sin x + 1) sin x = 0

∴ (2 sin x + 1) = 0 or sin x = 0

Therefore,

Equation 1: sin x = 0

sin x = 0 ∴ x = nπ where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

306 7 Trigonometry

Fig. 7.10 P.7.71, the solution

points of the equality in the form of
2 sin2 x + sin x = 0 within the
given interval. The solution set
periodically repeats from negative
to positive infinity

Equation 2: (2 sin x + 1) = 0

1 π 
(2 sin x + 1) = 0 ∴ sin x + = 0 ∴ sin x + sin =0 ∴
2 6
   
x + π/6 x − π/6
2 sin cos =0
2 2

Again, there are two equations to solve.

1. Roots of sin function are found at multiples of π , i.e. 0, ±π, ±2π, . . .

 
x + π/6 x + π/6 π
sin =0 ∴ = kπ ∴ x=− + 2kπ where k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2 2 6

2. Roots of cos function are at odd multiples of π/2, i.e. ±(2m + 1)π/2
 
x − π/6 x − π/6 π π
cos =0 ∴ = (2m + 1) ∴ x = (2m + 1)π +
2 2
2
6

where m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . The complete solution set is summarized in graph of f (x) =
2 sin2 x + sin x, Fig. 7.10. One stream of the solutions (i.e. the intersect points) is generated
for n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , second for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , and third for m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

7.72 Periodicity of tan x = sin x/ cos x function is periodic by nπ , thus we can solve this
equation as follows

cos (x + π/6) = sin (x − π/3)

% &
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
7.4 Equations 307

Fig. 7.11 P.7.72, phase shifted

sine and cosine curves have
periodic phase shifted set of
solutions. Difference between the
two functions is an example of
“constructive wave interference” in
engineering

π  π  π  π 
cos (x) cos − sin (x) sin = sin (x) cos − cos (x) sin
6 6 3 3
√ √
3 1 1 3
cos (x) − sin (x) = sin (x) − cos (x)
2A 2A 2A 2A
√ √
√ 3 3 /2 sin(π/3) sin(x)
2A 3 cos x = 2A sin x ∴ tan x = = = =
1 1 /2 cos(π/3) cos(x)

Both sin(x) and cos(x) cross the horizontal axis with the periodicity of π , therefore

π
x= + nπ where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
3

The solution set of cos (x + π/6) = sin (x − π/3) equation is illustrated in Fig. 7.11 to show
the intersecting points, as well as f (x) = cos (x + π/6) − sin (x − π/3).

7.73 By using algebraic transformations, trigonometric identities and the unit circle,
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
tan α = 6 + 3 − 2 − 2 = 3 2 + 3 − 2 − ( 2)2
√
√ √  √ √  2 − 1 √  √ √ 
= 3 2+1 − 2 2+1 = √ 2+1 3− 2
2−1
 
(a − b)(a + b) = a − b2 2

√ √
√ √ 3 2
3− 2 2 − ◦ ◦
= √ = 2√ 2 = sin 60 − sin 45
2−1 2 2 1 sin 45◦ − sin 30◦
−
2 2
    
x+y x−y
sin x − sin y = 2 cos sin
2 2
 ◦  ◦    
105 15  (180 − 75)◦ 75◦
2A cos sin  cos cos 90 − ◦

 ◦  ◦ =
2 2 2 2
=  ◦ =  ◦
75 15  75 75
2A cos sin  cos cos
2  2 2 2
308 7 Trigonometry

 
cos(90◦ − α) = sin α
 ◦
75
sin  ◦
2 75 75◦
=  ◦  = tan ∴ α= = 37.5◦
75 2 2
cos
2

which is in the I quadrant.

7.74 Factorized form is derived as

π  π 
cos − x = cos
3 6
π  π 
cos − x − cos =0
3 6
    
α+β α−β
cos α − cos β = −2 sin sin
2 2
⎛π π ⎞ ⎛ π π⎞
−x+ −x−
⎜ 6 ⎟ sin ⎜ 3 6⎟=0
−2 sin ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 2
   
π − 2x π − 6x
− 2 sin sin =0
4 12
 !"  ! "  ! "
A B C

Obviously, −2 = 0 leaving either B = 0 or C = 0 terms to be zero, where

if, sin θ = 0 ∴ θ = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

Fig. 7.12 P.7.74, two points

solution within the given interval.
The solution set periodically repeats
from negative to positive infinity
7.4 Equations 309

Therefore, within the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π ,

n=0:

π − 2x π
B: = 0 ∴ x = ∈ [0, 2π ] 
4 2
π − 6x π
C: = 0 ∴ x = ∈ [0, 2π ] 
12 6

n=1:

π − 2x 3π
B: =π ∴ x=− <0
4 2
π − 6x 11π
C: =π ∴ x=− <0
12 6

n = −1 :

π − 2x 5π
B: = −π ∴ x = > 2π
4 2
π − 6x 13π
C: = −π ∴ x = > 2π
12 6

In conclusion, within the interval 0 < x ≤ 2π , there are only two solutions, see Fig. 7.12.
π π 
x= ,
6 2

7.75 Similarly to P.7.74,

 π
sin(3x) = sin x −
2
 π
sin(3x) − sin x − =0
2
    
x+y x−y
sin x − sin y = 2 cos sin
2 2
 π   
3x + x − 2 3x − x + π2
2 cos sin =0
2 2
   
8x − π 4x + π
2 cos sin =0
4 4
 !"  ! "  ! "
A B C

Obviously, 2 = 0 leaving either B = 0 or C = 0 terms to be zero. Term C is a sin θ function,

and B is in the form of cos θ , where

π 3π π
if, cos θ = 0 ∴ θ = ± , ± , . . . in general: θ = ± nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2 2 2
310 7 Trigonometry

if, sin θ = 0 ∴ θ = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

Therefore, within the interval −π < x ≤ π ,

n=0:

8x − π π 3π
B: = ∴ x= ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 2 8
4x + π π
C: = 0 ∴ x = − ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 4

n=1:

8x − π π 7π
B: = +π ∴ x = ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 2 8
4x + π 3π
C: =π ∴ x= ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 4

n = −1 :

8x − π π π
B: = − π ∴ x = − ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 2 8
4x + π 5π
C: = −π ∴ x = − < −π
4 4

n=2:

8x − π π 11π
B: = + 2π ∴ x = >π
4 2 8
4x + π 7π
C: = 2π ∴ x = >π
4 4

n = −2 :

8x − π π 5π
B: = − 2π ∴ x = − ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 2 8
4x + π 9π
C: = −2π ∴ x = − < −π
4 4

In conclusion, within the interval −π < x ≤ π , there are six solutions (see Fig. 7.13),
 
5π 2π π 3π 6π 7π
x = − ,− ,− , , ,
8 8 8 8 8 8
7.5 Inequalities 311

Fig. 7.13 P.7.75, the set of

solutions within the given interval.
Note that these two functions have
different periods. The solution set
periodically repeats from negative
to positive infinity

7.5 Inequalities

7.76 A simple inequality may be solved by the use unit circle as follows

2 cos x + 1 < 0
1
cos x < −
2

By inspection of unit circle, see Fig. 7.1, boundaries of the solution set are defined by equality,
i.e.

4π 4π
x1 = ± 2nπ and x2 = − ± 2nπ
3 3

where, for a simple cos(x) function, periodicity is 2π . It is evident from the unit circle that
cos x (i.e. the horizontal projection length) is less than ‘−1/2’ within the interval

4π 4π
−<x < or, equivalently
3 3
   
3
π π 3
π π  
− − <x < + π ≡ −π ≡ 180◦
3
3 3
3
π
x < −π ± + 2nπ
3

where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , see Fig. 7.14.

7.77 Similarly to P.7.76,

√
2 sin x − 2>0
√
2
sin x >
2
312 7 Trigonometry

Fig. 7.14 P.7.76, in comparison to

discrete points for equalities,
inequality solution set is an
interval. Shaded regions indicate
intervals x ∈ (−4π/3, −2π/3),
x ∈ (2π/3, 4π/3), etc, where
cos x < −1/2, in this case it is a
strict inequality. The solution
intervals repeat every 2π

Fig. 7.15 P.7.77 – inequality set of solutions

this inequality is satisfied for

π 5π
+ 2nπ < x < + 2nπ where, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
6 6

as illustrated in Fig. 7.15a. The interval solution sets are marked by shaded areas that are
periodic in Fig. 7.15a (left). This periodicity may be equivalently illustrated by unit circle in
√ 7.15a (right) where, due to periodicity, the solution sets are superimposed above sin x =
Fig.
2/2 value (which is vertical projection for sin x) and marked by shaded area.

7.78 Similar to P.7.66 to P.7.77.

- √
-
- 2
cos x − sin x < 1 -×
- 2
7.5 Inequalities 313

Fig. 7.16 P.7.78 – inequality set of solutions

√ √ √
2 2 2
cos x − sin x <
2 2 2
√
π π 2
sin cos x − cos sin x <
4 4 2
 
sin α cos β − cos α sin β = sin(α − β)
π  √2
sin −x <
4 2

By inspection of unit circle, see Fig. 7.1, it is evident that

√
2 π 5π
sin x = ⇒x= or, x = −
2 4 4

Therefore,
π π
−x < ∴ x > 0 + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . and
4 4
π 5π 3π
−x >− ∴ x< + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
4 4 2

The solution set is illustrated in Fig. 7.16a (left). Alternatively, the solution set may be shown
in unit circle, where the periodic nature of the solution set is more evident, as intervals of
0 < x < 3π/2 and −2π < x − π/2 are overlapped and repeated with 2pi periodicity. Note
that, due to strict inequality, boundary points are not included in the solution set, i.e. x = 2nπ
and x = 3π/2.

7.79 Note that sin(x) = sin(x + 2π ), i.e. it is periodic by T = 2π . Multiplication of sine

argument by a number superior to one reduces sine period proportionally, that is to say sin(3x)
is periodic with T = 2π/3, see Fig. 7.17a. Given inequality may be then resolved as follows.
314 7 Trigonometry

Fig. 7.17 P.7.79 – inequality sets of solution intervals

√
3
sin 3x − ≥0
2
π 
sin 3x − sin ≥0
3
    
α+β α−β
sin α − sin β = 2 cos sin
2 2
⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
3x + 3x −
⎜ 3 ⎟ sin ⎜ 3⎟≥0
2 cos ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 2
   
9x + π 9x − π
2 cos sin ≥0
6 6

Therefore, as per unit circle, if cos x ≥ 0 ∴ x ≤ ±π/2, and if sin ≥ 0 ∴ 0 ≤ x ≤ π , then

 
9x + π π 9x + π π 4π 2π
cos ≥0 ∴ − ≤ ≤ ∴ − ≤x≤
6 2 6 2 9 9
and,
 
9x − π 9x − π π 7π
sin ≥0 ∴ 0≤ ≤π ∴ ≤x≤
6 6 9 9

The two intervals overlap if π/9 ≤ x ≤ 2π/9, see diagram in Fig. 7.17b (top).
The second possibility is, if cos x ≤ 0 ∴ π/2 ≤ x ≤ 3π/2, and if sin ≤ 0 ∴ −π ≤ x ≤
0, then
 
9x + π π 9x + π 3π 2π 8π
cos ≤0 ∴ ≤ ≤ ∴ ≤x≤
6 2 6 2 9 9
and,
7.5 Inequalities 315

 
9x − π 9x − π 5π π
sin ≤ 0 ∴ −π ≤ ≤0 ∴ − ≤x≤
6 6 9 9

Therefore, the two intervals do not overlap, i.e. the solution set is empty, see diagram in
Fig. 7.17b (bottom). In summary, including the periodicity of T = 2nπ/3 the solution set
is

π 6nπ 2π 6nπ
± ≤x≤ ±
9 9 9 9

where, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , see Fig. 7.17.

7.80 Inequalities that include absolute functions are equivalent to two inequalities Fig. 7.18,
as

1 1 1
| sin x| ≥ ∴ − ≥ sin x ≥
2 2 2

By inspection of unit circle, see Fig. 7.1 the solutions is simply

5π π
− + 2nπ ≤ x ≤ − + 2nπ
6 6

and,

π 5π
+ 2nπ ≤ x ≤ + 2nπ
6 6

where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

Fig. 7.18 P.7.80 – inequality sets of solutions

316 7 Trigonometry

Fig. 7.19 P.7.81, absolute values

of a function are positive, i.e. in the
upper half of the graph. Inequality
solution intervals are marked by
shaded surface bound by two x
points. The solution interval repeat
every 2π

7.81 Absolute value functions are split into two cases.

Case 1: sin x > 0 ∴ | sin x| = sin x, thus

  π
sin
 sin
x = x + 2 cos x ∴ 2 cos x = 0 ∴ x = + 2nπ, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2

Case 2: sin x < 0 ∴ | sin x| = − sin x, thus

− sin x = sin x + 2 cos x ∴ 2 sin x + 2 cos x = 0 ∴ sin x + cos x = 0

Using same idea as in P.7.78,

- √
-
- 2
sin x + cos x = 0 -×
- 2
√ √
2 2
sin x + cos x = 0
2 2
π π
cos sin x + sin cos x = 0
4 4
 
cos α sin β + sin α cos β = sin(α + β)
 π π
∴ sin x + =0 ∴ x+ =0
4 4
π
∴ x = − + 2nπ, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
4

The two streams of periodic solutions are illustrated in Fig. 7.19, where the periodic solution
set interval is
π π
− + 2nπ ≤ x ≤ + 2nπ
4 2
Complex Algebra
8

Basic forms and identities of complex numbers: geometrical interpretations of Pythagorean triangles,
vector addition, and complex numbers are illustrated in Fig. 8.1.

j 2 = −1
z = a + j b = Re (z) + j Im (z)
z∗ = a − j b
|z|2 = z z∗ = (a + j b)(a − j b) = a 2 + b2 = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2
z1 = a + j b and z2 = c + j d ∴ if z1 = z2 ⇒ a = c and b = d
arg(z) = θ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (b, a)

Euler’s formula: through right triangles in Fig. 8.1 and the unit circle in Fig. 7.1, Euler’s formula
gives relation between the exponential and trigonometric forms of a complex number, as

z = |z|ej θ = |z| (cos θ + j sin θ )

∴ (given )|z| = 1
⎧
⎪
⎪ ej θ + e−j θ
 ⎪
⎪ cos θ =
ej θ = cos θ + j sin θ ⎨ 2
⇒
−j θ
= cos θ − j sin θ ⎪
⎪
e ⎪
⎪ ej θ − e−j θ
⎩ sin θ =
2j

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 317
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_8
318 8 Complex Algebra

Fig. 8.1 Pythagoras’ theorem

(unit circle), vectors, complex
numbers

Problems

8.1 Basic Calculations

Calculate |z| and arg(z) of complex numbers in P.8.1 to P.8.5:

8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5.

z=j z = j2 z = j3 z = j4 z = j5

Simplify expressions in P.8.6 to P.8.11:

8.6. j 2 + j 3 + j 4 8.7. j −5 + j −17 + j 36 8.8. (2j )2 + (−2j )−4

8.10. j 102 + j 101

8.9. j 5 + j −4 + j 121 8.11.
j 125 + (−j )60 + j 83 j 100 − j 99

Determine real and imaginary parts of complex numbers in P.8.12 to P.8.20:

1 1 1+j
8.12. j + 8.13. 8.14. √
j 2j 2

√
1 + j 3 1+j 1−j
8.15. 8.16. 8.17.
2 1−j 2 + 3j

8.18. 8.19. √ √ 8.20.

1+j 31−j 3 −41 + 63j 6j + 1
(3 + 4j )(3 − 4j ) −
2 2 50 1 − 7j
8.3 Polar Form 319

Calculate expressions in P.8.21 to P.8.30:

8.21. (1 + i)4 + (1 − i)4 8.22. (1 + j )50 8.23. (1 − j )100

 4 √  12
1 1+j (j 3 − 1)2 4
8.24. + √ 8.25. 8.26. √
j 2 (2j )2 j 3−1

√  1000  1000
(1 + j )2024 2 j 2 1+j 1−j
8.27. 4 +√ 8.28. √ + √
(1 − j )2025 j 2 2 2

√ √ √ √
1+j 3 6 066 1−j 3 6 066 3 j 108 12 1 216
8.29. + 8.30. + − +
2 2 2 2 4 2j

8.2 Complex Plane

Given complex numbers in P.8.31 to P.8.43, sketch their positions in the complex plane:

8.31. z1 = 1 8.32. 8.33. z3 = j 8.34.

z2 = −1 z4 = −j

√ √ √ √
8.35. z5 = 3 + j 1 8.36. z6 = 2
+j
2 8.37. z7 = + j 3
1
2 2 2 2 2 2

√ √ √ √ √
8.38. z8 = − 2
+j
2 8.39. z9 = − 3 + j 1 8.40. z10 =−
2
−j
2
2 2 2 2 2 2

√ √ √ √
2 2 8.42. z12 = 3 1 8.43. z13 = − 1 − j 3
8.41. z11 = −j −j
2 2 2 2 2 2

8.44. Given z = (2j )n sketch its trajectory as n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .

8.3 Polar Form

Convert complex numbers given in P.8.45 to P.8.55 into their equivalent polar forms:

8.45. j 8.46. j 2024 8.47. 2 − j 8.48.

(2 − j )6
320 8 Complex Algebra

√
1+j 3 10 8.50. √ 8.51.
8.49. 1 3−j 3 (1 + j )6 − (1 − j )6
1−j √ −
3 2 (1 + j )6 (1 − j )6

8.52. 8.53. 8.54.

3 1+j 6 (1 − j )2 j + 1 4 π π 3
+ √ 8 cos − j sin
1+j 2j 2 2 6 6

(1 + j )200 (6 + 2j ) − (1 − j )198 (3 − j )
8.55.
(1 + j )196 (23 − 7j ) + (1 − j )194 (10 + 2j )

8.4 Euler Identity

Given complex numbers in P.8.56 to P.8.67, convert them into their equivalent trigonometric form
by Euler’s equation. Calculate the product z z∗ . Compare with P.8.31 to P.8.43.

8.56. z = ej 0 8.57.
π
8.58.
π
8.59.
π
z = ej 6 z = ej 4 z = ej 3

8.60.
π
8.61.
3π
8.62.
5π
8.63. z = ej π
z = ej 2 z = ej 4 z = ej 6

8.64. 8.65. 8.66. 8.67.

5π 3π 7π 11π
z = ej 4 z = ej 2 z = ej 4 z = ej 6

Given numbers in P.8.68 to P.8.75, calculate their respective |z| and arg(z).

8.68. 8.69. 8.70. 8.71.

1 π 1 √ jπ 2
z = −2 e−j
5π 7π
z = ej 3 6
z = − ej 4 z= 2e 4
2 2

8.72. 8.73. 8.74. 8.75.

3 5 4 3
z = −3 e−j 6
π π
z = 4 e−j
5π 7π
z = 3 ej 3 6 z = 0.2 ej 4
8.6 Complex Equations 321

8.5 Rational Powers

Given complex roots of numbers in P.8.76 to P.8.44

√ √
3
√
4
√
6
8.76. 1 8.77. 1 8.78. 1 8.79. 1

8.80. j 8.81. −j 8.82. 3

j 8.83. 4
j

8.84. 5
j 8.85. 8.86. 8.87.
1/(2j ) (1 − j )3 3
1/(1 + j )2

8.6 Complex Equations

Give the geometrical interpretation of equations in P.8.88 to P.8.93:

8.88. |z − 1| = 9 8.89. |z − 3j | = 1 8.90. |z + 2 − j | = 4

 
z − 1 8.92.  8.93.

8.91.  =2  z − 5 + 2j 
z + 1  
 2z − 1  = 1 |z + 2| + |z − 2| = 5

Solve for real x and y in P.8.94 to P.8.97:

1 1 1
8.94. (2 + 3j )x + (3 + 2j )y = 1 8.95. = +
x + jy 2+j −2 + 4j

8.96. 5x − 3jy + 2j = 6 − j x − y 8.97. j x 2 +(1−2j )xy+(1−j )y 2 = 4+2j

Solve equations in P.8.98 to P.8.105:

8.98. z2 = j 8.99. z2 = −j 8.100. z2 = 5 + 12j

8.101.
√ z4 + 8 + 8.102.  j z6 + 8 √
1 8.103. = 3
8 3j = 0 |z| =   = |1 − z| 8j − z6
z
322 8 Complex Algebra

 n  n
1+j 1−j
8.104. Given z(n) = √ + √ calculate z(n + 4) + z(n).
2 2

8.105. Resolve parameter p so that three roots of the following equation are at vertices of an
equilateral triangle:

z3 − (1 + p + j p)z2 + p(1 + j + j p)z − j p2 = 0

8.1 Basic Complex Number Forms 323

Answers

8.1 Basic Complex Number Forms

Note that j n powers produce periodic results, which may be interpreted as a rotation of vector j
relative to the origin of the complex plane. In general, the same with the real numbers, the zn power
operation of a complex number rises its modulus to |z|n power and at the same time multiplies its
argument θ (phase) as nθ , thus rotation.

8.1. As the general algebraic form of a complex number is z = a + j b, a, b ∈ R, then to

say that z = j is the same as saying that Re (z) = a = 0 and Im (z) = b = 1, as

z = 0 + 1 × j ∴ Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) = +1

One of a complex number geometrical interpretations is that its modulus |z| is equivalent to
the hypothenuse of a Pythagorean triangle (see Fig. 8.1), where the length of the horizontal
cathetus equals Re (z) and the vertical cathetus equals Im (z); therefore, by Pythagoras’
theorem
 
c2 = a 2 + b2 Pythagoras’ theorem
∴

|z| = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2 = a 2 + b2 = 02 + 12 = 1 (i.e., a real number)

By knowing two catheti of a Pythagorean triangle, the argument of arg(z) = θ is calculated as

the ratio of the vertical and horizontal catheti, commonly known as the “slope” or “tan θ” as

b Im (z) 1
“slope” ≡ tan θ = = = = ∞ (i.e., vertical line)
def

a Re (z) 0

Note that calculation of θ may be ambiguous if the catheti length signs are ignored; that is
because there are two possibilities for arg(z) as

1 Im (z) sin θ π
arg(z) = tan θ = = = = ±∞ ∴ cos θ = 0 ∴ θ = ±
0 Re (z) cos θ 2
or, equivalently
π
tan θ = ±∞ ∴ θ = arctan(±∞) = ±
2

For that reason, keeping the number signs is important, which is resolved by using the modified
arctan(x) named atan2 (b, a) function. Note that atan2 (b, a) is a function of two arguments:
vertical b and horizontal a catheti signed lengths, where their respective signs are explicitly
included. By doing so, arg(z) are placed in the correct quadrant. That is to say,

Im (z) +1 π
tan θ = ∴ θ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 ( +1, 0) = arctan ∴ θ =+
def def

Re (z) 0 2
324 8 Complex Algebra

Fig. 8.2 P.8.1 to P.8.5, for any

number z on the unit circle
(r = 1), it is evident that its
module equals one, i.e.,
| ± 1| = 1, | ± j | = 1. Thus, by
knowing only its arg(z) such
number may be correctly placed
in space, as expressed by
Euler’s identity. Real numbers
may be seen as the special case
of complex numbers that are
found on the horizontal (real)
axis, i.e., whose Im (z) = 0

which is to say that Im (j ) is positive and Re (j ) is zero; therefore, its argument must be
positive. A complex plane is illustrated by a unit circle where the position of an arbitrary
complex number z is shown with its argument θ; see Fig. 8.2. It is evident that z = j is
found at θ = +π/2, z = −1 at θ = ±π , z = −j at θ = −π/2, and z = 1 at θ = 0 rad.
Note the difference between arg(z) = +π/2 and arg(z) = −π/2. In addition, arguments may be
measured either in positive or negative direction, whichever is more convenient, for example,
θ = −π/2 ≡ +3π/2.

8.2. Algebraic form z = j 2 is identical to

z = j 2 = −1 = −1 + 0 × j ∴ Re (z) = −1 and Im (z) = 0

def

∴

|z| = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2 = (−1)2 + 02 = 1 (i.e., a real number)
Im (z)
tan θ = ∴ θ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (0, −1) ∴ θ = ±π
def def

Re (z)

To say that Re (z) = −1 and Im (z) = 0 is to say that in the complex plane coordinates of
z = −1 are (−1, 0) therefore θ = ±π (see Fig. 8.2), and evidently j 2 = −1 is a real negative
number. Equivalently, it may be interpreted as if the operation of square power j 2 rotates j
to 2 arg j = π . In general, real negative numbers may be seen as complex numbers whose
arg(z) = ±π .

8.3. Algebraic form z = j 3 is identical to

z = j 3 = j 2 j = (−1) j = 0 − 1 × j = −j ∴ Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) = −1

∴

|z| = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2 = 02 + (−1)2 = 1 (i.e., a real number)
Im (z) π
tan β = ∴ β = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 ( −1, 0) ∴ β = −
def def

Re (z) 2
8.1 Basic Complex Number Forms 325

To say that Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) = −1 is to say that in the complex plane coordinates of
z = −j are (0, −1) therefore β = −π/2 ≡ 3π/2; see Fig. 8.2.

8.4. Algebraic form z = j 4 is identical to

z = j 4 = j 2 j 2 = (−1) (−1) = 1 + 0 × j = 1 ∴ Re (z) = +1 and Im (z) = 0

∴

|z| = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2 = 12 + 02 = 1 (i.e., a real number)
Im (z)
tan β = ∴ β = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (0, +1) ∴ β = 0 ≡ ±2π
def def

Re (z)

To say that Re (z) = +1 and Im (z) = 0 is to say that in the complex plane coordinates of
z = 1 are (1, 0) therefore β = 0 ≡ ±2π (see Fig. 8.2), and evidently j 4 = 1 is a real positive
number. In general, real positive numbers may be seen as complex numbers whose arg(z) = 0
or equivalently arg(z) = 2n π, n ∈ (0, ±1, ±2, . . .).

8.5. Algebraic form z = j 5 is identical to

z = j 5 = j 4 j = (1) (j ) = 0 + 1 × j = j

see A.8.1. In conclusion, powers of j are periodic (therefore, equivalence with the trigonomet-
ric functions). After each full ±2π rotation, a complex number j returns to the initial position,
as

j 0 = 1 ∴ θ = 0◦ (±360◦ )
def

j 1 = j ∴ θ = +90◦ (−270◦ )
j 2 = −1 ∴ θ = ±180◦
j 3 = −j ∴ θ = −90◦ (+270◦ )
j 4 = 1 ∴ θ = 0◦ (±360◦ )
j 5 = j ∴ θ = +90◦ (−270◦ )
..
.

This periodicity is conveniently exploited in practical problems involving powers of complex

numbers. Again, real numbers are only a subset of complex numbers whose imaginary part
equal zero, that is to say, their argument is θ = 0◦ for positive and θ = ±π for negative
numbers.
326 8 Complex Algebra

8.6. As shown in A.8.1 to A.8.5, the powers of j may be simplified as

2
j2 + j3 + j4 = j2 + j j2 + j2 = −1 + j (−1) + (−1)2 = −1
− j + 1
= −j

8.7. As shown in A.8.1 to A.8.5, due to its periodicity of four, powers j n may be simplified
as
 
1
j −5 + j −17 + j 36 = a −n = n , a n m = a n = a m , a n+m = a n a m
m n
a
1 1 1 1
= 5
+ 17 + j 36 = 1+4 + 1+4×4 + j 4×9
j j j j
1 1 9  
= 4
+ 4
+ j 4 = j 4 = 1, 1n = 1
jj j j4
1 1 2 j 2
= + 4
+ (1)9 = + 1 = + 1 = 1 − 2j
j j (1) j j j

Thus, Re (z) = 1, Im (z) = −2, which is in the I V quadrant, and

 √
|1 − 2j | = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2 = 12 + (−2)2 = 5

arg(z) = atan2 (−2, 1) (≈ −63.43◦ ≈ −1.107rad)

8.8. Negative powers are equivalent to inverse positive powers, as

1 1 63
(2j )2 + (−2j )−4 = −4 + = −4 + =−
(−1)4 (2)4 (j )4 16 16

As Re (z) = −63/16, Im (z) = 0, is a negative real number, | − 63/16| = 63/16 and arg(z) =
atan2 (0, −63/16) = ±π .

8.9. Large exponents of complex numbers are interpreted as multiple full circle rotations plus
the “last” position on the unit circle. Due to periodicity of j every four powers (see A.8.5),

1 1 30
j 5 + j −4 + j 121 = j 1+4 + + j 1+4×30 = j 
j4 + +j 
j4 = j + 1 + j = 1 + 2j
j 1+4 
j4

√ is to say, Re (z) = 1, Im (z) = 2 are

That both positive thus in the I quadrant, and |1 + 2j | =
5 and arg(z) = atan2 (2, 1) (≈ 63.43◦ ≈ 1.107rad).

8.10. Powers of a negative number may be positive (if the power is even) or negative (if the
power is odd), as
8.1 Basic Complex Number Forms 327

j 125 + (−j )60 + j 83 = j 1+4×31 +  

(−1)60 4×15
j + j 3+4×20
 
= −1n = −1 if n is odd , and − 1n = +1 if n is even
31 15 20
=j 
j4 + 
j4 + j j2 
j4

= jA + 1 − jA = 1

As Re (z) = 1, Im (z) = 0 is a positive number on the horizontal axis, then |1| = 1 and
arg(z) = atan2 (0, 1) = 0◦ .

8.11. As an illustration, any applicable method to simplify complex expressions may be

used, as

Method 1:

j 102 + j 101 j 2 j 4×25 + j j 4×25 j2 + j  

= = = z z∗ = (a + ib)(a − ib) = a 2 + b2 = |z|2
j −j
100 99 j 4×25 −j j
3 4×24 1−j 3

−1 + j 1 − j  + j + j + ]1
−1
 Aj
 =2
= = =j
1+j 1−j 1+1 2A

Method 2:
−j −1
j 102 + j 101 j 99 j
7
3
+j
72
−1 − j −1 − j 2Aj
= = = =j
j 100 − j 99 j 99 j − 1 −1 + j −1 − j 2A

As Re (j ) = 0, Im (j ) = 1 is a positive number on the vertical axis, then |1| = 1 and

arg(z) = atan2 (+1, 0) = +π/2.

8.12. In the algebraic form real and imaginary parts of a complex number may be separated
as

1 j
z=j+ =j −j =0
j j

Therefore, Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 0, which is at the origin point.

8.13. In the algebraic form real and imaginary parts of a complex number may be separated
as

1 j j
z= =−
2j j 2

Therefore, Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 1 − j/2, which is a point on the negative part of the vertical
axis.
328 8 Complex Algebra

8.14. In the algebraic form real and imaginary parts of a complex number may be separated
as
√
2
√ √
1+j 2 2
z= √ 2
√ = +j
2 j 2 2 2
2

√ √
Therefore, Re (z) = 2/2, Im (z) = 2/2, which is a point in the I quadrant.

8.15. In the algebraic form real and imaginary parts of a complex number may be separated
as
√ √
1+j 3 1 3
z= = +j
2 2 2
√
Therefore, Re (z) = 1/2, Im (z) = 3/2, which is a point in the I quadrant.

8.16. In the algebraic form real and imaginary parts of a complex number may be separated
as

1+j 1+j 2
j

z= = =j
1−j 1+j 2

Therefore, Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 1, which is a point on the positive part of the vertical axis.

8.17. In the algebraic form real and imaginary parts of a complex number may be separated
as

1−j 2 − 3j  ∗ 
z= z z = |z|2 = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2
2 + 3j 2 − 3j
(1 − j )(2 − 3j ) 1 + 5j 1 5
= =− =− −j
13 13 13 13

Therefore, Re (z) = −1/13, Im (z) = −5/13, which is a point in the I I I quadrant.

8.18. The difference of two squares identity is in the form of z z∗ product, as

(3 + 4j )(3 − 4j ) = 32 − (4j )2 = 9 + 16 = 25

Note that the product of two complex conjugate numbers is a real number, that is, Re (z) =
25, Im (z) = 0, which is a positive number on the horizontal axis, |25| = 25 and arg(z) =
atan2 (0, 25) = 0◦ . In general, the product of two complex conjugate numbers equal the square
of its module, as
8.1 Basic Complex Number Forms 329

z = a + j b ⇒ z∗ = a − j b
def

∴
−1
∗
z z = (a + j b)(a − j b) = a −  
j ab +  
j ab − (j b) = a − 
2 2 2 7

2 2
j b
= a 2 + b2 = |z|2

which is equivalent to Pythagoras’ theorem.

8.19. The product of two complex conjugate numbers in algebraic form is resolved:
√ √ √
1+j 31−j 3   12 − (j 3)2 1+3
= (a + b)(a − b) = a − b =
2 2
= =1
2 2 4 4

As Re (1) = 1, Im (1) = 0 is a positive number on the horizontal axis, thus |1| = 1 and
arg(z) = atan2 (0, 1) = 0◦ .

8.20. Real and imaginary parts may be separated as

−41 + 63j 6j + 1 41 63 6j + 1 1 + 7j 41 63 6j − 42 + 1 + 7j
− =− + j+ =− + j−
50 1 − 7j 50 50 1 − 7j 1 + 7j 50 50 1 + 49
  − 13j
−41 + 63j + 
41 63 − 13
= = j =j
50 50

As Re (j ) = 0, Im (j ) = 1 a positive number on the vertical axis, thus |1| = 1 and arg(z) =

atan2 (+1, 0) = +π/2.

8.21. General algebra identities may be used as well:

2  2 
(1 + j )4 + (1 − j )4 = (1 + j )2 + (1 − j )2
= (a ± b)2 = a 2 ± 2ab + b2
 
= (1
+ 2j − 1
)2 + (1
− 2j − 1
)2 = 4j 2 + 4j 2 = j 2 = −1
= −4 − 4 = −8

As Re (z) = −8, Im (z) = 0 is a negative real number on the horizontal axis, then | − 8| = 8
and arg(z) = atan2 (0, −8) = ±π .

8.22. Binomial powers of complex numbers in algebra form may be developed as

 
(1 + j )50 = (1 + j )2×25 a b c = (a b )c = (a c )b

= (1 + j )2
25
= (12 + 2j + 
j2 )
25
= (2j )25 = 225 × j ×  
j 4×6
= 225 j
330 8 Complex Algebra

As Re 225 j = 0, Im 225 j = 225 is a positive number on the vertical axis, then |225 | = 225
and arg(z) = atan2 225 , 0 = +π/2. It is useful to note that the square power of (1 + j )2 = 2j .

8.23. Similarly to A.8.22,

50 50
(1 − j )100 = (1 − j )2×50 = (1 − j )2 = 1
− 2j − 1
= (−2j )50
12
= (−1)50 (2)50 (j )2+4×12 = 250 × j 2 × 
j4 = −250

As Re −250 = −250 , Im −250 = 0 is a negative number on the horizontal axis, | − 250 | =

250 and arg(z) = atan2 0, −250 = ±π . It is useful to note that the square power of (1−j )2 =
−2j .

8.24. The inverse of j is −j , and the fourth power may be factorized as a “square of a square”
as
 4 2
1 1+j j 1 (1 + j )2 (2j )2 4
+ √ = + = −j + = −j − = −1 − j
j 2 j j 22 4 4
√
As Re (−1 − j ) = −1, Im (−1 − j ) = −1 is in the I I I quadrant, then | − 1 − j | = 2 and
arg(z) = atan2 (−1, −1) = −135◦ ≡ +5π/4.

8.25. The binomial square of a complex number may be developed as

√ √ √ √
(j 3 − 1)2 1 − 2j 3 − 3 −2 − 2j 3 1 3
= = = + j
(2j )2 −4 −4 2 2
√ √
As Re (z) = 1/2, Im (z) = 3/2 is in
√
the I quadrant, then |1/2 + j 3/2| = 1 which is on the unit
circle, and arg(z) = atan2 3/2, 1/2 = π/3.

8.26. As the preparation work, note that

√ def √   2π
arg − 1+j 3 = atan2 3, −1 = a special angle (see Fig. 7.5 (right) and Fig. 7.1 ) =
3

is in the I I quadrant. An argument of this number is arg z = 2π/3, which is one of the special
angles, implying that

2π 2π
arg(z) = ∴ arg(z3 ) = 3
= 2π
3 3

This case is very convenient, because arg(z3 ) = 2π means that z3 is a real positive number
and may be exploited as
8.1 Basic Complex Number Forms 331

 12
4 412 412 412
√ = √ = √ = √ √
j 3−1 (−1 + j 3)12 (−1 + j 3)3×4 (−1 + j 3)2 (−1 + j 3)
4

412 412
= √ √ 4
= √ √ 4
(−1)2 − 2j 3 + 3j 2 ) (−1 + j 3) 2 (−1 − j 3) (−1 + j 3)
 
(a − b)(a + b) = a 2 − b2 , j 2 = −1
12
412   22
= = 4 = 2 2
, 8 = 2 3
= = 212 = 4 096
(1 + 3)4 23
4

As Re (4 096) = 4 096, Im (4 096) = 0 is a positive number on the horizontal axis, then

|4096| = 4096 and arg(z) = atan2 (0, 4096) = 0◦ .

8.27. The given expression may be simplified as

√
(1 + j )2024 2 j 2 (1 + j )2×1012 1 j 2 (2j )1012 j 2
4 +√ =4 √ =4 −√
(1 − j )2025 j 2 (1 − j )2×1012+1 j 2 j (−2j ) (1 − j )
1012
2
(2j )4
253
1  1
2253 1+j
= 4
2 − = −2 253

(−2j )4
253
(1 − j ) 2
2 (1 − j ) 1 + j


= −1 − j
√
As Re (−1 − j ) = −1, Im (−1 − j ) = −1 is a in the I I I quadrant, thus | − 1 − j | = 2
and arg(z) = atan2 (−1, −1) = −3π/4.

8.28. Large exponents may be factorized so that the binomial square is used, as
 1000  1000  2×500  2×500  500  500
1+j 1−j 1+j 1−j 2Aj 2Aj
√ + √ = √ + √ = + −
2 2 2 2 2A 2A
125
=2 
j4 =2

As Re (2) = 2, Im (2) = 0 is a positive number on the horizontal axis, then |2| = 2 and
arg(z) = atan2 (0, 2) = 0◦ .

8.29. Following the same idea as in A.8.26, as the preparation work, note that
√
1 3 def √   π
arg +j = atan2 3/2, 1/2 = a special angle (see Fig. 7.5 (right) and Fig. 7.1 )=
2 2 3

is in the I quadrant. An argument of this number is arg z = π/3, which is one of the special
angles, implying that
332 8 Complex Algebra

π π
arg(z) = ∴ arg(z3 ) = 3
= π
3 3

This case is very convenient, because arg(z3 ) = π means that z3 is a real negative number,
and as 6 066 = 3 × 2 022 it may be exploited
 √ 6 066  √ 6 066
1+j 3 1−j 3
+
2 2
 √ √ 2 022  √ √ 2 022
(1 + j 3)2 (1 + j 3) (1 − j 3)2 (1 − j 3)
= +
23 23
 √ √ 2 022  √ √ 2 022
(−2 + 2j 3)(1 + j 3) (−2 − 2j 3)(1 − j 3)
= +
8 8
 √ √ 2 022  √ √ 2 022
−2A(1 − j 3)(1 + j 3) −2A(1 + j 3)(1 − j 3)
= +
8
4 8
4
 
(a − b)(a + b) = a 2 − b2 , j 2 = −1
   
1 − (−3) 2 022 1 − (−3) 2 022
= − + − = (−1)2 022 + (−1)2 022 = 1 + 1 = 2
4 4

As Re (2) = 2, Im (2) = 0 is a positive number on the horizontal axis, then |2| = 2 and
arg(z) = atan2 (0, +2) = 0◦ .

√
8.30. Similarly as in A.8.29, note that arg 3/2 + j/2 = +π/6; see Fig. 7.5 (right) and
Fig. 7.1. Therefore, the argument of its sixth power is π resulting in
√ a real negative
√ number. In
addition, the following factorizations are useful: 1/(2j ) = −j/2, 12 = 2 3, 108 = 6 × 18,
216 = 6 × 36, and 6 = 3 × 2. So that
√ 108  √ 216
3 j 12 1
+ − +
2 2 4 2j
√ 6×18  √ 6×36
3 1 4×3 1 j
= +j − +
2 2 4 2j j
 √ 3 2×18  √ 3 2×36
3 1 2A 3 1
= +j − −j
2 2 4A 2 2
 √ 2×18  √ 2×36
( 3 + j )3 ( 3 − j )3
= −
23 23
 
(a + b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab2 + b3 , see Fig. 2.1
8.2 Complex Plane 333

 √ √ 2×18  √ √ 2×36
3
 3
3 + 8 9Aj −  3 − jA 33 − 8 9Aj − 3 3 + jA
= −
23 23
 2×18    18  36
8j −8j 2×36 82 j 2 
(−1) 2 2 2
8 j
= − = −  = (−1)18 −(−1)36
23 23 2 6
2 6

=0

Therefore, Re (0) = 0, Im (0) = 0 is a point at the complex plane origin.

8.2 Complex Plane

Given the algebraic form of a complex number, its module may be calculated simply by Pythagoras’
theorem and shown in the unit circle (see Figs. 7.1 and 8.1), where the horizontal axis is interpreted
as Re (z) and the vertical axis as Im (z).

8.31. Given z = 1, then (see Fig. 8.3)

z1 = 1 ∴ Re (z) = 1, Im (z) = 0 ∴ |z| = (0)2 + (1)2 = 1

arg(z) = atan2 (0, +1) on the positive side of the horizontal axes
 
0
= arctan =0
1

8.32. Given z2 = −1, then (see Fig. 8.3)

z2 = −1 ∴ Re (z) = −1, Im (z) = 0 ∴ |z| = (0)2 + (−1)2 = 1

arg(z) = atan2 (0, −1) on the negative side of the horizontal axes
 
0
= ±π + arctan = ±π
1

Fig. 8.3 P.8.31 to P.8.43, in the

complex plane, the exponential
form of complex numbers is
represented by the unit circle
and angular direction. Angles
may be measured either in
positive (counterclockwise) or
negative (clockwise) directions.
All angles may be rotated to
their correlated angles in the
first quadrant, as formalized by
various trigonometric identities.
For example, z13 = z7 ± π
334 8 Complex Algebra

8.33. Given z3 = j , then (see Fig. 8.3)

z3 = j ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 1 ∴ |z| = (1)2 + (0)2 = 1

arg(z) = atan2 (1, 0) on the positive side of the vertical axes
 
1 π
= arctan = arctan (∞) =
0 2

8.34. Given z4 = −j , then (see Fig. 8.3)

z4 = −j ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = −1 ∴ |z| = (1)2 + (0)2 = 1

arg(z) = atan2 (−1, 0) on the negative side of the vertical axes
 
−1 π
= arctan = − arctan (∞) = −
0 2

√
8.35. Given z5 = 3/2 + j 1/2, then (see Fig. 8.3)

√ √  √
  
3 1 3 1 3 2 1 2
z5 = +j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √   
1 3 1/2 π
arg(z) = atan2 , in the I quadrant = arctan √ C =
2 2 3/2
C 6

√ √
8.36. Given z6 = 2/2 + j 2/2, then (see Fig. 8.3)

√ √ √ √  √
   √ 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
z6 = +j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √  √ 
2 2 Z2/2 π
arg(z) = atan2 , Z
in the I quadrant = arctan √ 1 =
2 2 Z2/2 4
Z

√
8.37. Given z7 = 1/2 + j 3/2, then (see Fig. 8.3)

√ √ 
 2  √ 2
1 3 1 3 1 3
z7 = + j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
√  √ 
3 1 3/2
C =π
arg(z) = atan2 , in the I quadrant = arctan
2 2 1/2C 3
8.2 Complex Plane 335

√ √
8.38. Given z8 = − 2/2 + j 2/2, then (see Fig. 8.3)

√ √ √ √  √
   √ 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
z8 = − +j ∴ Re (z) = − , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √ 
2 2
arg(z) = atan2 ,− in the I I quadrant
2 2
 √ 
Z2/2 3π
= ±π + arctan H√ Z = ±π + arctan(−1) =
− HH
2/2 −1 4

√
8.39. Given z9 = − 3/2 + j 1/2, then (see Fig. 8.3)

√ √ 
 √ 2  2
3 1 3 1 3 1
z9 = − +j ∴ Re (z) = − , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = − + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ 
1 3
arg(z) = atan2 ,− in the I I quadrant
2 2
 
1/2
C √ 5π
= ±π + arctan √ = ±π + arctan(−1/ 3) =
− /2C
3 6

√ √
8.40. Given z10 = − 2/2 − j 2/2, then (see Fig. 8.3)

√ √ √ √  √
   √ 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
z10 =−− −j ∴ Re (z) = − , Im (z) = − ∴ |z|= − + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ √ 
2 2
arg(z) = atan2 − ,− in the I I I quadrant
2 2
 √ 
− 2
/2 5π 3π
= ±π + arctan  √ 1 = ≡−
−

2/2 4 4

√ √
8.41. Given z11 = 2/2 − j 2/2, then (see Fig. 8.3)

√ √ √ √  √
   √ 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
z11 = −j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = − ∴ |z| = + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ √ 
2 2
arg(z) = atan2 − , in the I V quadrant
2 2
 √ 
− 2
/2 π
= arctan √  −1 = −
2 4
/2
336 8 Complex Algebra

√
8.42. Given z12 = 2
3
− j 12 , then (see Fig. 8.3)

√ √  √
   
3 1 3 1 3 2 1 2
z12 = −j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = − ∴ |z| = + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ 
1 3
arg(z) = atan2 − , in the I V quadrant
2 2
 
−1/2 √ π
= arctan √ C = arctan(−1/ 3) = −
3/2
C 6

√
8.43. Given z13 = −1/2 − j 3/2, then (see Fig. 8.3)

√ √ 
   √ 2
1 3 1 3 1 2 3
z13 =− −j ∴ Re (z) = − , Im (z) = − ∴ |z| = − + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ 
3 1
arg(z) = atan2 − ,− in the I I I quadrant
2 2
 √ 
− 3/2C √ 4π 2π
= ±π + arctan = ±π + arctan 3 = ≡−
−1/2C 3 3

8.44. As powers on the complex number increases, both its modulus and its argument
increase as

n = 0 : (2j )0 = 1, ∴ Re (z) = 1, Im (z) = 0

n = 1 : (2j )1 = 2j, ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 2
n = 2 : (2j )2 = 4j 2 = −4, ∴ Re (z) = −4, Im (z) = 0
n = 3 : (2j )3 = 8j 3 = −8j, ∴ Re (z) = −0, Im (z) = −8
n = 4 : (2j )4 = 16j 4 = 16, ∴ Re (z) = 16, Im (z) = 0
n = 5 : (2j )5 = 32j 5 = 32j, ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 32
..
.

thus, as n → ∞, it creates a progressively expanding spiraling trajectory where |z| → ∞ and

arg(z) → ∞ × 2π ; see Fig. 8.4
8.3 Polar Form 337

Fig. 8.4 P.8.44, illustration of a

trajectory taken by a complex
number as its power increases.
As |z| is greater than one, then
both module and phase tend to
infinity as the power increases,
thus following exponential
spiral

8.3 Polar Form

8.45. The polar form of a complex number z is formed with its |z| and its arg(z). That is
to say, given the algebraic form of z it is necessary to calculate |z| and arg(z) by applying
Pythagoras’ theorem and the unit circle.

Reminder: Polar (exponential) form of complex numbers (see Figs. 7.1, 8.1, and 8.2)

z = a + j b = |z| ej θ
where
|z|2 = z z∗ = a 2 + b2 and, θ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (b, a)

It is important to note that, by itself, the geometrical interpretation of ej θ is a circle whose

r = 1. In other words, it can be used to describe all complex numbers whose module
|z| = 1 because each point on a circle defines a right triangle, as per Thales’ theorem as
in Chap. 6. Given θ , all complex numbers whose module |z| = 1 are located on the line
crossing the origin at distance of |z|. Often, the term ej θ is referred to as the “phase”; it
can also be imagined as the “unit of distance” (similar to 1m) but in the direction of θ
(similar to a compass), where z is the actual distance from the origin.

z = j ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 1

|z| = 02 + 12 = 1
π
arg(z) = atan2 (+1, 0) =
2
∴
z = 1 ej π/2
338 8 Complex Algebra

8.46. The exponential form greatly simplifies power calculations, due to periodic j 4 = 1,
and then
506
z = j 2024 = j 4×506 = j 4 = 1506 = 1
therefore, |z| = 1, and z = 2π = 0
∴
z = ej 0

that is to say, number z = 1 is located at the unit circle in the direction of 0, the same with
all the other positive real numbers.

8.47. The algebraic form of z may be converted into its equivalent polar form as

z = 2 − j ∴ Re (z) = 2, Im (z) = −1
√
|z| = (22 + (−1)2 ) = 5
 
1
arg(z) = atan2 (−1, 2) in the I V quadrant, ≈ −26.56◦ = − arctan
2
∴
√ −j
z= 5e arctan(1/2)

√
that is to say, number z is located at 5 distance from the origin in the direction of
(− arctan (1/2)).

8.48. The algebraic form of z may be converted into its equivalent polar form as

Method 1: as already found in A.8.47

√ −j √
z= 5e arctan(1/2)
and |z| = 5
√ −j 6
z6 = 5e arctan(1/2)
= 53 e−j 6 arctan(1/2) in the I I I quadrant, ≈ −159.39◦

Method 2: by using algebraic transformations

z = (2 − j )6 = (2 − j )2×3 = (4 − 4j − 1)3 = (3 − 4j )2 (3 − 4j ) = (9 − 24j − 16)(3 − 4j )

= (−7 − 24j )(3 − 4j ) = −21 + 28j − 72j − 96 = −117 − 44j

Therefore,

z = −117 − 44j ∴ Re (z) = −117, Im (z) = −44

|z| = (−117)2 + (−44)2 = 125 = 53

8.3 Polar Form 339

 
44
arg(z) = atan2 (−44, −117) in the I I I quadrant, ≈ −159.39◦ = ±π + arctan
117
∴
±π +arctan(44/117)
z = 53 e j

that is to say, number z is located at “125” distance from the origin in the direction of (±π +
arctan(44/117) .

8.49. As the preparation work (see A.8.29), note that

√ def √   π
arg 1 + j 3 = atan2 3, 1 = a special angle (see Fig. 7.5 (right) and Fig. 7.1 ) =
3

which is to say that its third power is a real negative number. Similarly, binomial square power
(1 ± j )2 = ±2j . Therefore,
√ √ √
1+j 3 10 (1 + j 3)3×3 (1 + j 3)  
z= = see A.8.26
1−j (1 − j )2×5
√ √
(−8)3 (1 + j 3)   −512 1 + j 3 j √
= see A.8.5 = = 16 ( 3 − j)
(−2j )5 −32 j j
√ π
∴ |z| = 32, and arg(z) = atan2 −1, 3 = − see Fig. 7.1
6
∴ z = 32 e−j
π
6

8.50. Real and imaginary parts of a given number may be derived as

√ √ √ √ √
1 3−j 3 2− 3( 3 − j ) 3 2−3+j 3 3 1 1 3 3
z= √ − = √ = √ = √ − +j
3 2 2 3 2 3 3 2 2

where
√
1 1 3
√ − +j (in the I I quadrant)
3  2  2 
|1|

∴
 √ 
 1 
 1 3  1
 √ − + j = √ and its phase θ (see Fig. 7.1) is
 3 2 2  3
√ 2π
θ = atan2 3/2, −1/2 =
3

This is one of special angles, which is to say that the argument of its third power is zero, a real
positive number, as
340 8 Complex Algebra

 √ 3 √
1 1 3 1 1 3 3 1
√ − +j =√ − +j =√
3 2 2 27  2  2  27
=1

∴
1
z = √ ej 0
27

8.51. The given expression may be resolved with binomial squares as

(1 + j )6 − (1 − j )6 (1 + j )2×3 − (1 − j )2×3 (2j )3 − (−2j )3 −8j − −8j

z= = = =
(1 + j ) (1 − j )
6 6 (1 + j ) (1 − j )
2×3 2×3 (2j )3 (−2j )3 (−8j )(8j )
−8j − 8j 1
= = −j
(−8j )(8j ) 4
∴
1 −l π
z= e 2
4

8.52. The given expression may be resolved with binomial squares as

3 1−j 1+j j 6 3(1 − j ) j − 1 6 3 3 1 1 6

z= + = + = −j −j +
1+j 1−j 2j j 2 −2 2 2 2 2
= 26 (1 − j )2×3 = 26 (−2j )3 = 29 j
∴
π π π
|29 j | = 29 and j = ej 2 ∴ z = 29 e j 2 = 512 ej 2

8.53. The given expression may be resolved as

(1 − j )2 j + 1 4 1 4 24 1
z= √ = −2j (j + 1) = (1 − j )4 = (−4)
2 2 64 64 4
= −1 a real negative number
∴
| − 1| = 1 and, θ = π ∴ z = ej π

8.54. The given expression is already in Euler’s trigonometric form as

π π 3
z = 8 cos − j sin
6 6
∴
π π π  
∴ z = 8 e−j 2
π
|z| = 8 and θ0 = − ∴ θ =3 − =− = −8j
6 6 2
8.4 Euler Identity 341

8.55. Following the same ideas as A.8.29 and after, the algebraic form of z may be converted
into its equivalent exponential form as

(1 + j )200 (6 + 2j ) − (1 − j )198 (3 − j ) (1+j )2×100 2(3+j ) − (1−j )2×99 (3−j )

z= =
(1 + j )196 (23 − 7j ) + (1 − j )194 (10 + 2j ) (1+j )2×98 (23−7j ) + (1−j )2×97 2(5 +j )
(2j )100 2(3 + j ) − (−2j )99 (3 − j ) 299 × 4(3 + j ) − 299 j (3 − j )
= =
(2j )98 (23 − 7j ) + (−2j )97 2(5 + j ) −298 (23 − 7j ) − 298 j (5 + j )
2Z
99
(12 + 4j − 3j − 1) 2
(11 + j ) 11 + j (11 + j )2
= = =
−2
98
(23 − 7j + 5j − 1) −2
(11 − j ) 11 + j −(11 − j )(11 + j )
121 + 22j − 1 120 + 22j 60 + 11j 60 11
= = =− =− −j
−(121 + 1) −122 61 61 61

Therefore,

11 + j 60 11
z= =− −j
−(11 − j ) 61 61
∴
√
|11 + j | 122
|z| = =√ = 1, (i.e., on the unit circle)
| − 1||11 − j | 122
 
11
arg(z) = atan2 (−11/61, −60/61) in the I I I quadrant, ≈ −169.61◦ = ±π + arctan
60
∴
±π +arctan(11/60)
z = 1 ej

that is to say, number z is located on the unit circle in the direction of (±π + arctan(11/60) .

8.4 Euler Identity

Reminder: Euler’s formula shows explicitly the relationship between the exponential form of
a complex number z to basic trigonometric functions, as

z = a + j b = |z|ej θ = |z| (cos θ + j sin θ )

where sine and cosine functions are derived from the right triangle defined by z on the unit
circle. Special case of θ = π is (arguably) considered as one of the most beautiful equations in
sciences,

ej π + 1 = 0

(continued)
342 8 Complex Algebra

(continued)
that combines in one simple relation five of the most important numbers in mathematics:
e, j, π, 0, 1.

8.56. Recall that (see Fig. 8.1) the real part of a complex number numerically equals the
length of horizontal cathetus, and its imaginary part numerically equals the length of the
vertical cathetus. By Euler’s equation, the phase and module of a complex number are found
by inspection, as

z = ej 0 ⇒
 
z = |z|ej θ = ej 0 ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = θ = 0 on the positive side of the horizontal axis
 
z = |z| (cos θ + j sin θ ) = 1 (cos 0 + j sin 0) see the unit circle
= 1 + j 0 = 1 (see A.8.31)

By definition, complex conjugate numbers have opposite signs of their imaginary parts, i.e if

z = a + j b then z∗ = a − j b then,
z z∗ = (a + j b)(a − j b) = a 2 − H H+H
j ab H − j b = a + b = |z|
j ab 2 2 2 2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

 
z = |1| cos 0 + j sin 0 ∴ z∗ = cos 0 − j sin 0 = 1 cos(−x) = cos(x), sin(−x) = − sin x
or,
z = ej 0 ∴ z∗ = e−j 0 = 1

in other words, the complex conjugate of a real number is the same real number. This is because
to say “real number” is to say “Im (z) = 0.” It is useful to keep in mind that the product of
z z∗ = |z|2 , which may be verified as

z z∗ = ej 0 e−j 0 = e(j 0)+(−j 0) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,

z z∗ = (cos 0 + j sin 0) (cos 0 − j sin 0) = 1 × 1 = 12 = |z|2

8.57. By inspection,
π
z = ej 6 ⇒
π π  
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej 6 ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ = in the I quadrant
6
π π  
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
6 6
√
3 1
= +j (see P.8.35 )
2 2
8.4 Euler Identity 343

Therefore, in Euler’s form

π π π π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
6 6 6 6
or,
∴ z∗ = e−j
π π
z = ej 6 6

The product of z z∗ = |z|2 is confirmed as

z z∗ = ej 6 e−j
π π π π
6 = e(j 6 )+(−j
= e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,
6 )

√  √ 
π π π π 3 1 3 1
z z∗ = cos + j sin cos − j sin = +j −j
6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2
√ √
3 3 3 1 3 1
= −j +j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2
4 4 4 4 4 4

8.58. By inspection,
π
z = ej 4 ⇒
π π  
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej 4 ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
in the I quadrant
4
π π  
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
4 4
√ √
2 2
= +j (see A.8.36)
2 2

Therefore,
π π π π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
4 4 4 4
or,
∴ z∗ = e−j
π π
z = ej 4 4

And the product of z z∗ = |z|2 is verified as

z z∗ = ej 4 e−j
π π π π
4 = e(j 4 )+(−j 4 )
= e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,

√ √  √ √ 
∗ π π π π 2 2 2 2
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = +j −j
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2
√ √
1 2 2 1 1 1
= −j +j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2
2 4 4 2 2 2
344 8 Complex Algebra

8.59. By inspection,
π
z = ej 3 ⇒
π π  
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej 3 ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
in the I quadrant
3
π π  
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
3 3
√
1 3
= +j (see A.8.37)
2 2

Therefore,
π π π π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
3 3 3 3
or,
∴ z∗ = e−j
π π
z = ej 3 3

And z z∗ = |z|2 is calculated as

z z∗ = ej 3 e−j
π π π π
3 = e(j 3 )+(−j
= e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,
3 )

 √  √ 
π π π π 1 3 1 3
z z∗ = cos + j sin cos − j sin = +j −j
3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
√ √
1 3 3 3 1 3
= −j +j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2
4 4 4 4 4 4

8.60. By inspection,
π
z = ej 2 ⇒
π π  
z = |z|ej α = ej 2 ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = α =
on the positive side of the vertical axis
2
π π  
z = |z| (cos α + j sin α) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
2 2
= 0 + j (see A.8.33)

Therefore,
π π π π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
2 2 2 2
or,
∴ z∗ = e−j
π π
z = ej 2 2
8.4 Euler Identity 345

And z z∗ = |z|2 is confirmed as

z z∗ = e j e−j
π π π π
2 2 = e(j 2 )+(−j 2 )
= e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,
π π π π
z z∗ = cos + j sin cos − j sin = (0 + j 1) (0 − j 1)
2 2 2 2
= −j 2 12 = 1 = 12 = |z|2

8.61. By inspection,
3π
z = ej 4 ⇒
3π 3π  
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
4 in the I I quadrant
4
 
3π 3π  
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
4 4
√ √
2 2
=− +j (see A.8.38)
2 2

Therefore,

3π 3π 3π 3π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
4 4 4 4
or,

∴ z∗ = e−j
3π 3π
z = ej 4 4

Also, the product of z z∗ = |z|2 as

z z∗ = ej 4 e−j 4 = e(j 4 )+(−j 4 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,

3π 3π 3π 3π

    √ √  √ √ 
∗ 3π 3π 3π 3π 2 2 2 2
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = − +j − −j
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2

1 S1 S1 1 1 1
= + j − j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2
2 S
2S S
2S 2 2 2

8.62. By inspection,
5π
z = ej 6 ⇒
5π 5π  
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
6 in the I I quadrant
6
 
5π 5π  
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
6 6
√
3 1
=− + j (see P.8.39)
2 2
346 8 Complex Algebra

Therefore,

5π 5π 5π 5π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
6 6 6 6
or, in polar form

∴ z∗ = e−j
5π 5π
z = ej 6 6

Also, the product of z z∗ = |z|2 as

z z∗ = ej 6 e−j 6 = e(j 6 )+(−j 6 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,

5π 5π 5π 5π

    √  √ 
∗ 5π 5π 5π 5π 3 1 3 1
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = − +j − −j
6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2
√ √
3 @ 3 @ 3 1 3 1
= + j @ − j @ − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2
4 4@ 4@ 4 4 4

8.63. By inspection,

z = ej π ⇒
 
z = |z|ejβ = ej π ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = β = π on the negative part of horizontal axis
 
z = |z| (cos β + j sin β) = 1 (cos π + j sin π ) see the unit circle
= −1 + j 0 (see A.8.33)

Therefore,

z = cos π + j sin π ∴ z∗ = cos π − j sin π

or,
z = ej π ∴ z∗ = e−j v

The product z z∗ = |z|2 as

z z∗ = ej π e−j π = e(j π )+(−j π ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,

z z∗ = (cos π + j sin π ) (cos π − j sin π ) = (−1 + j 0) (−1 − j 0) = 1 = 12 = |z|2

8.64. By inspection,
5π
z = ej 4 ⇒
5π 5π 3π  
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
4 ≡− in the I I I quadrant
4 4
 
5π 5π  
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
4 4
8.4 Euler Identity 347

√ √
2 2
=− −j (see A.8.40)
2 2

Therefore,

5π 5π 5π 5π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
4 4 4 4
or,

∴ z∗ = e−j
5π 5π
z = ej 4 4

And z z∗ = |z|2 as

z z∗ = ej 4 e−j 4 = e(j 4 )+(−j 4 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,

5π 5π 5π 5π

    √ √  √ √ 
∗ 5π 5π 5π 5π 2 2 2 2
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = − −j − +j
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2

1 S1 S1 1 1 1
= − j + j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2
2 S
2S S
4S 2 2 2

8.65. By inspection,
3π
z = ej 2 ⇒
3π 3π π  
z = |z|ej θ = ej ∴ |z|=1, arg(z) = θ =
2 ≡− on the negative side of the vertical axis
2 2
 
3π 3π  
z = |z| (cos θ + j sin θ ) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
2 2
= 0 − j 1 (see A.8.34)

Therefore,

3π 3π 3π 3π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
2 2 2 2
or,

∴ z∗ = e−j
3π 3π
z = ej 2 2

And z z∗ = |z|2 as

z z∗ = ej 2 e−j 2 = e(j 2 )+(−j 2 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,

3π 3π 3π 3π

  
3π 3π 3π 3π
z z∗ = cos + j sin cos − j sin = (0 − j 1) (0 + j 1)
2 2 2 2
= −j 2 1 = 1 = 12 = |z|2
348 8 Complex Algebra

8.66. By inspection,
7π
z = ej 4 ⇒
7π 7π π  
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
4 ≡− in the I V quadrant
4 4
 
7π 7π  
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
4 4
√ √
2 2
= −j (see A.8.41)
2 2

Therefore,

7π 7π 7π 7π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
4 4 4 4
or,

∴ z∗ = e−j
7π 7π
z = ej 4 4

And z z∗ = |z|2 as

z z∗ = ej 4 e−j 4 = e(j 4 )+(−j 4 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,

7π 7π 7π 7π

   √ √  √ √ 
∗ 7π 7π 7π 7π 2 2 2 2
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = −j +j
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2

1 S1 S1 1 1 1
= + j − j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2
2 S
2S S
2S 2 2 2

8.67. By inspection,
11π
z = ej 6 ⇒
11π 11π π  
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
6 ≡− in the I V quadrant
6 6
 
11π 11π  
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin see the unit circle
6 6
√
3 1
= −j (see A.8.42 )
2 2

Therefore,

11π 11π 11π 11π

z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
6 6 6 6
or,

∴ z∗ = e−j
11π 11π
z = ej 6 6
8.4 Euler Identity 349

Also, z z∗ = |z|2 as

z z∗ = ej 6 e−j 6 = e(j 6 )+(−j 6 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or,

11π 11π 11π 11π

   √  √ 
∗ 11π 11π 11π 11π 3 1 3 1
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = −j +j
6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2
√ √
3 3 3 1 3 1
= −j +j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2
4 4 4 4 4 4

8.68. Given the exponential form, by definition

1 jπ 1 π  
z= e 3 ∴ |z| = and arg(z) = in the I quadrant
2 2 3

8.69. Negative real numbers are replaced by their exponential form as well, so that

z = −2 e−j = −1 × 2 × e−j = ej π × 2 × e−j

5π 5π 5π 5π π
6 6 6 = 2 ej ( π− 6 ) = 2 ej 6

∴
π  
|z| = 2 and arg(z) = in the I quadrant
6

8.70. Similar to A.8.69,

1 7π 1 7π 1 7π 1 7π 1 11π
z = − ej 4 = −1 × × ej 4 = ej π × × ej 4 = ej ( π+ 4 ) = ej 4
2 2 2 2 2
 
1 j ( 8π + 3π ) 8π 1 3π  
= e 4 4 = = 2π ≡ 0◦ = ej 4 in the I I I quadrant
2 4 2
∴
1 3π
|z| = and arg(z) =
2 4

8.71. By definition
√ jπ √  
= 2 ej 4 ×2 = 2 ej 2
2 2 π 2 π π
z= 2e 4 = 2 ej 4 on the positive side of the vertical axis
or, in trigonometric form
π π
= 2 cos + j sin = 2 (0 + j 1) = 2j
2 2

therefore,
π
|z| = 2 and arg(z) =
2
350 8 Complex Algebra

8.72. By definition,

3  
= 33 ej 3 ×3 = 27 ej π
π π
z = 3 ej 3 on the negative side of the horizontal axis

therefore,

|z| = 27 and arg(z) = π

8.73. Given polar form

5 12×2π +π  
z = 4 e−j = 45 e−j 6 = 22×5 e−j = 12 × 2π ≡ 0◦ = 210 e−j 6
5π 25π π
6 6

 
= 1024 e−j 6
π
in the I V quadrant

therefore,
π
|z| = 210 = 1024 and arg(z) = −
6

8.74. By definition,
 4
4 1 1 j 2π ×3+π  
ej 4 ×4 = 2π × 3 ≡ 0◦
7π 7π
z = 0.2 ej 4 = e
5 625
1 jπ  
= e on the negative side of the horizontal axis
625

therefore,

1
|z| = and arg(z) = π
625

8.75. Similar to A.8.69,

3
z = −3 e−j 6 = (−3)3 e−j 6 ×3 = −27 e−j 2 = −1 × 27 × e−j 2 = ej π × 27 × e−j 2
π π π π π

π π  
= 27 ej ( π− 2 ) = 27 ej 2 on the positive side of the vertical axis

therefore,
π
|z| = 27 and arg(z) =
2
8.5 Rational Powers 351

8.5 Rational Powers

√
8.76. As a real number, the square root of unity is straightforward to calculate, z = 1 = ±1.
However, as given by one of the complex algebra theorems, the complex roots of unity are very
important for general calculations.

Reminder: The general n-order root of unity is a set of solutions in the form of
√ 1 1 2π
1 = 1 n = ej k 2π = ej k , k = 0, 2, . . . n − 1
n n n

Consequently, for k = 0 it follows that e0 = 1 is the first root of unity. Note that
arguments of n roots are evenly distributed around the unit circle in 2π/n steps.

In the polar form, as n = 2, then two square roots zi of unity are

j 0 
2π

k = 0 : z1 = e 2 = e 0 = cos 0 + j sin 0 = 1

j 1 
2π

k = 1 : z2 = e 2 = e j π = cos π + j sin π = −1


which are two roots located on the horizontal (real) axis in complex plane.

8.77. If considered only as a real number, the cube root of unity is simply equal to one.
However, in complex domain unity is expressed in polar form as

1 = ej k 2π , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

and its geometrical interpretation is as the intersect point on the positive side of the horizontal
(real) axis and the unit circle. Consequently, regardless in which direction, every full turn
around the circle falls on the same point (thus, the periodicity every 2π angle).

For that reason, in the polar form, as n = 3, then three roots zi of unity are (see Fig. 7.1)
2π
k = 0 : z1 = e j 0 3 = e0 = cos 0 + j sin 0 = 1
2π 2π 2π 2π 1 √
k = 1 : z2 = e j 1 3 = ej 3 = cos + j sin = (− 3 + j )
3 3 2
4π 4π 1 √
= (− 3 − j ) = z2∗
2π 4π
k = 2 : z3 = e j 2 3 = ej 3 = cos + j sin
3 3 2

where the three roots, starting with the principal root z1 = 1, are evenly distributed every 120◦
around the unit circle (see Fig. 8.5), as they form vertices of an equilateral triangle.
352 8 Complex Algebra

Fig. 8.5 P.8.77, complex cube

roots of unity. One root is real
and the other two are complex
conjugate. The three roots are
evenly distributed every 120◦
and obviously √ placed on the unit
circle, i.e., | 3 1| = 1.
Geometrical interpretation of
three roots is that they form
vertices of an equilateral
triangle

Verification:

z13 = 13 = 1

= e 3  = ej 2π = 1
2π 3 j 2π
3
z23 = ej 3

3 3 −j 2π
3
= e−j = e−j 2π = 1
4π 2π
z33 = ej 3 3 =e 
3

8.78. Following up discussion in A.8.77, the fourth root of unity in polar form is calculated
with n = 4 so that four complex roots zi of unity are

j 0 
2π

k = 0 : z1 = e  = e = cos 0 + j sin 0 = 1
42 0

j 1 
2π
π π π
k = 1 : z2 = e  =e
42 j 2 = cos + j sin = j
2 2

k = 2 : z3 = e
4 = ej π = cos π + j sin π = −1
j 2 2π

j 3 
2π
3π 3π 3π
k = 3 : z4 = e  =e
42 j 2 = cos + j sin = −j
2 2

that are evenly distributed every 90◦ around the unit circle; see Fig. 7.1.

8.79. Following up discussion in A.8.77, the sixth root of unity in polar form is calculated
with n = 6 so that four complex roots zi of unity are separated by 2π/6 = π/3 angle, as

j 0 
2π  
k = 0 : z1 = e  = e = cos 0 + j sin 0 = 1 on the positive side of the horizontal axis
63 0

j 1 
2π
π π π 1 √  
k = 1 : z2 = e  =e
63 j 3 = cos + j sin = (1 + j 3) in the I quadrant
3 3 2
8.5 Rational Powers 353

Fig. 8.6 P.8.79, six complex

roots z1 to z6 at its vertices. The
six roots are distributed every
60◦ and obviously √ placed on the
unit circle, i.e., | 3 1| = 1.
Geometrical interpretation of
three roots is that they form
vertices of a hexagon

j 2 2π 2π 2π 2π 1 √  
k = 2 : z3 = e  =e
63 j 3 = cos + j sin = (−1 + j 3) in the I I quadrant
3 3 2
  
k = 3 : z4 = e
6 = ej π = cos π +j sin π = −1 on the negative side of the horizontal axis
j 3 2π

j 4 
2π
4π 4π 4π 1 √  
k = 4 : z5 = e  =e
63 j 3 = cos + j sin = − (1 + j 3) in the I I I quadrant
3 3 2
j 5 
2π
5π 5π 5π 1 √  
k = 5 : z6 = e  =e
63 j 3 = cos + j sin = (1 − j 3) in the I V quadrant
3 3 2

where the six roots are evenly distributed every 60◦ around the unit circle, thus forming a
hexagon; see Fig. 8.6.

8.80. Radicals in general are converted into fractional powers, and one possible technique
to account for all complex roots is to recall that for real numbers unity is the neutral element
in respect to the operation of multiplication, i.e., x × 1 = x, x ∈ R. However, in complex
domain that is true only for |x| × |1|, whereas the argument of complex product is equal to
sum of the multiplication terms. That is, as for the square root operation n = 2, two roots are
found as

1   
j k 2π
1 2 = see A.8.76 = ej 4 e 2 = ej ( 4 + kπ ) ; k = 0, 1
1 π 1 π π
j = (j × 1) 2 = ej 2 2

Then, two roots zi are computed in the I and I I I quadrants as

√
π π 2
k = 0 : z1 = cos + 0π + j sin + 0π = (1 + j )
4 4 2
√
π π 5π 5π 2
k = 1 : z2 = cos + 1π +j sin + 1π = cos π +j sin =− (1+j )
4 4 4 4 2
354 8 Complex Algebra

therefore, z2 = −z1 as
√ √
2 2 π 5π
Re (z) = ± , Im (z) = ± , |z| = 1 and arg(z) = ,
2 2 4 4

Note that the square root of a complex number computes the square root of its module;
however, its principal argument (i.e., when n = 0) is divided by two. Geometrically, as its
argument is positive, the square root operation results in a clockwise rotated complex number.

8.81. Following the same idea as in A.8.80, n = 2; thus,

1 j k 
2π

−j = (−j ) 2 1 2 = e−j 2 2 = e j (− 4 + k π ) ; k = 0, 1
1 1 π π
2
e 

Then, two complex roots zi are found to be in the I V and I I quadrants as

√
π π 2
k = 0 : z1 = cos − + 0π + j sin − + 0π = (1 − j )
4 4 2
√
π π 3π 3π 2
k = 1 : z2 = cos − + 1π +j sin − + 1π = cos π +j sin =− (1−j )
4 4 4 4 2

therefore, z2 = −z1 as
√ √
2 2 π 3π
Re (z) = ± , Im (z) = ± , |z| = 1 and arg(z) = − ,
2 2 4 4

Here, the square root operation results in a half-argument rotation in the positive (i.e.,
counterclockwise) direction (because it is a half of a negative argument). Interestingly enough,
as opposed to real numbers, there is no problem to calculate square roots of a “negative”
complex number. In fact, there is no such thing as a “negative complex number” in the same
sense as for the real numbers. Instead, there is only a number in the direction of its argument.
Thus, the equivalence between complex numbers and vectors: both abstract object are seen as
the interpretation of a “number with direction.”

8.82. Following the same idea as in A.8.77, for the third root n = 3; thus,

= ej ( 6 +k
1 π 1 2π π 2π
3
j 1 3 = (ej 2 ) 3 ek 3 3 )
; k = 0, 1, 2

Three complex roots zi are computed as (see Fig. 7.1)

π π π 1 √
k = 0 : z1 = e j 6 = cos + j sin = ( 3 + j )
6 6 2
5π 5π 1 √
k = 1 : z2 = e j ( 6 + 3 )
π 2π
= cos + j sin = (− 3 + j )
6 6 2
3π 3π
k = 2 : z3 = e j ( 6 + 3 )
π 4π
= cos + j sin = −j
2 2
8.5 Rational Powers 355

therefore,
√ √
3 3 1 1 π 5π 3π
|z| = 1; Re (z) = ,− , 0; Im (z) = , , −1; arg(z) = , ,
2 2 2 2 6 6 2

The geometrical interpretation of these three roots is as vertices of an equilateral triangle that
is rotated by π/6 inside the unit circle.

8.83. For the fourth root n = 4, thus

= ej ( 8 +k 2 ) ; k = 0, 1, 2, 3
1 π 1 2π π π
4
j 1 4 = (ej 2 ) 4 ek 4

As π/8 is not one of the special angles in Fig. 7.1, its exact sine and cosine functions may be
derived by using the square to double-angle identities (see Chap. 7), as 2 π/8 = π/4, then
two identities

1 − cos(2α) 1 + cos(2α)
sin2 α = ; cos2 α =
2 2

may be used as
√ 
π 1 π 1 2 1 √ π 1 √
sin2
= 1 − cos = 1− = 2− 2 ∴ sin = 2− 2
8 2 4 2 2 4 8 4

π 1 π π 1 √
cos2 = 1 + cos ∴ cos = 2+ 2
8 2 4 8 4

Four complex roots are distributed every 90◦ around the unit circle as
 
π π π 1 √ 1 √
k= 0 : z1 = e = cos + j sin =
j 8 2+ 2 +j 2− 2
8 8 4 4
 π π 
cos θ + = − sin θ; sin θ + = cos θ (see Chap. 7)
2 2
 
j ( π8 + π2 ) π π 1 √ 1 √
k= 1 : z2 = e = − sin + j cos = − 2− 2 +j 2+ 2
8 8 4 4
 
π π 1 √ 1 √
z3 = ej ( 8 +π ) = − cos − j sin = −
π
k= 2 : 2+ 2 −j 2− 2
8 8 4 4
 
π π 1 √ 1 √
z4 = ej ( 8 + 2 ) = sin − j cos =
π 3π
k= 3 : 2− 2 −j 2+ 2
8 8 4 4

The geometrical interpretation of these four roots is as vertices of a square that is rotated by
π/8 inside the unit circle.

8.84. For the fifth root n = 5, thus

= ej ( 10 +k
1 π 1 2π π 2π
5
j 1 5 = (ej 2 ) 5 ek 5 5 )
; k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
356 8 Complex Algebra

Fig. 8.7 P.8.84, five complex

roots z1 to z5 at its vertices. The
five roots are distributed every
2π/5 and obviously √ placed on
the unit circle, i.e., | 5 1| = 1.
Geometrical interpretation of
three roots is that they form
vertices of a pentagon

As π/10 is not one of the special angles in Fig. 7.1, its exact sine and cosine functions may be
derived by using a combination of trigonometric identities for multiple angles, for example,

sin(3α) = 3 sin α − 4 sin3 α; cos(2α) = 1 − 2 sin2 α

may be used to derive exact sine and cosine functions

π 1 √
sin = ( 5 − 1)
10 4

π 1 √
cos = 10 + 2 5
10 4

Then, with the rotational identities, five complex roots zi are distributed every 2π/5 around
the unit circle as

π π π 1 √ 1 √
k = 0 : z1 = e j 10
= cos + j sin = 10 + 2 5 + j ( 5 − 1)
10 10 4 4
π
+ 2π π π
k = 1 : z2 = e j ( 10 5 )
= cos + j sin =j
2 2

π
+ 4π 9π 9π 1 √ 1 √
k = 2 : z3 = e j ( 10 5 )
= cos + j sin =− 10 + 2 5 + j ( 5 − 1)
10 10 4 4

13π 13π 1 √ 1 √
k = 3 : z4 = ej ( 10 + 5 ) = cos
π 6π
+ j sin =− 10 − 2 5 − j ( 5 + 1)
10 10 4 4

17π 17π 1 √ 1 √
k = 4 : z5 = ej ( 10 + 5 ) = cos
π 8π
+ j sin = 10 − 2 5 − j ( 5 + 1)
10 10 4 4

The geometrical interpretation of these five roots is as vertices of a pentagon that is rotated by
π/10 inside the unit circle; see Fig. 8.7.

8.85. The given square root may be transformed as

8.5 Rational Powers 357

 √
1 j 2  
= −j see A.8.81
2j j 2

therefore, two complex roots zi are distributed every π around the unit circle as
√ √ √
2 2 2 1
k = 0 : z1 = −j = (1 − j ) = (1 − j )
2 2 2 2
√ √ √
2 2 2 1
k = 1 : z2 = −j = (−1 + j ) = − (1 − j ) = −z1
2 2 2 2

8.86. The explicit algebraic form of a complex number is converted into its exponential
equivalent by Pythagoras’ theorem as
√
z = 1 − j ∴ Re (z) = 1, Im (z) = −1 ∴ |z| = |1 − j | = 12 + (−1)2 = 2
π  
∴ arg(1−j ) = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (−1, 1) = − in the I V quadrant
4
therefore, its exponential form is
√ √ √
1 − j = 2 e−j 4 ∴ (1 − j ) 2 = ( 2 e−j 4 ) 2 = 8 e−j 8
π 3 π 3 4 3π

so that, for square root n = 2, thus two complex roots zi are calculated as
√ √ √
1 = 8 e−j 8 ej kπ = 8 ej (− 8 +kπ ) , k = 0, 1
3π 3π
(1 − j )3
4 4

As “−3π/8” is not one of the special angles in Fig. 7.1, its exact sine and cosine functions
may be derived by using the square to double-angle identities (see A.8.83), as 2 × (−3π/8) =
−3π/4; then two identities

1 − cos(2α) 1 + cos(2α)
sin2 α = ; cos2 α =
2 2

may be used to calculate

√ 
3π 1 3π 1 2 1 √ 3π 1 √
sin 2
= 1 − cos = 1+ = 2+ 2 ∴ sin − =− 2+ 2
8 2 4 2 2 4 8 2

3π 1 3π 3π 1 √
cos2 = 1 + cos ∴ cos − = 2− 2
8 2 4 8 2

then, two complex roots are

   
√ j (− 3π
√ 3π 3π 1 √ √
k = 0 : z1 = 8 e = 8 cos − +j sin − =√ 2 − 2+j 2 + 2
4 ) 4
8
4
8 8 2
   
√ j ( 5π
√ 5π 5π 1 √ √
k = 1 : z2 = 8 e = 8 cos + j sin = −√ − + +
4 ) 4
8
4
2 2 j 2 2
8 8 2

where z2 = −z1 as it is usual for all square roots.

358 8 Complex Algebra

8.87. Similar to A.8.86, first,

1 1 1 1 π 1 1 3π 1
= − j = ej π ej 2 = ej π + 2 = ej 2 = e−j 2
π π
=
(1 + j )2 1
+ 2j − 1
2 2 2 2 2

so that
 
1 −j π √ 1 −j π 1 2π 1 −j π +k 2π
1= =√
3 3 3
e 2 e 2 3
ej k 3
3
e 6 3
2 2 2

Three complex roots zi are computed as

1 −j π 1 π π 1 √
k = 0 : z1 = √
3
e 6 =√ 3
cos − j sin = √ ( 3 − j)
2 2 6 6 232
1 jπ 1 π π 1
k = 1 : z1 = √
3
e 2 =√
3
cos + j sin =√
3
j
2 2 2 2 2
1 j 7π 1 7π 7π 1 √
k = 2 : z1 = √
3
e 6 =√ 3
cos + j sin =− √ ( 3 + j)
2 2 6 6 232

The geometrical interpretation of these three roots is as vertices

√ of an equilateral triangle that
is rotated by −π/6 inside the circle whose radius r = 1/ 3 2.

8.6 Complex Equations

8.88. A complex number z = x +jy is represented by a point in the x, y Cartesian coordinate

system, where Re (z) is on the horizontal x-axis and Im (z) is on the vertical y-axis. As z∗ =
x − jy, then z z∗ = x 2 + y 2 = |z|2 , and |z| = |z∗ |. That being said, then

|z − 1| = 9 ⇒
(z − 1)(z∗ − 1) = 92
(x + jy − 1)(x − jy − 1) = 92
(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 92 (8.1)

As in Chap. 6 (see A.6.75), analytic equation (8.1) describes a circle whose r = 9, and its
center is at (x, y) = (1, 0) position. In conclusion, all points on the circle satisfy a given
complex equation.

8.89. Following the same idea as in A.8.88,

|z − 3j | = 1 ⇒
(x + jy − 3j )(x − jy + 3j ) = 12
8.6 Complex Equations 359

x + j (y − 3) x − j (y − 3) = 1
x 2 + (y − 3)2 = 1 (8.2)

Analytic equation (8.2) describes a circle whose r = 1, and its center is at (x, y) = (0, 3)
position. In conclusion, all points on this circle satisfy a given complex equation.

8.90. Following the same idea as in A.8.88,

|z + 2 − j | = 4 ⇒
(x + jy + 2 − j )(x − jy + 2 + j ) = 42
(x + 2) + j (y − 1) (x + 2) − j (y − 1) = 42
(x + 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 42 (8.3)

Analytic equation (8.3) describes a circle whose r = 4, and its center is at (x, y) = (−2, 1)
position. In conclusion, all points on this circle satisfy a given complex equation.

8.91. Assuming z = x + jy, then

|z − 1| = |x − 1 + jy| = (x − 1)2 + y 2

|z + 1| = |x + 1 + jy| = (x + 1)2 + y 2

so that
 
z − 1
 
z + 1 = 2

(x − 1)2 + y 2
=2
(x + 1)2 + y 2
(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 4 (x + 1)2 + y 2
 2  2
10 5 5  
x2 + x + + y 2 = −1 + perfect square techique
3 3 3
 2  2
5 4
x+ + y2 = (8.4)
3 3

Analytic equation (8.4) describes a circle whose r = 4/3, and its center is at (x, y) =
(−5/3, 0) position. In conclusion, all points on this circle satisfy a given complex equation.

8.92. Assuming z = x + jy, then

|z − 5 + 2j | = |x + jy − 5 + 2j | = (x − 5)2 + (y + 2)2

|2z − 1| = |2(x + jy) − 1| = |2x − 1 + j 2y| = (2x − 1)2 + 4y 2

360 8 Complex Algebra

so that
 
 z − 5 + 2j 
 
 2z − 1  = 1

(x − 5)2 + (y + 2)2
=1
(2x − 1)2 + 4y 2
(x − 5)2 + (y + 2)2 = (2x − 1)2 + 4y 2
x 2 − 10x + 25 + y 2 + 4y + 4 = 4x 2 − 4x + 1 + 4y 2
3x 2 + 6x + 3y 2 − 4y = 28
4 4 28 4  
x 2 + 2x +1 + y 2 − y + = +1 + perfect square techique
3 9 3 9
2 97
(x + 1)2 + y − = (8.5)
3 9
√
Analytic equation (8.5) describes a circle whose r = 97/3, and its center is at (x, y) =
(−1, 2/3) position. In conclusion, all points on this circle satisfy a given complex equation.

8.93. The given equation

|z + 2| + |z − 2| = 5 (8.6)

is a well-known equation form of ellipse in complex plane whose focal points are x1 = −2
and x2 = 2.

Reminder: Equations for circle and ellipse in the Cartesian system are
 
(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = r 2 circle centered at (x0 , y0 ) with radius r (8.7)
x2 y2  
2
+ 2
= 1 ellipse whose semiaxes are a and b (8.8)
a b

where two nonequal semiaxes a = b in (8.8) “distort” the perfect circle form; otherwise,
if a = b = r, then (8.8) becomes circle equation (8.7) again.

Assuming z = x + jy, one possible way to derive (8.8) from (8.6) may be as follows:

|z + 2| + |z − 2| = 5
  
|x + jy + 2| + |x + jy − 2| = 5 |z| = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2

(x + 2)2 + y 2 + (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 5
2
(x + 2)2 + y 2 = 5 − (x − 2)2 + y 2
8.6 Complex Equations 361

x 2 + 4x + 4
+ 
y2 = 25 − 10 (x − 2)2 + y 2 + x 2 − 4x + 4
+ 
y2

8x − 25 = −10 (x − 2)2 + y 2
×(
16(
64 x 2 − ( (
25(x + 252 = 100 x 2 −  
400x + 400 + 100 y 2
225 = 36 x 2 + 100 y 2 or, equivalently
x2 y2
+ =1
(5/2)2 (3/2)2

which shows explicitly two semiaxes as a = 5/2 and b = 3/2. In conclusion, all points on
this ellipse satisfy a given complex equation.

8.94. By separating real and complex parts of this complex equation, as

(2 + 3j )x + (3 + 2j )y = 1
2x + 3j x + 3y + 2jy = 1
(2x + 3y) + (3x + 2y)j = 1 + 0j

then, by the equality of real and imaginary parts on both sides, it follows that

2x + 3y = 1
3x + 2y = 0

This system of linear equations may be solved by any known method, for example,

Method 1: by the elimination method

1 2
2x + 3y = 1 ⇒ y = − x
3 3
3x + 2y = 0

 
1 2
3x + 2 − x =0
3 3
5 2 2 3
x+ =0 ∴ x=− ⇒ y=
3 3 5 5

Method 2: by Cramer’s rule (see Sect. 10.5) as

362 8 Complex Algebra

  ⎫
2 3
 =   = 4 − 9 = −5 = 0⎪
  ⎪
⎪
32 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
  ⎪
⎬
1 3 x 2 y 3
x  
= =2−0=2 ∴ x= = − and y = =
02 ⎪
⎪  5  5
  ⎪
⎪
2 1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
y =   = 0 − 3 = −3 ⎭
30

8.95. One possible technique to resolve the given equation may be to transform its right side
so that both sides are in the same form, for example,

1 1 1
= +
x + jy 2+j −2 + 4j
−2A + 4j + 2A + j 5j 5j 1 1
= = = = =
(2 + j )(−2 + 4j ) −4 + 8j − 2j − 4 −8 + 6j −8 6jA 6 8 j
+ −
5j 5jA 5 5j j
∴
1 1
=
x+j y 6 8
+j
5 5

By inspection, this equation is possible only if real and imaginary parts on both sides are equal,
i.e.,

6 8
x= and y =
5 5

8.96. Following the same idea as in A.8.94,

5x − 3jy + 2j = 6 − j x − y
5x + y + j (x − 3y + 2) = 6 + 0 j

then, by the equivalence of real and imaginary parts on both sides, it follows that

5x + y = 6 ⇒ y = 6 − 5x

x − 3y + 2 = 0 ∴ x − 3(6 − 5x) + 2 = 0

x=1 ∴ y=1

8.97. The given nonlinear complex equation may be transformed into a system of nonlinear
equations that is subsequently resolved by the elimination method:

j x 2 + (1 − 2j )xy + (1 − j )y 2 = 4 + 2j
8.6 Complex Equations 363

xy + y 2 + j (x 2 − 2xy − y 2 ) = 4 + 2j (8.9)

by the equivalence of real and imaginary parts on both sides in (8.9), it follows that

xy + y 2 = 4 (8.10)
x − 2xy − y = 2
2 2
(8.11)

from 2×(8.10) + (8.10) ⇒ x 2 + y 2 = 10 (8.12)

from (8.10) + (8.10) ⇒ x − xy = 62
(8.13)

which may be resolved by the elimination method as

6 x2 − 6
from (8.13) ⇒ x(x − y) = 6 ∴ y = x − = (8.14)
x x
 2
x2 − 6 x2 − 6
from (8.14) → (8.10) ⇒ x
+ =4 (8.15)
x
x
 
(x 2 − 6)2 = x 2 (10 − x 2 ) x 2 = t (8.16)
 
t 2 − 11t + 18 = 0 Vietè formulas
t 2 − 2t − 9t + 18 = 0 ∴
√
(t − 2)(t − 9) = 0 ∴ x1,2 = ±3, x3,4 = ± 2

By back substitution of x1,2,3,4 into (8.12), it follows that

√ √
x 2 + y 2 = 10 ∴ y1,2 = ±1, y3,4 = ± 8 = ±2 2

Verification:

j x 2 + (1 − 2j )xy + (1 − j )y 2 = 4 + 2j

(3, 1) : 9 j +(1 − 2j ) 3+(1 − j ) = 4+2j ∴ 3+1+j (9 − 6 − 1) = 4+2j 

(−3, −1) : 9 j +(1 − 2j ) 3+(1 − j ) = 4+2j ∴ 3+1+j (9 − 6 − 1) = 4+2j 
√ √
(− 2, 2 2) : 2 j +(1 − 2j ) (−4)+(1 − j )8 = 4+2j ∴ −4+8+j (2+8 − 8) = 4+2j 
√ √
( 2, −2 2) : 2 j +(1 − 2j ) (−4)+(1 − j )8 = 4+2j ∴ −4+8+j (2+8 − 8) = 4+2j 

8.98. Complex equations and inequalities obey the same rules as ordinary real equations and
inequalities. The fundamental theorem of algebra states that in complex domain a nonzero
single-variable polynomial whose degree is n must have exactly n complex roots. As already
discussed in Chap. 3, multiplicity of a root is included. Recall that real numbers are only
a special case of complex numbers whose Im (z) = 0. In addition, the imaginary unit j is
364 8 Complex Algebra

treated as any other constant, while keeping in mind values of its powers.

Therefore, by following the same

√ logic as with real equations, for example, a simple quadratic
equation x 2 = 4 ∴ |x| = 4 ∴ x1,2 = ±2, has two roots, then the given quadratic
equation of complex variable z must also have two roots z1 and z2 ; see A.8.80. Or this equation
may be resolved as

1
√ 
z2 = j ∴ z2 = j =j2 x 2 = |x|
1 π 1 π π
|z| = j 2 = ej 2 2 = 1 ej 4 ∴ |z| = 1, and arg(|z|) =
4
 
∴ its trigonometric form (see the unit circle)
√ √
π π 2 2
|z| = cos + j sin = +j
4 4 2 2
∴
√ √  √ √ √ √ 
2 2 2 2 2 2
z=± +j ⇒ z1 = +j ; z2 = − +j
2 2 2 2 2 2

Two roots are located diametrically opposite in the complex plane, i.e., in the I and I I I
quadrants; see Fig. 8.8.

Verification: for the sake of completeness, these two solution may be verified as
√ √ 2 √ √
2 2 2 ZZ 2 ZZ
2 2
(z1 ) =
2
+j 
= + 2
j −  =j
2 2 4 2
2A 4
 √ √  2  √ √ 2
2 2 2 2
(z2 )2 = − +j = (−1)2 +j = (z1 )2 = j
2 2 2 2

Fig. 8.8 P.8.98, quadratic

equation of a complex variable z
has two roots that are
symmetrically positioned in the
complex plane, in the case of
z2 = j in the I and I I I
quadrant. As the module |z| = 1
both roots are found on the unit
circle
8.6 Complex Equations 365

8.99. Similarly to A.8.81, two roots z1 and z2 of a given complex equation are

1
√ 
z2 = −j ∴ z2 = −j = (−j ) 2 x 2 = |x|
π 1 π
|z| = (−j ) 2 = e−j 2 2 = 1 e−j 4 ∴ |z| = 1, and arg(|z|) = −
1 π

4
 
∴ its trigonometric form (see the unit circle)
√ √
π π 2 2
|z| = cos − j sin = −j
4 4 2 2
∴
√ √  √ √ √ √ 
2 2 2 2 2 2
z=± −j ⇒ z1 = −j ; z2 = − −j
2 2 2 2 2 2

Two roots are located diametrically opposite in the complex plane, in the I I and I V
quadrants; see Fig. 8.9.

Verification: for the sake of completeness, these two solution may be verified as
√ √ 2 √ √
2 2 2 ZZ 2 ZZ
2 2
(z1 ) =
2
−j 
= − 2
j −  = −j
2 2 4 2
2A 4
 √ √  2  √ √ 2
2 2 2 2
(z2 )2 = − −j = (−1)2 −j = (z1 )2 = −j
2 2 2 2

8.100. The given equation may be resolved by multiple methods:

z2 = 5 + 12j

Fig. 8.9 P.8.99, quadratic

equation of a complex variable z
has two roots that are
symmetrically positioned in the
complex plane, in the case of
z2 = −j in the I I and I V
quadrant. As the module |z| = 1
both roots are found on the unit
circle
366 8 Complex Algebra

Method 1: by writing the polar form of z2 , as

12  
5 + 12j ∴ |5 + 12j | = 52 + 122 = 13, arg(5 + 12j ) = arctan in the I quadrant
5

therefore,
√ arctan(12/5)
z2 = 5 + 12j = 13 ej arctan(12/5) ∴ z = ± 13 ej 2
∴
    
√ arctan(12/5) arctan(12/5)
z1 = 13 cos + j sin = 3 + 2j
2 2
    
√ arctan(12/5) arctan(12/5)
z2 = − 13 cos + j sin = −3 − 2j
2 2

where the last simplification may be done numerically, or with the trigonometric identities
that are not presented in this book.

Method 2: being a complex number, the algebraic form of z must be

z = a + bj, (a, b) ∈ R
therefore,
z2 = a 2 + 2abj − b2 = (a 2 − b2 ) + (2ab) j

By the equivalence of real and imaginary parts on both sides of this equation it follows that

6
z2 = 5 + 12j = (a 2 − b2 ) + (2ab) j ∴ 2ab = 12 ∴ ab = 6 ⇒ a =
b
 2
6
a 2 − b2 = 5 ∴ − b2 = 5
b

The last equation is biquadratic, as

36
− b2 = 5 ∴ 36 − b4 = 5b2
b2
b4 + 5b2 − 36 = 0
b4 + 9b2 − 4b2 − 36 = 0
b2 (b2 + 9) − 4(b2 + 9) = 0
(b2 − 4)(b2 + 9) = 0
(b − 2)(b + 2)(b2 + 9) = 0

As b ∈ R, only two real roots are acceptable, that is to say,

8.6 Complex Equations 367

Fig. 8.10 P.8.101, fourth order

equation of a complex variable z
has four roots that are
symmetrically positioned in the
complex plane. As the module
|z| = 2, all four roots are found
on a circle whose r = 2

((( ( 6 6
b1,2 = ±2 ∈ R, ( (=
b3,4 (±3j ∈C ∴ a= = = ±3
b ±2

z1 = 3 + 2j ; z2 = −3 − 2j

Therefore,
√
|z1,2 | = 32 + 22 = 13
 
arg(z1 ) = atan2 (2, 3) , in the I quadrant, ≈ 33.69◦
 
arg(z2 ) = atan2 (−2, −3) , in the I I I quadrant, ≈ π + 33.69◦ ≈ 213.69
∴
√
z1 = 13 cos arctan(2/3) + j sin arctan(2/3)
√
z2 = − 13 cos arctan(2/3) + j sin arctan(2/3)

8.101. One possible method to solve this equation may be as follows:

√ √
z4 + 8 + 8 3 j = 0 ∴ z4 = −8 − 8 3 j = |z0 | ej ϕ0
√ √ √
where |z0 | = | − 8 − 8 3 j |, Re (z0 ) = −8, Im (z0 ) = −8 3, and ϕ0 = arg −8 − 8 3 j ,
thus
 √ √ √
√ √
|z0 | = (−8)2 + (−8 3)2 = 64 + 3 × 64 = 4 × 64 = 4 64 = 16
√ 2π  
ϕ0 = atan2 − 3, −1 = − in the I I I quadrant
3
2π 4π  
arg(z0 ) = − = in the I I I quadrant
3 3
4π
∴ z4 = 16 ej 3
368 8 Complex Algebra

Being a 4th-order polynomial, there are in total four roots that may be resolved in two steps as
follows:
1
4π 4π 2 2π
z4 = 16 ej 3 ∴ z1,2
2
= ± 16 ej 3 = ±4 ej 3

2π
z12 = 4 ej 3

= 4 e j (π + 3 ) = 4 e j
2π 2π 2π 5π
z22 = −4 ej 3 = ej π 4 ej 3 3

then repeat the square root operation, as

1
2π 2 π
z1 = ± 4 e j 3 = ±2 ej 3

1
5π 2 5π
z2 = ± 4 e j 3 = ±2 ej 6

so that

≡ 2 ej ( 3 + 2 )
π π 0π
z1 = 2 e j 3

≡ 2 ej ( 3 + 2 )
5π π 1π
z2 = 2 e j 6

≡ 2 ej ( 3 + 2 )
π π 4π π 2π
z3 = −2 ej 3 = ej π 2 ej 3 = 2 ej 3

≡ 2 ej ( 3 + 2 )
5π 5π 11π π 3π
z4 = −2 ej 6 = ej π 2 ej 6 = 2 ej 6

The four roots are symmetrically distributed on the circle whose r = 2; see Fig. 8.10. Starting
with z1 , the general form of the roots may be expressed as

π π !
j +k π π π π "
zk = 2 e 3 2 = 2 cos +k + j sin +k
3 2 3 2
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3

As already demonstrated in this chapter, this kind of root distribution is general. For example,
in the case of second-order equation, its two roots are separated by a 2π/2 = π angle. Or, if
third-order equation, its three roots are separated by 2π/3, etc.

In summary,
! π π " √
k = 0 : z1 = 2 cos + j sin =1+j 3
3 3
! π π π π " √
k = 1 : z2 = 2 cos + + j sin + =− 3+j
3 2 3 2
! π π " √
k = 2 : z3 = 2 cos + π + j sin + π = −1 − j 3
3 3
#    $
π 3π π 3π √
k = 3 : z4 = 2 cos + + j sin + = 3−j
3 2 3 2
8.6 Complex Equations 369

Verification: each of the four solutions z1,2,3,4 should be verified, for example,
√
z24 + 8 + 8 3 j = 0
 5π 4
j √
2e 6 + 8 + 8 3j = 0

10π
j √
16 e 3 + 8 + 8 3j = 0
 
6π 4π
j  0+ √
16 e 3 3 + 8 + 8 3j = 0
#    $
4π 4π √
16 cos + j sin + 8 + 8 3i = 0
3 3
 √ 
1 3 √
16 − − j + 8 + 8 3i = 0
2 2
H√ H√
−8
− 8 H j + 8
+ 8 H
3H 3Hj =0
0=0

8.102. Given
 
1
|z| =   = |1 − z|
z

then, from the left side equality it follows that

 
1
|z| =   ∴ |z| = 1
z

because “1 = 1/1” is the only real number that is equal to its inverse. Further,

|z| = |1 − z| = 1 and therefore |z| = 1 ∴ |z|2 = 1 as well as |1 − z| = 1 ∴ |1 − z|2 = 1

 
|1 − z|2 = |x|2 = x x ∗ = (1 − x)(1 − x)∗
 
complex conjugate of a real number is the same number
= (1 − z)(1 − z∗ ) = 1 − z∗ − z + zz∗ = 1 − z∗ − z + |z|2 = 1 ⇒
z∗ + z = 1

Thus, as |z| = 1 ∴ |zz∗ | = |z|2 = 1 there is the following system to solve for z = a + j b as

 ⎧
zz∗ =1 ⎨ a 2 + b2 =1
√
∴ 1 3
z + z∗ =1 ⎩ 2a =1 ∴ a= ⇒b=
2 2
370 8 Complex Algebra

In summary, there are two solutions:

√ √
1 3 1 3
z1 = +j and its complex conjugate z2 = − j
2 2 2 2

8.103. The given equation may be transformed into its equivalent as

j z6 + 8 √
= 3
8j − z6
√
j z6 + 8 = 3 (8j − z6 )
 
√ √ 1
j z + z 3 = 3 8j − 8
6 6
j = −
j
√  √ 
j+
z6 ( 3) = 8j (3+j )

z6 = 8 j

The exponential form and Euler’s equation are efficient for calculating powers and roots of
complex numbers, as
π
z6 = 8 j = 8 e j 2 ⇒
6 π √ π √ π π
z = 8 ej 2 = 2 ej 12 = 2 cos + j sin (see A.7.44)
12 12
1 √ √  
= ( 3 + 1) + j ( 3 − 1) principal root
2

All six roots zi (see A.8.79) are separated by π/3 and may be resolved as

√ j π j 0 2π
 √ π π 1 √ √
k = 0 : z1 = 2 e 12 e 6 3 = 2 cos + j sin = ( 3 + 1) + j ( 3 − 1)
12 12 2
√ j 5π √ 5π 5π 1 √ √
k = 1 : z2 = 2 e 12 = 2 sin + j cos = ( 3 − 1) + j ( 3 + 1)
12 12 2
√ j 3π √ 3π 3π
k = 2 : z3 = 2 e 4 = 2 sin + j cos = −1 + j
4 4
√ 13π √ π π 1 √ √
k = 3 : z4 = 2 ej 12 = 2 − cos − j sin = − ( 3 + 1) + j ( 3 − 1)
12 12 2
√ j 13π √ π π 1 √ √
k = 4 : z5 = 2 e 12 = 2 − sin − j cos = − ( 3 − 1) + j ( 3 + 1)
12 12 2
√ −j π √ π π
k = 5 : z6 = 2 e 4 = 2 cos − j sin =1−j
4 4

In summary, there are six roots located on circle whose r = 2, where sine and cosine functions
of multiple π/12 are derived by the similarity rules with the principal π/12 angle.
8.6 Complex Equations 371

8.104. The given function of n is resolved as

 n  
1+j 1−j n
z(n) = √+ √ ∴
2 2
           
1 + j n+4 1 − j n+4 1+j 4 1+j n 1−j 4 1−j n
z(n + 4) = √ + √ = √ √ + √ √
2 2 2 2 2 2
 n  n
  1+j 1−j
= see A.8.21 = − √ − √ ∴ z(n + 4) + z(n) = 0
2 2

8.105. In the general case of a third-order polynomial equation whose roots are z1 , z2 , and z3
its factorized may be expanded as follows (Fig. 8.11):

(z − z1 )(z − z2 )(z − z3 ) = 0
z 3 − z3 z 2 − z2 z 2 + z2 z3 z − z1 z 2 + z1 z3 z + z1 z2 z − z1 z2 z3 = 0
z3 − (z1 + z2 + z3 ) z2 + (z1 z2 + z1 z3 + z2 z3 ) z − z1 z2 z3 = 0 (8.17)

Recall that these are Viète formulas that relate the coefficients of a polynomial to sums and
products of its roots; see Sect. 2.6. To say that three roots of a complex equation are at vertices
of an equilateral triangle is to say that they are distributed every 2π/3 relative to the triangle’s
incenter (i.e., center of incircle, which is a well-known property of equilateral triangles).
Thus, starting with z1 at an arbitrary initial position (phase) arg(z1 ) = θ on the unit circle, it
may be stated that
  2π 4π
z1 = e j θ ∴ ej α ejβ = ej (α+β) ∴ z2 = e j θ e j 3 ∴ z3 = e j θ e j 3

That being said, in this special case of an equilateral triangle, the coefficients of (8.17) must
be
2π 4π 2π 4π  
+ ej θ ej 3 = ej θ 1 + ej
z1 + z2 + z3 = e j θ + e j θ e j 3 3 + ej 3 see the unit circle
√ √
C
1
= e 1A − + j
jθ 3 C1
− −j
3
C2C 2 C
2C 2
 
= 0 regardless of z1 initial θ
2π 4π 6π 2π 2π 4π  
z1 z2 +z1 z3 +z2 z3 = z12 ej 3 +z12 ej 3 +z12 ej 3 = z12 ej 3 1+ej 3 +ej 3 see the unit circle
  
=0
 
= 0 regardless of z1 initial θ

2π 4π * 1 j 3θ

z1 z2 z3 = e j θ e j θ e j 3 ej θ ej 3 = ej 3θ 
ej 2π =e

In this special case, the given specific third-order polynomial equation

z3 − (1 + p + j p) z2 + p(1 + j + j p) z − j p2 = 0 (8.18)
372 8 Complex Algebra

also must have two coefficients always equal zero, and then by the equivalence of general
(8.17) and specific (8.18) equations it follows that

z 3 − z1 + z2 + z3 z 2 + z1 z2 + z1 z3 + z2 z3 z − z1 z2 z3 = 0 ⇒
     
=0 =0

z − (1 + p + j p) z + p(1 + j + j p) z − j p2 = 0
3 2
     
=0 =0

∴
z3 − j p 2 = 0

One possible method to derive p that satisfies the above conditions and (8.17) is to separate its
real and imaginary parts to zero, as

z3 − (1 + p + j p) z2 + p(1 + j + j p) z − j p2 = 0
z3 − z2 − pz2 − j p z2 + p z + jpz + j p2 z − j p2 = 0
z (z2 − z − pz + p) + j p (p z + z − z2 − p) = 0

obviously p = 0 and z = 0, then

z2 − z − pz + p = 0
p z + z − z2 − p = 0

z(z − 1) − p(z − 1) = 0
p (z − 1) − z (z − 1) = 0


(z − 1)(z − p) =0
∴ z = 1, and, p = z
(z − 1)(p − z) = 0

In conclusion, for any initial phase θ, parameter p = z satisfies (8.17).

Verification:

z3 − (1 + p + j p) z2 + p(1 + j + j p) z − j p2 = 0 ∴ if, p = z then

z3 − (1 + z + j z) z2 + z(1 + j + j z) z − j z2 = 0

z3 − S
 zS2 −  j
z3 −  zS2 + Z
z3 + S z2 + 
jZ z3 − Z
j z2 = 0
jZ
0=0 
8.6 Complex Equations 373

Fig. 8.11 P.8.105, equilateral

triangle with three complex
roots z1 , z2 , and z3 at its
vertices. Parameter p that
satisfies given equation must be
valid for all initial θ, not only
for the obvious choice of θ = 0,
i.e., z1 = 1, ∈ R. Being a
complex equation with complex
coefficient, all three roots may
be complex. In other words, the
triangle may be rotated at any θ ,
which is possible only if p = z
Bode Plot
9

Decibel unit: is used as a relative measure G between two quantities A1 and A2 . In general, there
are two types of quantities: a quantity proportional to power (e.g., in electrical engineering power is
P = V I , the product of voltage and current) and only to voltage (or current) by itself. The former
type has the multiplying factor of “10,” while the latter has the multiplying factor of “20,” as

A2 A2
GdB = 10 log or GdB = 20 log
def def

A1 A1

The multiplying factor “20” is the consequence of logarithmic identity log x n = n log x; see Ch. 5.
In the case of voltage (current) case, for example,
 2
P2 V2 I2 V 2 /R V2 V2
GdB = 10 log = 10 log = 10 log 22 = 10 log = 20 log
def

P1 V1 I1 V1 R V1 V1

assuming normalized resistance R.

“dBm” unit: is used as an absolute measure G of quantity A2 normalized to 10−3 (i.e., “milli” on
the engineering scale, thus the “m” in dBm)

A2 A2
GdBm = 10 log or GdBm = 20 log −3
def def

10−3 10

Nevertheless, a unit step between any two measured values is numerically the same whether measured
in dB or dBm units, which very much simplifies the summing operations that involve both dB and
dBm.

Decibel scale (power): note the relationship between the number of zeros in the ratio and the
calculated value.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 375
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_9
376 9 Bode plot

Ratio Calculation [dB] Ratio Calculation [dB]

.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
1/1000 10 log(1/1000) = 10 × (−3) −30 1/8 10 log(1/8) = 10 × (−0.9) -9
1/100 10 log(1/100) = 10 × (−2) −20 1/4 10 log(1/4) = 10 × (-0.6) −6
1/10 10 log(1/10) = 10 × (−1) −10 1/2 10 log(1/2) = 10 × (−0.3) −3
1 10 log(1/1) = 10 × (0) 0 1 10 log(1/1) = 10 × (0) 0
10 10 log(10) = 10 × (1) 10 2 10 log(2) = 10 × (0.3) 3
100 10 log(100) = 10 × (2) 20 4 10 log(4) = 10 × (0.6) 6
1000 10 log(1000) = 10 × (3) 30 8 10 log(8) = 10 × (0.9) 9
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .

Note that each subsequent 10 times increase of measured variable is equivalent to addition of 10 dB
for quantities proportional to power, or to 20 dB for quantities proportional to voltage. On the other
hand, each subsequent division of measured variable by factor 10 is equivalent to addition of −10 dB
for quantities proportional to power, or to −20 dB for quantities proportional to voltage. Thus the
common expression “ −20 dB per decade.” Similarly, each 2 times increase of measured variable
is equivalent to addition of 3 dB for quantities proportional to power, or to 6 dB for quantities
proportional to voltage. In addition, each division of measured variable by factor 2 is equivalent to
addition of −3 dB for quantities proportional to power, or to −6 dB for quantities proportional to
voltage.

Basic building blocks of transfer functions: in engineering, instead of using letter i as the complex
number, letter j is used instead (the “i” is already used to indicate AC current). Being a rational
complex function, any H (j x) transfer function may be factorized into (or synthesized from) the
following five basic, first-order complex functions:

H1 (j x) = a0 (9.1)
x
H2 (j x) = ±j (9.2)
x0
1
H3 (j x) = x (9.3)
±j
x0
x
H4 (j x) = 1 ± j (9.4)
x0
1
H5 (j x) = x (9.5)
1±j
x0

where a0 , x0 = const. ∈ R and j 2 ≡ i 2 = −1. Note that H2 to H5 are written in the form
of the ratio x/x0 . This is very convenient because Bode plots are then normalized to x0 and by
consequence have the same form for various x0 values. That being the case, Bode plots are derived
over a few-decade interval centered around x0 . For example, if variable x is in the four-decade
interval x ∈ (10−2 x0 to 102 x0 ), it is to say that the full Bode plot shows magnitude and phase for
x = 0.01 x0 to x = 100 x0 values.

Logarithmic scale graphs: one of the main advantages of using “compressed” graph forms, such as
“log scale” graphs, is that variables stretching over multiple orders of magnitude (e.g., a frequency)
9.1 Basic Functions 377

may be displayed on the same plot and still have the same resolution for small and for large values.
In comparison, a linear graph covering, for example, an interval from one to one million is practically
useless if the intervals of interest are both from one to ten as well as from hundred thousand to million.
Magnitude expressions (i.e., “transfer functions”) of nontrivial (e.g., multistage) systems may be
factorized into the product of H1 to H5 factors. Then, after applying the logarithm of a product identity
log(x1 x2 · · · xn ) = log x1 + log x2 + · · · + log xn the same magnitude expressions are written in the
form of a sum. For example, given n stage amplifier with Ai gain of each stage, then the total gain A
is

A = A1 A2 A3 . . . An

which may be computationally difficult for hand analysis. Then again, the same equation may be
written in the form of a sum as

log A = log A1 + log A2 + log A2 . . . + log An

which is the main idea used to produce Bode plots. Being derived for logarithmic functions, Bode
plot displays strictly positive arguments. Therefore, magnitude and phase plots are evaluated as the
log argument limit to zero, to x0 , and to infinity values.

Problems

9.1 Basic Functions

Sketch piecewise linear approximation Bode plots of complex functions in P.9.1 to P.9.12. Without
loss of generality, all examples in this chapter assume that quantity x is proportional to voltage
(current), i.e., with the multiplication factor of 20.

1 x
9.1. z(x) = −2 9.2. z(x) = 9.3. z(x) = j
10 2

x 1 x
9.4. z(x) = j 9.5. z(x) = 9.6. z(x) = 1 + j
10 j x/5 10

x x 1
9.7. z(x) = 1 − j 2 9.8. z(x) = 1 − j 10 9.9. z(x) = x
1+j
2

9.10. 1 9.12.
z(x) =
1 9.11. z(x) = x z(x) =
1
x 1−j x
1+j 2 1−j
10 10
378 9 Bode plot

9.2 Examples

Sketch Bode plots of functions in P.9.13 to P.9.22.

 x  x
9.13. z(x) = (−j x) j 9.14. z(x) = j (j 10x)
10 10

 x  
x
9.15. z(x) = (1 − j x) j 9.16. z(x) = (1 + j x)
10 j

x2 x2 9x
9.17. z(x) = − −jx 9.18. z(x) = −j +1
10 10 10
 x  1 + jx
9.19. z(x) = (1 − j x) 1 + j 9.20. z(x) = 500
100 100 − j x

10 + j x 2 + jx
9.21. z(x) = 100 9.22. z(x) = 20 000
100 + j x 220 j x + 4 000 − x 2
9.1 Basic Functions 379

Answers

9.1 Basic Functions

9.1. Given z(x) = −2, Bode plot of this function may be derived as follows.

(a) module (gain) plot: general form of z(x) is (9.1), a real constant function, thus

|z(x)| = |−2| = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 2 = 6 dB

which is to say that module graph is a constant 6 dB line, see Fig. 9.1 (top).
(b) phase plot: as z(x) = −2 + 0 j , then i Im (z) = 0 and Re (z) < 0, therefore by definition
(see Ch. 8)
 
Im (z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (0, −2) = 180◦ = ±π = const.
Re (z)

therefore its phase graph θ(z) is also a constant line at θ = π , see Fig. 9.1 (bottom).
(c) Bode plot interpretation: being a real constant a0 (a.k.a. “gain”) is not function of variable
x. Negative gain of “−2”, however, indicates that the system’s output/input gain equal two
with the phase inversion of π at the output, as for instance in the inverting amplifier.

9.2. Given z(x) = 1/10 is a positive constant where 1/10 < 1, then

(a) module (gain) plot: general form of z(x) is (9.1), i.e. a real constant function, thus
 
1 1
|z(x)| =   = = 10−1 ∴ log a n = n log a ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 10−1
10 10
= −20 log 10
= −20 dB

which is to say that module graph is a constant −20 dB line, see Fig. 9.2 (top).

Fig. 9.1 P.9.1, Bode plot of a

simple transfer function in form of
a real constant as in (9.1). Both
magnitude and phase functions are
constant, while negative gain “−2”
is interpreted as “signal phase
inversion” (or, simply “inversion”)
of θ = ±π
380 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.2 P.9.2, Bode plot of a real

constant transfer function in form
of (9.1). As both magnitude and
phase functions are constant, the
positive sign of gain is interpreted
as “non–inverting”, quantified by
the θ = 0◦

Fig. 9.3 P.9.3, Bode plot of a

transfer function in linear form
(9.2) where x0 = 2. Due to
Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) > 0 the
phase function is constant
θ = +π/2. As x → 0 then
magnitude limits to negative
infinity because of:
limx→0 log(x) → −∞ which is
implied by the slope of linear gain
function

(b) phase plot: Im (z) = 0 and Re (z) > 0, therefore by definition (see Ch. 8)
 
Im (z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (0, 1/10) = 0◦ = const.
Re (z)

therefore its phase graph θ(z) is a constant line equal to 0◦ , see Fig. 9.2 (bottom).
(c) Bode plot interpretation: a real constant a0 (a.k.a. “gain”) is not function of variable x, and
to say that “a0 = 1/10 < 1” is to say that gain as measured in dB is negative. At the same
time, positive 1/10 > 0 sign implies that θ(z) = 0◦ , in other words, there is no phase
inversion at the output, e.g. as in the non–inverting amplifier.

9.3. Given z(x) = j x/2 is a linear function of x, then

(a) 0 dB point: by comparison with the general form (9.2), x0 = 2 then

x 2

z(x) = j ∴ z(x) = j = j ⇒ |z(2)| = |j | = 1 ∴ 20 log |z(2)| = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x=2

2 2

which is to say that x = x0 is the point where |z(x0 )| = 0 dB, i.e. it is the point where the
gain function cross the horizontal axis, see Fig. 9.3 (top).
9.1 Basic Functions 381

(b) magnitude (gain) plot: as Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) > 0 then

 x x
  x
|z(x)| = j  = ∴ lim |z(x)| = lim = 0 ⇒ |z(0)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞
2 2 x→0 x→0 2
x
lim |z(x)| = lim = 1 ⇒ |z(2)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→2 x→2 2
x
lim |z(x)| = lim = +∞ ⇒ |z(+∞)|dB
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2

= 20 log(+∞) = +∞

In log–log scale (in decibels) magnitude is a linear function of x, thus, in order to plot the
line it is sufficient to calculate coordinates of two points. As x0 = 2, it is handy to compute
x = x0 /10 = 0.2 (ten times smaller, i.e. one decade below) and x = 10x0 = 20 (ten times
greater, i.e. one decade above) so that,
  
0.2 1
z(x = 0.2) = 20 log = 20 log = −20 dB
2 10
 
20
z(x = 20) = 20 log = 20 log (10) = +20 dB
2

which is to say that gain increases 20 dB for each ten fold increase of x, Fig. 9.3 (top).
(c) phase plot: as Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) > 0, thus z(x) is in the first quadrant, then
   
Im (z) x/2 π
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (x/2, 0) = arctan = = const.
Re (z) 0 2

therefore phase graph θ(z) is a constant line at π/2, see Fig. 9.3 (bottom).
(d) Bode plot interpretation: gain of this function, as measured in dB, is directly proportional
to the variable x. For any tenfold increase of x there is “+20 dB/dec” added to gain. Phase,
however is constant and fixed to π/2 (i.e. it is the phase of +j ). Physical interpretation
of a constant nonzero phase may be that given a sinusoidal function at the input, there is
a delay (or, advance) that equals one quarter of the sinusoidal period, i.e. T /4. Note that
this phase difference is relative, normalized to period T = 2π for any absolute sinusoidal
frequency.

9.4. Given z(x) = j x/10 is a linear function of x, then

(a) 0 dB point: by comparison with the general form (9.2), x0 = 10 then

x 
x=10 
10
z(x) = j ∴ z(x) = j = j ⇒ |z(2)| = |j | = 1 ∴ 20 log |z(10)| = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
10 

10

which is to say that x = x0 is the point where |z(x0 )| = 0 dB, i.e. it is the point where the
gain function cross the horizontal axis, see Fig. 9.4 (top).
(b) magnitude (gain) plot: as Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) > 0 then
382 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.4 P.9.4, Bode plot of

transfer function in linear form
(9.2) with x0 = 10. Phase function
is constant θ = π/2. As x → 0
then magnitude limits to negative
infinity, thus this form of function
is not possible to sketch exactly at
x = 0. Note that Bode plot of this
type of function looks same for any
x0 = 0

 x 
  x x
|z(x)| = j  = ∴ lim |z(x)| = lim = 0 ⇒ |z(0)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞
10 10 x→0 x→0 10
x
lim |z(x)| = lim = 1 ⇒ |z(10)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→10 x→10 10
x
lim |z(x)| = lim = +∞ ⇒ |z(+∞)|dB
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10

= 20 log(+∞) = +∞

In log–log scale this function (in decibels) is linear. In order to plot a line, as x0 = 10
then calculate coordinates of two points, e.g. at x = x0 /10 = 1 (ten times smaller, i.e. one
decade below) and x = 10x0 = 100 (ten times greater, i.e. one decade above) as,
 
1
z(x = 1) = 20 log = −20 dB
10
 
100
z(x = 100) = 20 log = 20 log (10) = +20 dB
10

which is to say that module increases 20 dB for each ten fold increase of x, Fig. 9.4 (top).
(c) phase plot: as Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) > 0, then
   
Im (z) x/10 π
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 ( /10, 0) = arctan
x = = const.
Re (z) 0 2

therefore phase graph θ(z) = π/2 is a constant line, see Fig. 9.4 (bottom). Compare with
the plots in Figs. 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3.
(d) Bode plot interpretation: gain of this function, as measured in dB, is directly proportional
to variable “x”. For any tenfold increase of x there is “20 dB” increase in gain. It is to say
that, if x represents frequency for instance, a sinusoid whose frequency is below x0 = 10
is suppressed more and more as its frequency is lower and lower. However, as x → +∞,
sinusoids above x0 = 10 are amplified more and more. Even though all sinusoids have the
same phase delay, this non even amplification results in distortion of multi–tone signals
such as voice, where for example 20 Hz tone is suppressed while at the same 20 kHz is
well amplified.
9.1 Basic Functions 383

9.5. Given function has j factor on its denominator, as such it may be rewritten as

1 j 1
z(x) = = −j
j x/5 j x/5

to explicitly show that its form (9.3) is the inverse of the form (9.2), then

(a) 0dB point: by comparison with (9.3), see also A.9.4, the 0 dB point is at x0 = 5.
(b) magnitude (gain) plot: as Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) < 0, then
 
 1  1 1

|z(x)| = −j = ∴ lim |z(x)| = lim
x/5  x/5 x→0 x→0 x/5
= +∞ ⇒ |z(0)|dB = 20 log ∞ = ∞
1
lim |z(x)| = lim = 1 ⇒ |z(10)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→5 x→5 x/5

1
lim |z(x)| = lim = 0 ⇒ |z(+∞)|dB
x→+∞ x→+∞ x/5
= 20 log(0) = −∞

In log–log scale, this function (in decibels) is linear. Thus, computation of |z(x)| at x =
x0 /10 = 0.5 and x = 10x0 = 50 (i.e. two decades interval) results in
 
1
z(x = 0.5) = 20 log = 20 dB
0.5/5
 
1
z(x = 50) = 20 log = −20 dB
50/5

which is to say that module decreases 20 dB for each ten fold increase of x, Fig. 9.5 (top).
(c) phase plot: as Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) < 0 then
   
Im (z) 5/x π
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (− /x , 0) = − arctan
5 = − = const.
Re (z) 0 2

therefore its phase graph θ(z) − π/2 is a constant line, see Fig. 9.5 (bottom). Compare
Bode plot with plots in Fig. 9.4.
(d) Bode plot interpretation: gain of this function, as measured in dB, is directly proportional
to variable “−x”. For any tenfold increase of x there is “−20 dB” reduction in gain. It is to
say that, if x represents frequency for instance, sinusoid whose frequency is below x0 = 5
is amplified more and more as its frequency is lower and lower. However, as x → +∞,
sinusoids above x0 = 5 are attenuated more and more. Even though all sinusoids have the
same phase delay, this non even amplification results in distortion of multi–tone signals
such as voice, where for example 20 Hz tone is well amplified while at the same 20 kHz is
suppressed.
384 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.5 P.9.5, Bode plot of

function in the form of (9.3) with
x0 = 5. In logarithmic scale,
magnitude is a linear function of x
crossing 0 dB at x = x0 = 5 with
the negative slope of −20 dB/dec
while the phase is constant and
negative, due to ‘−j ’ factor

9.6. Given z(x) = 1 + j x/10, where both Re (z) > 0 and Im (z) > 0 are non zero, then
piecewise linear approximation may be derived as follows.

(a) module limits: by definition,

 
 x   x 2
|z(x)| = 1 + j  = |z(x)| = Re (z) + Im (z)
2 2 = 1+ (9.6)
10 10

thus magnitude limits may be evaluated at two extremes as well as relative to x0 = 10,
(1) x 10: that is to say, piecewise linear approximation in x ∈ (0, x0 ) interval
  x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB ≈ 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→0 x→0 10

(2) x = 10: that is to say, exactly at x = x0

  x 2 √ √
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 2 = +3 dB
x→10 x→10 10

Note that at x = x0 the exact value of |z(x)| = +3 dB, indicating the maximal
piecewise linear approximation’s error relative to |z(z0 )| ≈ 0 dB.
(3) x 10: that is to say, piecewise linear approximation in x ∈ (x0 , +∞) interval
  x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = +∞ ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log(+∞) = +∞
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10

(b) magnitude (gain) plot: piecewise linear segments of (9.6) are connected as follows
(1) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
(2) x x0 : that is to say to evaluate |z(x)| at least one decade below x0 , ie. x = x0 /10 =
1 or below where linear approximation is acceptable as

 2   2 
1 1 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + =
x=1
1 ⇒ 1+ ≈1
10 10 10
≈ 20 log 1 = 0 dB
9.1 Basic Functions 385

(3) x x0 : that is to say to evaluate |z(x)| at least one decade above x0 , ie. x = 10x0 =
100 or above where linear approximation is acceptable because

x 10 x0  x 2  x 2
= x = 10x0 = = 10 1 ⇒ 1+ ≈
x0 x0 x0 x0

so that, as x x0 , then
   
 2  2
x x x
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + ≈ 20 log ≈ 20 log  
x0 x0 x0
a
= log = log a − log b; x > 0 = 20 log x − 20 log x0
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function

z(x) = x/x0 (on log scale) that crosses horizontal axis 0 dB at x = x0 .
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of z(x) = 1 + j x/10 is:

0 < x ≤ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0
x = 10 : |z(x)|dB = +3 dB (this is the exact value)
x ≥ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ x (positive unity slope)

which is to say that the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is +3 dB at x = 10

point, where the approximated value is zero and the exact value of |z(x)| is +3 dB, see
Fig. 9.6 (top).
(c) phase plot: both Re (z) and Im (z) parts are nonzero and positive, thus
  x 
Im (z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (x/10, 1) = arctan (9.7)
Re (z) 10
∴
x
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 10
x  
1 π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan = = 45◦
x→10 x→10 10 1 4
x π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(∞) = = 90◦
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10 2

Note that θ(x0 ) = 45◦ , which is true for any x0 > 0 of this type function. Piecewise linear
segments of (9.7) are then connected as follows
(1) x → 0 : θ(x) = 0◦
(2) x = 1 : i.e., at or below x0 /10
 
1
θ(x = 1) = arctan = 5.7◦ ≈ 0◦
10
386 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.6 P.9.6, Bode plot of

function in the form of (9.4) with
x0 = 10. Phase plot is made over at
least four decades centered at
θ(x0 ) = π/4 point. As shown,
phase takes one decade up to reach
π/2, and one decade down to reach
zero. Compare piecewise linear
segments with the superimposed
exact functions: largest magnitude
error is 3 dB and largest phase error
is 5.7◦

(3) x = 100 : i.e., at or above 10x0

 
100 π
θ(x = 100) = arctan = arctan(10) = 84.3◦ ≈ 90◦ =
10 2

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of θ(x) = arctan(x/10) is:

0 < x ≤ 1 : θ(x) ≈ 0
x = 1 : θ(x) = 5.7◦ ≈ 0
π
x = 10 : θ(x) = 45◦ = (this is the exact value)
4
x = 100 : θ(x) = 84.3◦ ≈ 90◦
x > 100 : θ(x) ≈ 90◦

which is to say, relative to the exact function, the largest piecewise linear approximation’s
phase error is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points, see Fig. 9.6 (bottom). Practical
technique to construct a piecewise linear phase plot is to draw a straight line connecting
(0.1x0 , 0) and (10x0 , 90◦ ) points. By doing so, θ = 45◦ point is correctly placed at
x = x0 coordinate. The rest of the graph consists of two constant segments, one at 0◦ in
(−∞, 0.1x0 ) and one at 90◦ in (10x0 , +∞) intervals. Note that both ±3 dB and θ = ±45◦
are at x = x0 coordinate, this is a general property of Bode plot.
(d) Bode plot interpretation: gain profile of this function is nonlinear. Sinusoids below x0 = 10
are not affected as gain is 0 dB (i.e. “1”), however above x0 = 10 sinusoids are amplified
more and more as x → +∞. At the same time, phase delay becomes noticeable at around
x = x0 /10, reaches θ = π/4 (i.e. T/8) at x = x0 and reaches maximum phase delay
at around 10x0 . Within this interval from x0 /10 to 10x0 sinusoids have progressively
increased phase delay. Overall, if variable x represents a frequency, this function’s profile
results in both phase and magnitude distortions of multi–tone signals.
9.1 Basic Functions 387

Fig. 9.7 P.9.7, Bode plot of

function in the form of (9.4) with
x0 = 2. Phase plot takes one
decade above to reach −π/2, and
one decade below x0 to reach zero.
Note that due to ‘−j ’, phase is
negative. Further, gain equal unity
(i.e. 0 dB) up to x0 where
|z(x0 )| = +3 dB, then the
magnitude increases at 20 dB/dec
rate to the infinity

9.7. Given z(x) = 1 − j x/2, where both Re (z) and Im (z) are non zero, then piecewise linear
approximation may be derived as follows.

(a) module limits: by definition

 
 x   x 2
|z(x)| = 1 − j  = 1 + (9.8)
2 2

then,
  x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 1 ⇒ |z(0)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→0 x→0 2
  x 2 √ √
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 2 ⇒ |z(2)|dB = 20 log 2 = +3 dB
x→2 x→2 2
  x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = +∞ ⇒ |z(+∞)|dB = 20 log(+∞) = +∞
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2

(b) magnitude (gain) plot: piecewise linear segments of (9.8) are connected as follows
(1) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0dB
(2) x x0 : i.e., at or below x = x0 /10 = 0.2
 
 2  2
0.2 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + = 20 log 1 + see A.9.6
2 10
≈ 20 log 1 = 0 dB

(3) x x0 : at or above of x = 10x0 = 2,

   
 2  2
x x x
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + ≈ 20 log ≈ 20 log  
x0 x0 x0
a
= log = log a − log b = 20 log x − 20 log x0
b   
const.
388 9 Bode plot

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function

x (on log scale) that crosses horizontal axis at x = x0 .
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of z(x) = 1 − j x/2 is:

0 < x ≤ 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 2 : |z(x)|dB = +3 dB (this is the exact value)
x ≥ 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ x (positive unity slope)

which is to say that the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is +3 dB at x = 2

coordinate, where the approximated value is zero and the exact value of |z(x)| is +3 dB,
Fig. 9.7 (top).
(c) phase plot: as Re (z) is positive and Im (z) is negative, thus in the fourth quadrant
  x 
Im (z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (−x/2, 1) = − arctan (9.9)
Re (z)) 2
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 2
  x   
1 π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan = − = −45◦
x→2 x→2 2 1 4
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2 2

Piecewise linear segments of (9.9) are then connected as follows

(1) x → 0 : θ(x) = 0◦
(2) x = 0.2 : i.e. at or below x0 /10
 
0.2
θ(x = 0.2) = − arctan = − arctan(0.1) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0
2

(3) x = 20 : i.e., at or above 10x0

 
20 π
θ(x = 20) = − arctan = − arctan(10) = −84.3◦ ≈ −90◦ = −
2 2

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of θ(x) = − arctan(x/2) is:

0 < x ≤ 0.2 : θ(x) ≈ 0◦

x = 0.2 : θ(x) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0◦
π
x = 2 : θ(x) = −45◦ = − (this is the exact value)
4
x = 20 : θ(x) = −84.3◦ ≈ −90◦
x > 20 : θ(x) ≈ −90◦
9.1 Basic Functions 389

which is to say, the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10
and 10 x0 points, Fig. 9.7 (bottom). Note that both +3 dB and θ = −45◦ are at x = x0
coordinate. Compare piecewise linear approximation with Fig. 9.6, as well as with the
superimposed exact functions: largest magnitude error is 3 dB and largest phase error
is 5.7◦ .

9.8. Given z(x) = 1 − j x/10, where both Re (z) and Im (z) are non zero, then piecewise
linear approximation may be derived as

(a) module limits: by definition

 
 x   x 2
|z(x)| = 1 − j  = 20 log 1 + (9.10)
10 10
∴
  x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 1 ⇒ |z(9)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0
x→0 x→0 10
  x 2 √ √
lim |z(x)| = lim 1 + = 2 ⇒ |z(10)|dB = 20 log 2 = +3
x→10 x→10 10
  x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = +∞ ⇒ |z(+∞)|dB = 20 log(+∞) = +∞
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10

(b) magnitude (gain) plot: piecewise linear segments of (9.10) are connected as follows
(1) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0
(2) x x0 : i.e., at or below x = x0 /10 = 1

 2
1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + ≈ 20 log 1 = 0
10

(3) x 10 : at or above x = 10x0 = 100,

  
 2
x x
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + ≈ 20 log   = 20 log x − 20 log x0
x0 x0   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function

x (on log scale) that crosses 0 dB horizontal axis at x = x0 .
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of z(x) = 1 − j x/10 is:

0 < x ≤ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 10 : |z(x)|dB = +3 dB (this is the exact value)
x ≥ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ x
390 9 Bode plot

which is to say, the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 3 dB at x = 10 point,

Fig. 9.8 (top).
(c) phase plot: as Re (z) > 0 and Im (z) < 0, thus in the fourth quadrant
  x
Im (z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (−x/10, 1) = − arctan (9.11)
Re (z) 10
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 10
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan (1) = − = −45◦
x→10 x→10 10 4
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10 2

Piecewise linear segments of (9.11) are connected as follows

(1) x → 0 : θ(x) = 0◦
(2) x = 1 : i.e., at or below x = x0 /10 = 1
 
1
θ(x = 1) = arctan − = −5.7◦ ≈ 0◦
10

(3) x = 100 : i.e., at or above x = 10x0 = 100

 
100 π
θ(x = 100) = − arctan = − arctan(10) = −84.3◦ ≈ −90◦ = −
10 2

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of θ(x) = − arctan(x/10) is:

0 < x ≤ 1 : θ(x) ≈ 0◦
x = 1 : θ(x) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0◦
π
x = 10 : θ(x) = −45◦ = − (this is the exact value)
4
x = 100 : θ(x) = −84.3◦ ≈ −90◦
x > 100 : θ(x) ≈ −90◦

which is to say, the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10
and 10 x0 points, Fig. 9.8 (bottom). Note that both +3 dB and θ = −45◦ are at x = x0
coordinate. Compare with other functions in the form of (9.4).

9.9. Given z(x) = 1/(1 + j x/2), where both Re (z) and Im (z) are non zero, then piecewise
linear approximation may be derived as
9.1 Basic Functions 391

Fig. 9.8 P.9.8, Bode plot of

function in the form of (9.4) with
x0 = 10. Phase plot takes one
decade above to reach −π/2, and
one decade below x0 to reach zero.
Further, gain equal unity (i.e. 0 dB)
up to x0 where |z(x0 )| = +3 dB,
then the magnitude increases at
20 dB/dec rate to the infinity.
Compare with Fig. 9.7

(a) magnitude (gain) plot: (9.12) is inverse complex,

 
 
 1 
  1
|z(x)| =  =   x 2 (9.12)
1 + j x 
  1+
2 2

and its limits are

1
lim |z(x)| = lim   x 2 = 1 ⇒ |z(0)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0
x→0 x→0
1+
2
√
1 1 2 1
lim |z(x)| = lim    =√ = ⇒ |z(2)|dB = 20 log √ = −3 dB
x→2 x→2 x 2 2 2 2
1+
2
1
lim |z(x)| = lim   x 2 = 0 ⇒ |z(+∞)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞
x→+∞ x→+∞
1+
2

Then, piecewise linear segments are connected as follows

(1) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0
(2) x x0 : that is to say, x/x0 → 0 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ 1

1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log   x 2 ≈ 20 log 1 = 0
1+
2

(3) x x0 : that is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

x 
1 1  0
|z(x)|dB = 20 log   2 ≈ 20 log  2 ≈ 20 log  
x x x
1+
x0 x0
392 9 Bode plot

a
= log = log a − log b = 20 log x0 −20 log x
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function

“−x” (on log scale) that crosses 0 dB horizontal axis at x = x0 .
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of |z(x)| = |1/(1 + j x/2)| is:

0 < x ≤ 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0
x = 2 : |z(x)|dB = −3 dB (this is the exact value)
x > 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ −x (on log scale)

which is to say, the largest error of magnitude piecewise linear approximation is −3 dB at

x = 2 point, see Fig. 9.9 (top).
(b) phase plot: Re (z) and Im (z) parts of an inverse function may be separated as,

1 1 − j x/2 1 x/2
z(x) = = −j ∴
1 + j /2 1 − j /2
x x 1 + ( /2)
x 2
1 + (x/2)2
1 −x/2
Re (z) = and Im (z) =
1 + (x/2) 2
1 + (x/2)2

therefore, θ(z) limits are

    x 
Im (z) −x/2
θ(z) = arctan = arctan = − arctan (9.13)
Re (z) 1 2
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 2
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan 1 = − = −45◦
x→2 x→2 2 4
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2 2

Piecewise linear segments of (9.13) are connected as follows

x x0 : θ(z) ≈ − arctan (0) = 0◦

x = 0.1x0 : θ(z) = − arctan (0.1) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0
x = x0 : θ(z) = − arctan 1 = −45◦
x = 10x0 : θ(z) = − arctan 10 = −84.3◦ ≈ 90◦
x x0 : θ(z) ≈ − arctan ∞ = −90◦

which is to say, the largest error of phase piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at
x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points, Fig. 9.9 (bottom). Note that θ = −45◦ is found at x = x0
cooridante.
9.1 Basic Functions 393

Fig. 9.9 P.9.9, Bode plot of

function in the form of (9.5) with
x0 = 2. Once normalized to x0 , its
general form is identical as of all
other plots of the same type (9.5)

9.10. Given z(x) = 1/(1 + j x/10), where both Re (z) and Im (z) are non zero, then piecewise
linear approximation may be derived as

(a) magnitude (gain) plot: being inverse complex function

 
 
 
 1  1
|z(x)| =  x =   x 2 (9.14)
1 + j 
  1+
10 10

and limits of (9.14) are

1
lim |z(x)| = lim   x 2 = 1 ⇒ |z(0)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→0 x→0
1+
10
√
1 1 2 1
lim |z(x)| = lim   x 2 = √ = ⇒ |z10)|dB = 20 log √ = −3 dB
x→10 x→10 2 2 2
1+
10
1
lim |z(x)| = lim   x 2 = 0 ⇒ |z(+∞)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞
x→+∞ x→+∞
1+
10

Then, piecewise linear segments are connected as follows

(1) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0 dB
(2) x x0 : that is to say, x/x0 → 0 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ 1

1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log   x 2 ≈ 20 log 1 = 0 dB
1+
10

(3) x x0 : that is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

394 9 Bode plot

x 
1  0
|z(x)|dB = 20 log   2 ≈ 20 log   = 20 log x0 −20 log x
x   
x
1+ const.
x0

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function

“−x” (on log scale) that crosses 0 dB horizontal axis at x = x0 .

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of |z(x)| = |1/(1 + j x/10)| is:

0 < x ≤ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0
x = 10 : |z(x)|dB = −3 dB (this is the exact value)
x > 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ −x (on log scale)

which is to say, the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is −3 dB at x = 10

point, Fig. 9.10 (top).
(b) phase plot: real and imaginary parts of an inverse function may be separated as,

1 1 − j x/10 1 x/10
z(x) = = −j ∴
1 + j x/10 1 − j x/10 1 + (x/10) 2
1 + (x/10)2
1 −x/10
Re (z) = and Im (z) =
1 + (x/10)2
1 + (x/10)2

therefore, as the real part of this inverse complex function is positive and its imaginary part
is negative, phase θ(z) limits in the fourth quadrant are
    x
Im (z) −x/10 1
θ(z) = arctan = atan2   ,   = − arctan
Re (z) 1+
 (
x/10)2
(
1+ x/10)2 10
(9.15)
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 10
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan 1 = − = −45◦
x→10 x→10 10 4
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10 2

Piecewise linear segments of (9.15) are connected as follows

x x0 : θ(z) ≈ − arctan (0) = 0◦

x = 0.1x0 : θ(z) = − arctan (0.1) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0◦
x = x0 : θ(z) = − arctan 1 = −45◦
x = 10x0 : θ(z) = − arctan 10 = −84.3◦ ≈ −90◦
9.1 Basic Functions 395

Fig. 9.10 P.9.10, Bode plot of

function in the form of (9.5) with
x0 = 10. Once normalized to x0 , its
general form is identical as of all
other plots of the same type (9.5).
Compare with Fig. 9.9

x x0 : θ(z) ≈ − arctan ∞ = −90◦

which is to say, the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10
and 10 x0 points, Fig. 9.10 (bottom). Note that θ = −45◦ is found at x = x0 .

9.11. Given z(x) = 1/(1 − j x/2), where both Re (z) and Im (z) are non zero, then piecewise
linear approximation may be derived as

(a) magnitude (gain) plot: (9.16) is inverse complex,

 
 
 1 
  1
|z(x)| =  =   x 2 (9.16)
1 − j x 
  1+
2 2

and its limits are

1
lim |z(x)| = lim   x 2 = 1 ⇒ |z(0)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→0 x→0
1+
2
√
1 1 2 1
lim |z(x)| = lim    =√ = ⇒ |z(2)|dB = 20 log √ = −3 dB
x→2 x→2 x 2 2 2 2
1+
2
1
lim |z(x)| = lim   x 2 = 0 ⇒ |z(+∞)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞
x→+∞ x→+∞
1+
2

Then, piecewise linear segments of (9.16) are connected as follows

(1) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0 dB
(2) x x0 : that is to say, x/x0 → 0 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ 1
396 9 Bode plot

1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log   x 2 ≈ −20 log 1 = 0 dB
1+
2

(3) x x0 : that is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

x 
1  0
|z(x)|dB = 20 log   2 ≈ 20 log   = 20 log x0 −20 log x
x   
x
1+ const.
x0

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function

“−x” (on log scale) that crosses 0 dB horizontal axis at x = x0 .

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of |z(x)| = |1/(1 − j x/2)| is:

0 < x ≤ 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 2 : |z(x)|dB = −3 dB (this is the exact value)
x > 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ −x (on log scale)

which is to say, the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is −3 dB at x = 2

point, Fig. 9.11 (top).
(b) phase plot: real and imaginary parts of an inverse function may be separated as,

1 1 + j x/2 1 x/2
z(x) = = +j ∴
1 − j x/2 1 + j x/2 1 + (x/2) 2
1 + (x/2)2
1 x/2
Re (z) = and Im (z) =
1 + (x/2) 2
1 + (x/2)2

therefore, as both real and imaginary parts of this inverse complex function are positive,
phase θ(z) limits in the first quadrant are
    x 
Im (z) x/2 1
θ(z) = arctan = atan2  
 ,   = arctan (9.17)
Re (z) (x/2) 
1+ 2 (x/2)
1+ 2
2
∴
x 
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 2
x  π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan 1 = = 45◦
x→2 x→2 2 4
x  π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(∞) = = 90◦
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2 2

Piecewise linear segments of (9.17) are connected as follows

x x0 : θ(z) ≈ arctan (0) = 0◦

9.1 Basic Functions 397

Fig. 9.11 P.9.11, Bode plot of a

function in the form of (9.5) with
x0 = 2. Note the phase function
and compare with Fig. 9.10

x = 0.1x0 : θ(z) = arctan (0.1) = 5.7◦ ≈ 0◦

x = x0 : θ(z) = arctan 1 = 45◦
x = 10x0 : θ(z) = arctan 10 = 84.3◦ ≈ 90◦
x x0 : θ(z) ≈ arctan ∞ = 90◦

which is to say, see piecewise linear approximation in Fig. 9.11 (bottom). Note that θ =
45◦ is found at x = x0 coordinate.

9.12. Given z(x) = 1/(1 − j x/10), where both Re (z) and Im (z) are non zero, then piecewise
linear approximation may be derived as

(a) magnitude (gain) plot: (9.18) is inverse complex,

 
 
 
 1  1
|z(x)| =  x =   x 2 (9.18)
1 − j 
  1+
10 10

and its limits are

1
lim |z(x)| = lim   x 2 = 1 ⇒ |z(0)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→0 x→0
1+
10
√
1 1 2 1
lim |z(x)| = lim    =√ = ⇒ |z(10)|dB = 20 log √ = −3 dB
x→10 x→10 x 2 2 2 2
1+
10
1
lim |z(x)| = lim   x 2 = 0 ⇒ |z(+∞)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞
x→+∞ x→+∞
1+
10
398 9 Bode plot

Then, piecewise linear segments are connected as follows

(1) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0 dB
(2) x x0 : that is to say, x/x0 → 0 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ 1

1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log   x 2 ≈ 20 log 1 = 0 dB
1+
10

(3) x x0 : that is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

x 
1  0
|z(x)|dB = 20 log   2 ≈ 20 log   = 20 log x0 −20 log x
x   
x
1+ const.
x0

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function

“−x” (on log scale) that crosses 0 dB horizontal axis at x = x0 .

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of |z(x)| = |1/(1 − j x/10)| is:

0 < x ≤ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 10 : |z(x)|dB = −3 dB (this is the exact value)
x > 10 : |z(x)| dB ≈ −x (on log scale)

which is to say, the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is −3 dB at x = 10

point, Fig. 9.12 (top).
(b) phase limits: real and imaginary parts of an inverse complex function may be explicitly
separated as,

1 1 + j x/10 1 x/10
z(x) = = + j ∴
1 − j x/10 1 + j x/10 1 + (x/10)2 1 + (x/10)2
1 x/10
Re (z) = and Im (z) =
1 + (x/10)2
1 + (x/10)2

therefore, as both real and imaginary parts of this inverse complex function are positive,
phase θ(z) limits in the first quadrant are
    x 
Im (z) x/10 1
θ(z) = arctan = atan2  ,   = arctan
Re (z) (
1+ x/10)2 1 +  2
(x/10) 10
(9.19)
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 10
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan 1 = = 45◦
x→10 x→10 10 4
9.2 Examples 399

Fig. 9.12 P.9.12, Bode plot of a

function in the form of (9.5) with
x0 = 10. Note the phase function
and compare with Fig. 9.11

  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(∞) = = 90◦
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10 2

Piecewise linear segments of (9.19) are connected as follows

x x0 : θ(z) ≈ arctan (0) = 0◦

x = 0.1x0 : θ(z) = arctan (0.1) = 5.7◦ ≈ 0
x = x0 : θ(z) = arctan 1 = 45◦
x = 10x0 : θ(z) = arctan 10 = 84.3◦ ≈ 90◦
x x0 : θ(z) ≈ arctan ∞ = 90◦

Compare this function with the others in this section, with the attention on phase signs.

9.2 Examples

9.13. Given complex function

 x
z(x) = (−j x) j (9.20)
10

its Bode plot may be derived by multiple techniques. General idea to resolve Bode plot is
to factorize given function z(x) into its basic factors (9.1) to (9.5). Then, by the logarithmic
identity a simple product is converted into the sum of log terms that are easily added in the
magnitude and phase plots. It is instructional to try the following two techniques.

Method 1: z(x) is already factorized so that it consists of two basic terms in the form (9.2).
Logarithmic form of factorized (9.20) is then
 x   x   x  x 
20 log z(x) = 20 log −j j = 20 log −j + 20 log j (9.21)
1 10   1    10 
2 x0 =1 2 x0 =10
400 9 Bode plot

which shows that its first 0 dB point is at x0 = 1 and second at x0 = 10. Note that separation
between these two points is one decade. In general, if the separation between pole/zero points
of a rational function is less than one decade then the linear approximation method becomes
less accurate and the exact numerical calculations may be the only method acceptable.

(a) Magnitude of each term is resolved, see A.9.4, as

(1) −j x/1: linear magnitude with +20 dB/dec slope crossing 0 dB at x0 = 1,
(2) j x/10: linear magnitude with +20 dB/dec slope crossing 0 dB at x0 = 10
The total magnitude |z(x)| is then a simple two term sum of magnitudes on logarithmic
scale. To say that two linear functions are added, it is to say that the summation may be
done at two points only. For example, at

x = 1 : −20 dB + 0 dB = −20 dB
x = 10 : 0 dB + 20 dB = 20 dB

These two points are sufficient to draw a straight line as the sum, indicated with  in
Fig. 9.13 (top). Another way of computing the sum is to say that two linear segments with
+20 dB/dec gain (i.e. slope) add up to +40 dB/dec gain (i.e. slope). The 0 dB point of the
sum line is calculated as the geometric mean of two crossing points. In√this case, as√two
functions cross 0 dB at ‘1’ and ‘10’, then the sum’s 0 dB point is at x0 = 12 · 102 = 10.
(b) Similarly, phase functions of two individual segments in (9.20) are

x x
θ(z) = − arctan + arctan
1
      10
2 x0 =1 2 x0 =10

are resolved, see A.9.4, by adding each linear segment. In this case both phases are
constant, thus the sum at any point is π/2 − π/2 = 0, as indicated with  in
Fig. 9.13 (bottom).

This example illustrates the general technique for adding linear segments of multiple
magnitude and phase terms within each logarithmic interval. In this example, as there are
only two linear functions there is only one interval from negative to positive infinity where
the summing operation is done.

Method 2: given z(x) may be first simplified as

 x  x2
z(x) = (−j x) j = > 0 ∈ R ∴ θ = 0◦ (9.22)
10 10

and
 
x2 x 2 x √
20 log |z(x)| = 20 log = 20 log √ = 40 log √ ∴ x0 = 10
10 10 10
√
which is linear function with +40 dB/dec slope that crosses x0 = 10 point. Evidently, both
methods result in the same Bode plot Fig. 9.13. Nevertheless, when beneficial both methods
9.2 Examples 401

Fig. 9.13 P.9.13, Bode plot of a

two term function in the form (9.2).
To add linear segments it is
sufficient to compute sums at any
two points and to draw straight line.
Or, to simply say that magnitudes
of +20 dB/dec and +20 dB/dec
linear segments add up to
+40 dB/dec gain. Similarly, phases
‘π/2’ and ‘−π/2’ add up to zero

are used within more complicated non–trivial problems. Being non complex positive z(x)
function, it is natural to find zero phase (e.g. as in a real resistor).

9.14. Given complex function in the form of product as

 x  x  x
z(x) = j (j 10x) = 10 j j (9.23)
10 10 1

may be resolved similarly to A.9.13,

Method 1: after factorization of the constant “10”, then z(x) consists of one constant factor
(9.1) and two (9.2) factors. Logarithmic form of factorized (9.23) is then
  x   x   x  x 
20 log z(x) = 20 log 10 j j = 20 log 10 + 20 log j + 20 log j
1 10      1    10 
1 a0 =10 2 x0 =1 2 x0 =10
(9.24)

which explicitly shows that “DC gain” factor is a0 = 10, first 0 dB point of z(x) is at x0 = 1
and second at x0 = 10. Note that separation between these two points is one decade.

(a) Magnitude of each term is resolved, see A.9.4, as

(1) 10: constant magnitude is 20 log 10 = +20 dB,
(2) j x/1: linear magnitude with +20 dB/dec slope crossing 0 dB at x0 = 1,
(3) j x/10: linear magnitude with +20 dB/dec slope crossing 0 dB at x0 = 10
The total magnitude |z(x)| is then a simple sum of these three magnitudes on logarithmic
scale, indicated with  in Fig. 9.14 (top). Note how the constant gain factor a0 = 20 dB
√
is added across the interval and consequently 0 dB point is moved from 10 to x0 = 1.
(b) Similarly, phase of z(x) in (9.23) consists of three individual linear segments as

x x
θ(z) = atan2 (0, 10) + arctan + arctan
       1  10
1 θ =0 2 x0 =1 2 x0 =10
402 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.14 P.9.14, Bode plot of a

three term function. Adding
multiple linear segments is
straightforward: it is sufficient to
compute the total sums at two
points and to draw the summing
line. Total phase of ±π implies the
“signal inversion” as in the
inverting amplifier

Fig. 9.15 P.9.15—summing operation of piecewise linear segments is done within two intervals. In this case, from
negative infinity to x = 1, then from x = 1 to positive infinity for the magnitude. Phase segments are added from
negative infinity to x = 0.1, and from x = 10 to positive infinity. Within x ∈ (0.1, 10) interval the phase function is
approximated linearly

That is to say, the total phase θ is a simple sum of these three terms on logarithmic scale. In
this case all three terms are constant, thus the sum at any point is a simple 0+π/2+π/2 =
π , indicated with  in Fig. 9.14 (bottom).

Method 2: given z(x) may be first simplified as

 x
z(x) = j (j 10x) = −x 2 < 0 ∈ R ∴ θ = ±π
10

and magnitude is

x
20 log |z(x)| = 20 log | − x 2 | = 20 log x 2 = 40 log ∴ x0 = 1
1

which is a linear function with +40 dB/dec slope that crosses x0 = 1 point. Evidently, both
methods result in the same Bode plot Fig. 9.14. Being non complex negative z(x) function, it
is natural to find ±π phase, i.e. the “signal inversion”.
9.2 Examples 403

9.15. Given complex function in factorized form as

 x
z(x) = (1 − j x) j (9.25)
10

consists of two basic factors (9.2) and (9.4). Logarithmic form of (9.25) is then
 x   x   x  x 
20 log z(x) = 20 log 1−j j = 20 log 1 − j + 20 log j (9.26)
1 10   1   10 
4 x0 =1 2 x0 =10

which shows its two 0 dB points at x0 = 1 and at x0 = 10. Note that separation between these
two points is one decade.

(a) Magnitude of each factor is resolved, see A.9.4 and A.9.8, for example as
(1) z1 (x) = 1 − j x/1: i.e. x0 = 1, then magnitude segments are

 
 x   x 2
|z1 (x)| = 1 − j  = 20 log 1 + ∴ 0 < x ≤ 1 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
1 1
x = 1 : |z1 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x > 1 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.15a (top).
(2) z2 (x) = j x/10: i.e. x0 = 10, is indicated with 2 in Fig. 9.15a (top). Its two
defining points may be computed at x = 1 as −20 dB and at x = 10 as 0 dB, i.e.
+20 dB/dec.
The total magnitude is then |z(x)| = |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| on logarithmic scale, indicated with
 in Fig. 9.15a (top). In this case, there are two segments to consider: left and right of
x0 = 1 point. Thus, total piecewise magnitudes (i.e. gains) calculated within these two
segments are

x ≤ 1 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = 0 + 20 dB/dec = 20 dB/dec

x ≥ 1 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = +20 dB/dec + 20 dB/dec = +40 dB/dec

As same as in A.9.13, the +40 dB/dec line segment is measured

√ as −20 dB at x = 1 and
as +20 dB at x = 10, thus it crosses 0 dB point at x0 = 10.
(b) Similarly, phases of two factors in (9.25) are approximated as
x
z1 (x) = 1 − j x/1 : θ1 (z) = atan2 (−x/10, 1) = − arctan
10
∴

cont.
0<x 0.1 : θ1 (x) ≈ − arctan(0) = 0◦
404 9 Bode plot

π
x = 1 : θ1 (x) − arctan (1) = − = −45◦
4
π
x 10 : θ1 (x) ≈ − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.15a (bottom), and,

 
x/10 π
θ2 (z) = atan2 (x/10, 0) = arctan = = const.
0 2

indicated with 2 in Fig. 9.15a (bottom). That being said, the total piecewise approxima-
tion of (9.25) phase in logarithmic scale is the sum computed within each interval as

π π
θ(z) ≈ θ1 (z) + θ2 (z) ∴ 0 < x 0.1 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + =
2 2
π π π
x = 1 : θ(z) ≈ − + =
4 2 4
π π
x 10 : θ(z) ≈ − + =0
2 2

where the total phase follows linear segment within the 0.1 ≤ x ≤ 10 interval, indicated
with  in Fig. 9.15a (bottom). Note that this is a general technique to resolve phase
within two decades interval centered around x0 , where θ(x0 ) = ±π/4 depending on the
Im (z) sign. Comparison of piecewise linear approximations with the exact functions is
shown in Fig. 9.15b.

9.16. Given complex function may be rewritten as

 
x j
z(x) = (1 + j x) = (1 + j x) (−j x) (9.27)
j j

so that it consists of two basic factors (9.2) and (9.4). Logarithmic form of (9.27) is then
 x   x   x  x
20 log z(x) = 20 log 1+j −j = 20 log 1 + j + 20 log −j (9.28)
1 1   1   1
4 x0 =1 2 x0 =1

which shows a double 0 dB point at x0 = 1, i.e. these two x0 points overlap.

(a) Magnitude of each factor is resolved, see for example A.9.4 and A.9.8, as
(1) z1 (x) = 1 + j x/1: i.e. x0 = 1 as

 
 x   x 2
|z1 (x)| = 1 + j  = 20 log 1 + ∴ 0 < x ≤ 1 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
1 1
x = 1 : |z1 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x > 1 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ x
9.2 Examples 405

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.16a top.
(2) z2 (x) = −j x/1: i.e. x0 = 1, is linear. Two points to calculate |z2 (x)| may be at
x = x0 /10 = 0.1 and x = 10x0 = 10 as,
 x  
   0.1 

|z2 (x)| = −j  = x ∴ 20 log |z(x = 0.1)| = 20 log −  = 20 log 0.1 = −20 dB
1 1 
 
 10 
20 log |z(x = 10)| = 20 log −  = 20 log 10 = +20 dB
1

which is to say that magnitude increases linearly as x with the slope of +40 dB over
two decades centered at x0 = 1, or equivalently +20 dB/dec, indicated with 2 in
Fig. 9.16a top.
The total logarithmic magnitude is then |z(x)| = |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)|, indicated with  in
Fig. 9.16a (top). In this case, there are two intervals to consider: left and right of x0 = 1
point. Thus, total piecewise magnitude (i.e. gain) is calculated within each of these two
intervals as

x ≤ 1 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = 0 + 20 dB/dec = 20 dB/dec

x ≥ 1 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = +20 dB/dec + 20 dB/dec = +40 dB/dec

(b) Similarly, phases of two factors in (9.27) are approximated as

x 
z1 (x) = 1 + j x/1 : θ1 (z) = atan2 (x/1, 1) = arctan
1
∴
0<x 0.1 : θ1 (x) ≈ arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 1 : θ1 (x) = arctan (1) = = 45◦
4
π
x 10 : θ1 (x) ≈ arctan(∞) = = 90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.16a bottom, and,

 
x/1 π
θ2 (z) = atan2 (−x/1, 0) = − arctan =− = const.
0 2

indicated with 2 in Fig. 9.16a bottom. That being said, the total piecewise approximation
of (9.27) phase in logarithmic scale is the sum computed within each interval as

π π
θ(z) ≈ θ1 (z) + θ2 (z) ∴ 0 < x 0.1 : θ(z) ≈ 0 − =−
2 2
π π π
x = 1 : θ(z) ≈ + − =−
4 2 4
π π
x 10 : θ(z) ≈ + +− =0
2 2
406 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.16 P.9.16—summing operation of piecewise linear segments is done within two intervals. In this case, from
negative infinity to x = 1, then from x = 1 to positive infinity for the magnitude. Phase segments are added from
negative infinity to x = 0.1, and from x = 10 to positive infinity. Within x ∈ (0.1, 10) interval the phase function is
approximated linearly

where the total phase is approximated by linear segment within the 0.1 ≤ x ≤ 10 interval,
indicated with  in Fig. 9.16a (bottom). Comparison of piecewise linear approximations
with the exact functions is shown in Fig. 9.16b.

9.17. Given complex function may be factorized as

x2 j x  −j x  x
z(x) = − − j x = (j x)2 = j x j x = −x 2 = − −j
10 10 1 1
 x  jx 
= −j 1− (9.29)
1 10

so that two basic factors (9.2) and (9.4) are explicitly shown. Two 0 dB points of z(x) are at
x0 = 1 and x0 = 10 so that logarithmic form of (9.29) is then
 x   x   x  x
20 log z(x) = 20 log 1−j −j = 20 log 1 − j + 20 log −j (9.30)
10 1   10    1
4 x0 =10 2 x0 =1

(a) Magnitude of each factor is resolved, see for example A.9.4 and A.9.8, as
(1) z1 (x) = 1 − j x/10: i.e. x0 = 10 as

 
 x   x 2
|z1 (x)| = 1 − j  = 20 log 1 + ∴ 0 < x ≤ 10 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
10 10
x = 10 : |z1 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x ≥ 10 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ x
9.2 Examples 407

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.17a top.
(2) z2 (x) = −j x/1: i.e. x0 = 1, is linear (see A.9.16)

 x  
   0.1 

|z2 (x)| = −j  = x ∴ 20 log |z(x = 0.1)| = 20 log −  = 20 log 0.1 = −20 dB
1 1 
 
 10 
20 log |z(x = 10)| = 20 log −  = 20 log 10 = +20 dB

1

as indicated with 2 in Fig. 9.17a top.

The total logarithmic magnitude is then |z(x)| = |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)|, indicated with  in
Fig. 9.17a (top). In this case, there are two intervals to consider: left and right of x0 = 10
point. Thus, total piecewise magnitude (i.e. gain) is calculated within each of these two
intervals as

x ≤ 10 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = 0 + 20 dB/dec = 20 dB/dec

x ≥ 10 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = +20 dB/dec + 20 dB/dec = 40 dB/dec

(b) Similarly, phases factors in (9.29) are approximated as

x
z1 (x) = 1 − x/10 : θ1 (z) = atan2 (−x/10, 1) = − arctan
10
∴
0<x 1 : θ1 (x) ≈ − arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 10 : θ1 (x) = − arctan (1) = − = −45◦
4
π
x 100 : θ1 (x) ≈ − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.17a bottom, and,

 
x/1 π
θ2 (z) = atan2 (−x/1, 0) = − arctan =− = const.
0 2

as indicated with 2 in Fig. 9.17a bottom. That being said, the total piecewise
approximation of (9.29) phase in logarithmic scale is the sum computed within each
interval as
π π
θ(z) ≈ θ1 (z) + θ2 (z) ∴ 0 < x 1 : θ(z) ≈ 0 − =−
2 2
π π 3π
x = 10 : θ(z) ≈ − − =−
4 2 4
π π
x 100 : θ(z) ≈ − − = −π
2 2
408 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.17 P.9.17—the summing operation of piecewise linear segments for magnitude and phase

where the total phase is approximated by linear segment within the 1 ≤ x ≤ 100 interval,
indicated with  in Fig. 9.17a (bottom). Comparison of piecewise linear approximations
with the exact functions is shown in Fig. 9.17b.

9.18. Given complex function may be factorized as

x2 9x jx jx x x x jx   x 
z(x) = −j +1=− −j +j + 1 = −j +1 + j +1
10 10 10 1 1 10 1 10 10
 x  x
= 1+j 1−j (9.31)
10 1

so that two 0 dB points at x0 = 1 and at x0 = 10 are explicitly shown as per basic form (9.4).
Logarithmic form of (9.31) is then
 x  x   x  x
20 log z(x) = 20 log 1+j 1−j = 20 log 1 + j + 20 log 1 − j
10 1   10    1
4 x0 =10 4 x0 =1
(9.32)

Note that these two points are separated by one decade.

(a) Magnitude of each term is resolved as

(1) z1 (x) = 1 + j x/10: i.e. x0 = 10 as

 
 x   x 2
|z1 (x)| = 1 + j  = 20 log 1 + ∴ 0 < x ≤ 10 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ 0dB
10 10
x = 10 : |z1 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x > 10 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ x
9.2 Examples 409

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.18a top.
(2) z2 (x) = 1 − j x/1: i.e. x0 = 1.

 
 x   x 2
|z2 (x)| = 1 − j  = 20 log 1 + ∴ 0 < x ≤ 1 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
1 1
x = 1 : |z2 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x > 1 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.18a top.
The total magnitude is then |z(x)| = |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| on logarithmic scale, indicated with
 in Fig. 9.18a (top). In this case, there are three intervals to consider as

0 < x ≤ 1 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = 0 + 0 = 0

1 ≤ x ≤ 10 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = 0 + 20 dB/dec = 20 dB/dec
x ≥ 10 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = +20 dB/dec + 20 dB/dec = 40 dB/dec

(b) Similarly, phases of two factors in (9.31) are approximated as

x 
z1 (x) = 1 − j x/1 : θ1 (z) = atan2 (−x/1, 1) = − arctan ∴
1
0<x 0.1 : θ1 (x) ≈ − arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 1 : θ1 (x) = − arctan (1) = − = −45◦
4
π
x 10 : θ1 (x) ≈ − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.18a bottom, and,

x
z2 (x) = 1 + j x/10 : θ2 (z) = atan2 (x/10, 1) = − arctan ∴
10
0<x 1 : θ1 (x) ≈ arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 10 : θ1 (x) = arctan (1) = = 45◦
4
x 100 : θ1 (x) ≈ arctan(∞)
π
= = 90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.18a bottom. That being said, the total piecewise approximation
of (9.31) phase in logarithmic scale is the sum computed at the boundaries of five intervals
as

θ(z) ≈ θ1 (z) + θ2 (z) ∴ 0 < x ≤ 0.1 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + 0 = 0

410 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.18 P.9.18—the summing operation of piecewise linear segments for magnitude and phase

π π
x = 1 : θ(z) ≈ − +0=−
4 4
π π π
x = 10 : θ(z) ≈ − + =−
2 4 4
π π
x = 100 : θ(z) ≈ − + =0
2 2
π π
x ≥ 100 : θ(z) ≈ − + =0
2 2

indicated with  in Fig. 9.18a (bottom). Comparison of piecewise linear approximations

with the exact functions is shown in Fig. 9.18b. Evidently, phase function is forced to
change multiple times as the two 0 dB points are close. For that reason difference between
the exact phase function and its respective linear approximations is visibly larger. In
general, these approximation errors increase when the pole/zero separations of rational
functions are less than one decade.

9.19. This function is already factorized

 x 
z(x) = (1 − j x) 1 + j (9.33)
100

then its logarithmic form is

 x  x   x   x
20 log z(x) = 20 log 1+j 1−j = 20 log 1 + j + 20 log 1 − j
100 1   100    1
4 x0 =100 4 x0 =1
(9.34)

so that two 0 dB points at x0 = 1 and x0 = 100 are explicitly shown as per basic form (9.4).
Note that these two points are separated by two decades.
9.2 Examples 411

(a) Magnitude of each term is resolved as

(1) z1 (x) = 1 + j x/100: i.e. x0 = 100 as
  x 2
|z1 (x)| = |1 + j x/100| = 20 log 1 + ∴ 0 < x ≤ 100 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
100
x = 100 : |z1 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x ≥ 100 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.19a top.
(2) z2 (x) = 1 − j x/1: i.e. x0 = 1.

 
 x   x 2
|z2 (x)| = 1 − j  = 20 log 1 + ∴ 0 < x ≤ 1 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
1 1
x = 1 : |z2 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x ≥ 1 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.19a top.
The total magnitude is then |z(x)| = |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| on logarithmic scale, indicated with
 in Fig. 9.19a (top). In this case, there are three segments to consider as

0 < x ≤ 1 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = 0 + 0 = 0

1 ≤ x ≤ 100 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = 0 + 20 dB/dec = 20 dB/dec
x ≥ 100 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| = +20 dB/dec + 20 dB/dec = 40 dB/dec

(b) Similarly, phases of two factors in (9.33) are approximated as

x 
z1 (x) = 1 − j x/1 : θ1 (z) = atan2 (−x/1, 1) = − arctan ∴
1
0 < x ≤ 0.1 : θ1 (x) ≈ − arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 1 : θ1 (x) = − arctan (1) = − = −45◦
4
π
x 10 : θ1 (x) ≈ − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.19a bottom, and,

 x 
z2 (x) = 1 + j x/100 : θ2 (z) = atan2 (x/100, 1) = − arctan ∴
100
0 < x ≤ 10 : θ1 (x) ≈ arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 100 : θ1 (x) = arctan (1) = = 45◦
4
412 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.19 P.9.19—the summing operation of piecewise linear segments for magnitude and phase

π
x ≥ 1000 : θ1 (x) ≈ arctan(∞) = = 90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.19a bottom. Then, the total piecewise approximation of (9.33)
phase in logarithmic scale is the sum computed at the boundaries of four segments as

θ(z) ≈ θ1 (z) + θ2 (z) ∴ 0 < x ≤ 0.1 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + 0 = 0

π π
x = 10 : θ(z) ≈ − +0=−
2 2
π π
x = 1000 : θ(z) ≈ − + = 0
2 2
π π
x ≥ 1000 : θ(z) ≈ − + = 0
2 2

indicated with  in Fig. 9.19a (bottom). Comparison of piecewise linear approximations

with the exact functions is shown in Fig. 9.19b.

9.20. This rational function may be factorized to explicitly show gain factor a0 , its zero (i.e.
numerator’s Re (z) = Im (z)), and its pole (i.e. denominator ’s Re (z) = Im (z)) as

x x
1 + jx 1 + j 1+j
z(x) = 500 =5
500  1  =5 1 (9.35)
100 − j x  x x

100 1 − j 1 − j
100 100

Gain factor equal a0 = 5, zero is at x0 = 1, and pole is at x0 = 100. Note the two decades
separation between zero and pole.

(a) Logarithmic form (9.35) is then

9.2 Examples 413

⎡ x ⎤
1+j
⎢ 1 ⎥ a −1
20 log z(x) = 20 log ⎣5 x ⎦ log b = log(ab ) = log a − log b
1−j
100
 x  x 
= 20 log 5 +20 log 1 + j −20 log 1 − j (9.36)
     1   100 
1 a0 =5 4 x0 =1 4 x0 =100

(b) Evidently, summation terms in (9.36) are in basic forms (9.1) and (9.4), see P.9.1 to
P.9.12. In addition, denominator of rational function (9.35) corresponds to the negative
term in (9.36).
(a) Magnitude of each term in (9.36) is resolved as
(1) z1 (x) = a0 = 5: ∴ |z1 (x)| = |5| = 20 log 5 ≈ 14 dB
This piecewise linear segments is indicated with 1 in Fig. 9.20a top.
(2) z2 (x) = 1 + j x/1: i.e. x0 = 1.

 
 x   x 2
|z2 (x)| = 1 + j  = 20 log 1 + ∴ 0 < x ≤ 1 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
1 1
x = 1 : |z2 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x ≥ 1 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.20a top.
(3) z3 (x) = 1 − j x/100: i.e. x0 = 100. Note that Im (z) < 0 as well as the negative
sign of |z3 | in (9.36), thus
  x 2
|z3 (x)| = − |1 − j x/100| = −20 log 1 +
100
∴ 0 < x ≤ 100 : |z3 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 100 : |z3 (x)|dB = −3 dB
x ≥ 100 : |z3 (x)|dB ≈ −x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.20a top.
The total magnitude on logarithmic scale is then |z(x)| = |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)|,
indicated with  in Fig. 9.20a (top). In this case, there are three intervals to consider

0 < x ≤ 1 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ≈ 14 dB + 0 + 0 = 14 dB

x = 100 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ≈ 14 dB + 40 dB + 0 = 54 dB
   
x ≥ 100 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ≈ 54 dB + 
20dB/dec −20dB/dec = 54 dB

(b) Similarly, phases of three factors in (9.35) are approximated as

z1 (x) = 5 > 0 ∈ R : ⇒ θ1 (x) = 0

414 9 Bode plot

indicated with 1 in Fig. 9.20a bottom,

x 
z2 (x) = 1 + j x/1 : θ2 (z) = atan2 (x/1, 1) = arctan ∴
1
0<x 0.1 : θ2 (x) ≈ arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 1 : θ2 (x) = arctan (1) = = 45◦
4
π
x 10 : θ2 (x) ≈ arctan(∞) = = 90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.20a bottom. Again, note the negative sign of this
denominator term in its logarithmic form so that
 x 
z3 (x) = 1 − j x/100 : θ3 (z) = −atan2 (−x/100, 1) = arctan ∴
100
0 < x ≤ 10 : θ3 (x) ≈ arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 100 : θ3 (x) = arctan (1) = = 45◦
4
π
x ≥ 1000 : θ3 (x) ≈ arctan(∞) = = 90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.20a bottom. Therefore, the total piecewise approximation
of (9.35) phase in logarithmic scale is the sum computed at the boundaries of four
segments as

θ(z) ≈ θ1 (z) + θ2 (z) + θ3 (z) ∴ 0 < x ≤ 0.1 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + 0 + 0 = 0

π π
x = 10 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + +0=
2 2
π π
x = 1000 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + + = π
2 2
π π
x ≥ 1000 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + + = π
2 2

indicated with  in Fig. 9.20a (bottom). Comparison of piecewise linear approxima-

tions with the exact functions is shown in Fig. 9.20b.

9.21. This function may be factorized into its basic factors that explicitly show positions of
its pole (i.e. numerator’s Re (z) = Im (z)), its zero (i.e. denominator’s Re (z) = Im (z)), and
its gain factor a0 as follows.
 x  x
10 + j x 10 1 + j 1+j
z(x) = 100 =
100  10  = 10 10 (9.37)
100 + j x  x x
100 1 + j
 1+j
100 100

where, DC gain is a0 = 10, zero is at x0 = 10, and pole at x0 = 100. Note one decade
separation between pole and zero positions.
9.2 Examples 415

Fig. 9.20 P.9.20—the summing operation of piecewise linear segments for magnitude and phase

(a) Logarithmic form of factorized (9.37) is then

⎡ x ⎤
1+j
⎢ 10 ⎥ log a = log(ab−1 ) = log a − log b
20 log z(x) = 20 log ⎣10 x ⎦
1+j b
100
 x  x 
= 20 log 10 +20 log 1 + j −20 log 1 + j (9.38)
     10    100 
1 a0 =10 4 x0 =10 4 x0 =100

(b) Summation terms in (9.38) are in basic forms (9.1) and (9.4), see P.9.1 to P.9.12. In
addition, denominator of rational function (9.37) corresponds to the negative term in
(9.38).
(a) Magnitude of each term in (9.38) is resolved as
(1) z1 (x) = a0 = 10: ∴ |z1 (x)| = |10| = 20 log 10 = 20 dB
This piecewise linear segments is indicated with 1 in Fig. 9.21a top.
(2) z2 (x) = 1 + j x/10: i.e. x0 = 10.

 
 x   x 2
|z2 (x)| = 1 + j  = 20 log 1 +
10 10
∴ 0 < x ≤ 10 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 10 : |z2 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x ≥ 10 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.21a top.
(3) z3 (x) = 1 + j x/100: i.e. x0 = 100 (the negative term in (9.38)) as
  x 2
|z3 (x)| = − |1 + j x/100| = −20 log 1 +
100
416 9 Bode plot

∴ 0 < x ≤ 100 : |z3 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB

x = 100 : |z3 (x)|dB = −3 dB
x ≥ 100 : |z3 (x)|dB ≈ −x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.21a top.
The total magnitude on logarithmic scale is then |z(x)| = |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ,
indicated with  in Fig. 9.21a (top). There are three intervals to consider as

0 < x ≤ 10 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| = 20 dB + 0 + 0 ≈ 20 dB

x = 100 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ≈ 20 dB + 20 dB + 0 = 40 dB
   
x ≥ 100 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ≈ 40 dB + 
20dB/dec −20dB/dec = 40 dB

(b) Similarly, phases of three factors in (9.37) are approximated as

z1 (x) = 10 > 0 ∈ R : ⇒ θ1 (x) = 0

indicated with 1 in Fig. 9.21a bottom,

x
z2 (x) = 1 + j x/10 : θ2 (z) = atan2 (x/1, 1) = arctan ∴
10
0 < x ≤ 1 : θ2 (x) ≈ arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 10 : θ2 (x) = arctan (1) = = 45◦
4
π
x ≥ 100 : θ2 (x) ≈ arctan(∞) = = 90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.21a bottom, and the negative term in (9.38), thus
 x 
z3 (x) = 1 + j x/100 : θ3 (z) = −atan2 (x/100, 1) = − arctan ∴
100
0 < x ≤ 10 : θ3 (x) ≈ − arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 100 : θ3 (x) = − arctan (1) = − = −45◦
4
x ≥ 1000 : θ3 (x) ≈ − arctan(∞)
π
=− = −90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.21a bottom. Thus, the total piecewise approximation
of (9.37) phase in logarithmic scale is the sum computed at the boundaries of five
intervals

θ(z) ≈ θ1 (z) + θ2 (z) + θ3 (z) ∴ 0 < x ≤ 1 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + 0 + 0 = 0

π π
x = 10 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + +0=
4 4
9.2 Examples 417

Fig. 9.21 P.9.21—the summing operation of piecewise linear segments for magnitude and phase

π π π
x = 100 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + − =
2 4 4
π π
x = 1000 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + − = 0
2 2
π π
x > 1000 : θ(z) ≈ 0 + − = 0
2 2

indicated with  in Fig. 9.21a (bottom). Comparison of piecewise linear approxi-

mations with the exact functions is shown in Fig. 9.21b.

9.22. This second order rational function may be factorized into its basic factors that explic-
itly show positions of poles (i.e. numerator’s Re (z) = Im (z)) and zeros (i.e. denominator’s
Re (z) = Im (z)) as follows.

2 + jx 2 + jx
H (j ω) = 2 000 = (j x)2 = −x 2 = 2 000 2 2
220j x + 4 000 − x 2 j x + 220j x + 4 000
2 + jx 2 + jx
= 2 000 = 2 000
j 2 x 2 + 20j x + 200j x + 4 000 j x (20 + j x) + 200 (20 + j x)
 x
2 + jx

2 1 + j
  2
= 2 000
(20 + j x)(200 + j x)
=2 000 x   x 
 1+j

20 200 1 + j

20 200
x
1+j
= 2
x  x  (9.39)
1+j 1+j
20 200

where, a zero is at x0 = 2, first pole at x0 = 20, and the second pole at x0 = 200. Note one
decade separation between zero–pole–pole locations, and also that the two poles are real. As
a side note, second order rational function with complex poles is very important form.
418 9 Bode plot

(a) Logarithmic form of factorized (9.39) is then

⎡ x ⎤
1+j
⎢ 2 ⎥
20 log z(x) = 20 log ⎣  x  x ⎦
1+j 1+j
20 200
 x  x  x 
= +20 log 1 + j −20 log 1 + j −20 log 1 + j (9.40)
  2   20    200 
4 x0 =2 4 x0 =20 4 x0 =200

(b) Summation terms in (9.40) are in basic forms (9.1) and (9.4), see P.9.1 to P.9.12. In
addition, denominator of rational function (9.39) corresponds to the negative term in
(9.40).
(a) Magnitude of each term in (9.40) is resolved as
(1) z1 (x) = 1 + j x/2: i.e. x0 = 2.

 
 x   x 2
|z1 (x)| = 1 + j  = 20 log 1 + ∴ 0 < x ≤ 2 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
2 2
x = 2 : |z1 (x)|dB = 3 dB
x ≥ 2 : |z1 (x)|dB ≈ x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.22a top.
(2) z2 (x) = 1 + j x/20: i.e. x0 = 20 (the negative term in (9.40)) as

 x 2
|z2 (x)|= − |1+j x/20| = − 20 log 1+ ∴ 0<x ≤ 20 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
20
x=20 : |z2 (x)|dB = −3 dB
x≥20 : |z2 (x)|dB ≈ −x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.22a top.
(3) z3 (x) = 1 + j x/200: i.e. x0 = 200 (the negative term in (9.40)) as
  x 2
|z3 (x)| = − |1 + j x/200| = −20 log 1 +
200
∴ 0 < x ≤ 200 : |z3 (x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 200 : |z3 (x)|dB = −3 dB
x ≥ 200 : |z3 (x)|dB ≈ −x

These piecewise linear segments are indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.22a top.
9.2 Examples 419

The total magnitude on logarithmic scale is then |z(x)| = |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ,
indicated with  in Fig. 9.22a (top). There are four intervals to consider as

0 < x ≤ 2 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 dB

x = 20 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ≈ 20 dB + 0 + 0 = 20 dB
x = 200 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ≈ 40 dB − 20 dB + 0 = 20 dB
x = 2000 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ≈ 60 dB − 40 dB − 20 dB = 0 dB
x ≥ 2000 : |z1 (x)| + |z2 (x)| + |z3 (x)| ≈ 20 dB/dec − 20 dB/dec
− 20 dB/dec = −20 dB/dec

(b) Similarly, phases of three factors in (9.39) are approximated as

x x x
θ(z) = + arctan − arctan − arctan (9.41)
2
       20  200
4 x0 =2 4 x0 =20 4 x0 =200

so that,
x 
z1 (x) = 1 + j x/2 : θ1 (z) = atan2 (x/2, 1) = arctan ∴
2
0 < x ≤ 0.2 : θ2 (x) ≈ arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 2 : θ2 (x) = arctan (1) = = 45◦
4
π
x ≥ 20 : θ2 (x) ≈ arctan(∞) = = 90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.22a bottom,

x
z2 (x) = 1 + j x/20 : θ2 (z) = −atan2 (x/20, 1) = − arctan ∴
20
0 < x ≤ 2 : θ2 (x) ≈ − arctan(0) = 0◦
π
x = 20 : θ2 (x) = − arctan (1) = − = −45◦
4
x ≥ 200 : θ2 (x) ≈ − arctan(∞)
π
=− = −90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.22a bottom and negative sign in (9.39).

 x 
z3 (x) = 1 + j x/200 : θ2 (z) = −atan2 (x/200, 1) = − arctan ∴
200
0 < x ≤ 20 : θ3 (x) ≈ − arctan(0) = 0◦
420 9 Bode plot

Fig. 9.22 P.9.22—the summing operation of piecewise linear segments for magnitude and phase

π
x = 200 : θ3 (x) = − arctan (1) = − = −45◦
4
x ≥ 2000 : θ3 (x) ≈ − arctan(∞)
π
=− = −90◦
2

indicated with 4 in Fig. 9.22a bottom and negative sign in (9.41).

Thus, the total piecewise approximation of (9.41) phase in logarithmic scale is the sum
computed at the boundaries of five intervals

θ(z) ≈ θ1 (z) + θ2 (z) + θ3 (z) ∴ 0 < x ≤ 0.2 : θ(z) ≈ 0 − 0 − 0 = 0

π π
x = 2 : θ(z) ≈ −0−0=
4 4
π π π
x = 20 : θ(z) ≈ − −0=
2 4 4
π π π π
x = 200 : θ(z) ≈ − − =−
2 2 4 4
π π π π
x ≥ 2 000 : θ(z) ≈ − − =−
2 2 2 2

indicated with  in Fig. 9.22a (bottom). Comparison of piecewise linear approxi-

mations with the exact functions is shown in Fig. 9.22b.
 Part III
Linear Algebra
Linear Algebra
10

Problems

Exercises in this chapter are grouped into nine sections. Vector definitions and operations are followed
by examples of linear transformations, determinants, and Cramer’s rule. Then, modern interpretation
of vectors and space is given in the form of matrix transformations, eigenvalues, and eigenvectors.
Finally, linear algebra exercises are summarized by using one of the many methods to calculate the
inverse matrix and powers of diagonalizable matrices.

10.1 Vector Definitions

Problems in P.10.1 to P.10.5 are a short review of vector definitions.

10.1. By a simple sketch, illustrate geometrical interpretation of 3D, 2D, 1D, and 0D spaces,
where “xD” refers to number of dimensions.

10.2. What are the “preferred” forms of vector representations in physics, mathematics, and
informatics?

10.3. Given three basis vectors (i.e., orthogonal) i, j, k,

 sketch these three vectors in a single
graph. Comment on the space defined by these three basis vectors.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ix 1 jx 0 kx 0
i = ⎣ iy ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ j = ⎣ jy ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦ k = ⎣ ky ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
iz 0 jz 0 kz 1

10.4. Given four points in 2D space: A = (−2, 2), B = (1, 4), C = (5, 6), D = (3, 1),
−→ −→
(a) Sketch a graph showing AB and CD vectors.
−→ −→
(b) Write the matrix form of AB and CD vectors

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 423
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3_10
424 10 Linear Algebra

10.5. Sketch a graph that shows the following vectors:

     
3  −4 −3
a = b= c =
3 3 −4

10.2 Vector Operations

Some of the basic vector calculations are in P.10.6 to P.10.8

 that is to say |p|
10.6. Calculate the magnitude of p,  if

(a) p = (0, 1) (b) p = (3, 4) (c) p = (−3, 1) (d) p = (2, 3, 6)

10.7. Given vector

   
x 3
x = x =
xy 2

 c, if
sketch diagram of a , b,

2 3
(a) a = 2 x (b) b = x (c) c = − x
3 4

10.8. Sketch a graph to illustrate the additions in 1D and 2D spaces. As an example, show
the following vector additions:
   
1 3
(a) 2 + 3 = 5 and 2 − 3 = −1 (b) c = a + b if a = and b =
2 −1

Given data in P.10.9 to P.10.13, while using the matrix form of vectors, calculate the final vector
coordinates.
−→ −→
10.9. Given coordinates of points A and B in 2D space calculate coordinates of AB and BA,
−→ −→
then calculate |AB| and |BA|; note that O = (0, 0).

(a) A(4, 1), B(1, −3) (c) A(−1, −3), B(4, 2)

(b) A(2, 3), B(−1, 4) (d) A(1, −2), B(3, 2)

−→
10.10. Given coordinates of points A and B in 3D space calculate coordinates of AB and
−→ −→ −→
BA, then calculate |AB| and |BA|; note that O = (0, 0, 0).

(a) A(4, 1, 6), B(2, 4, −2) −→ −→

(b) OA = (2, 3, 4), OB = (3, 0, −1)

10.11. Given a = (2, −3), b = (3, −1), calculate c = a + b,

 d = a − b.

10.3 Linear Transformations 425

10.12. Given A(2, 3, 1), B(3, −1, 0), C = (−1, −2, 1), D = (−3, 3, −2), calculate:

−→ −→ −→ −→
 = AB + CD
(a) m (b) n = AB − CD

10.13. Given a = (−1, 2), b = (3, 2), c = (−2, −3), calculate:


(a) p = a + b,  = 2
(b) m 
a − b, a − b − c,
(c) n = 3 (d) r = 2b − 1/2 c

√
10.14. Vectors a and b create angle θ = π/6. Given that |
a| =  = 1, calculate
3 and |b|
 
angle α between vectors p = a + b et q = a − b.

10.3 Linear Transformations

Two or more vectors are said to be linearly independent if none of them can be written as a linear
combination of the others.

Reminder: Linear combination of two vectors is written as

    
x1 y ax1 + by1
z = a x + by = a +b 1 =
x2 y2 ax2 + by2

where (a, b) are coefficients, (x1 , x2 ) are coordinates of x, and (y1 , y2 ) are coordinates of y.

10.15. Explain briefly the similarities and differences between a function f (x) and a linear
transformation L(
v ) operation. What is the relationship between linear transformations and
space?

10.16. Given, as an example, vector v = −2i + j, with a simple diagram:

(a) Show that the numerical form of v = −2i + j stays the same after an arbitrary linear
transformation L(v ).
(b) Calculate the matrix form of L(
v ) used in your example.

10.17. Show the geometrical interpretation of linear transformation L(

x ) given that
   
31 −1
L= and x =
12 2
426 10 Linear Algebra

10.18. With a simple 2D graph, illustrate each of linear space transformations per-
formed as:

(a) Rotation 90◦ counterclockwise

(b) Shear 45◦ clockwise
(c) First rotation 90◦ counterclockwise, then shear 45◦ clockwise

10.19. Given vectors a = (2, 1), b = (1, 0), write m

 = (9, 1) as linear combination of a

and b.

10.20. Given vectors u = (3, −1), v = (1, −2), w

 = (−1, 7), write m
 = u + v + w
 as linear
combination of u and v.

10.4 Determinants

Given two or more vectors in a matrix form, its determinant may be interpreted as a multiplication
factor that measures the signed (i.e., positive or negative) size of the 2D surface (or multidimensional
volume) enclosed by these vectors. Specifically, positive/negative sign of the determinant indicates
the order in which the vectors are taken. As an analogy, “positive” and “negative” 2D surfaces may be
associated with the two sides of a sheet of paper. That is to say, the two surfaces have same absolute
value, but opposite orientations.

Reminder: it can be easily shown that the second-order determinant of matrix A made of two
vectors x and y is calculated as the difference between products along its two diagonals: positive
along blue and negative along red direction, as

where det(A), or  A, or |A| reads as the “determinant of matrix A” (not “the absolute value of
A” or “delta A”). The determinant’s value may be positive, negative, or zero.

In general, higher-order determinants may be calculated by two principal methods: by calculating

cross-products or by the method of cofactor expansions.

Reminder: Method 1: by calculating cross-products. Following the same idea as for second-
order determinants, n-th order determinants may be calculated by writing the extended
determinant form. That is to say, to repeat first (n − 1) columns on the right side of its n × n
determinant. By doing so it is possible to visually complete n positive (blue) and n negative
(red) diagonals, then to calculate all cross-products as (e.g., as in 3 × 3 determinant):

(continued)
10.4 Determinants 427

(continued)

Reminder: Method 2: by cofactor expansions along i-th row of n-th order determinant A.
Given matrix A as
⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 · · · a1n
⎢ a21 a22 · · · a2n ⎥ k
⎢ ⎥
A=⎢ . ⎥ ∴ |A| = (−1)i+j aij |Ai,j |
⎣ .. ⎦
i=1
an1 an2 · · · ann

where (i, j ) minor determinant that is usually denoted as |Ai,j | is a (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix

obtained from A by deleting the i-th row and the j -th column while keeping their common term
aij . Then, the same operation may be repeated with the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix until 2 × 2
matrix is achieved. By doing so, higher-order matrices are systematically converted into a linear
combination (i.e., a sum) of second-order determinants. In addition, the choice of i-th row and
the j -th column is a matter of convenience.

Calculate determinants given in P.10.21 to P.10.34,

30 1 2 42 2 −1
10.21. 10.22. 10.23. 10.24.
02 1 −1 21 1 0

√ √
√3 −3√2
1 i sin α cos α
10.25. 10.26. 10.27.
3 2 2 −i 1 − cos α sin α

2 34 121 122
10.28. 5 −2 1 10.29. 102 10.30. 202
1 23 120 221

321 2 3 1 50 4 1 3 5
10.31. 456 10.32. 3 −1 2 10.33. 8 0 −7 10.34. 7 9 11
897 1 1 −3 32 1 13 15 17
428 10 Linear Algebra

What is the geometrical interpretation of matrices given P.10.35 to P.10.37?

     
30 1 2 42
10.35. 10.36. 10.37.
02 1 −1 21

10.5 Cramer’s Rule

Solve second-order systems of linear equations in P.10.38 to P.10.41

10.38. 10.39. 10.40. 10.41. a+b =7

4x1 − 3x2 = 0 x + 2y = −5 x + 2y = −8 2a + 2b = 14
2x1 + 3x2 = 18 3x − y = 13 2x − y = −1

Solve third-order systems of linear equations in P.10.42 to P.10.47

10.42. 5x − 5y − 15z = 40 10.43. 2x − 3y − z = 5 10.44. x + y + z = 3

4x − 2y − 6z = 19 x + y + 2z = 7 x−y+z=5
3x − 6y − 17z = 41 2x − y − z = 1 −x + y − z = 10

10.45. x + y + z = 36 10.46. x + y = 7 10.47. 5x − 13y + 13z = 8

2x − z = −17 y+z=8 x − 3y + z = 4
6x − 5z = 7 −x + 2z = 7 −x + 2y − 5z = 3

Problems of curve fitting are translated into the problem of solving system of equations, P.10.48 to
P.10.49.

10.48. By using the curve fitting method derive a linear function f (x) = ax + b that best fits
given coordinates of two points: A = (−2, 20); B = (1, 5) in 2D space. Can you fit quadratic
function g(x) = ax 2 + bx + c for the same two data points? Any other nonlinear function?

10.49. By using the curve fitting method derive a quadratic function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c
that best fits given coordinates of three data points: A = (−2, 20); B = (1, 5); C = (3, 25)
in 2D space. Can you fit a fourth-order polynomial function for the same three data points?
Any other nonlinear function?

 and c show that they are linearly independent, then write c as linear
In P.10.50 to P.10.51, given a , b,

combination of a and b.
10.6 Vector Space 429

10.50. a = (3, −2), b = (−2, 1), c = (7, −4)10.51. a = (1, 2), b = (3, 4), c = (0, −2)

In P.10.52 to P.10.53, calculate parameter λ so that the given vectors are linearly independent:

10.52. a = (3, λ), b = (2, 6) 10.53. a = (6, 8, 4), b = (3, 4, 2), c =

(λ, 0, 1)

10.6 Vector Space

In P.10.54 to P.10.59 calculate matrix–vector products and show its geometric interpretation.

     √    √ 
1 1 3 1 1 1+ 3 1 1 1− 3
10.54. 10.55. 10.56.
2 −1 0 2 −1 2 2 −1 2

        
2 −1 −5 2 −3 3 11 3
10.57. 10.58. 10.59.
3 2 3 1 2 −2 22 1

In P.10.60 to P.10.65 calculate matrix–matrix products and show its geometric interpretation.

        
1 1 2 −1 2 −1 2 −3 2 −3 1 1
10.60. 10.61. 10.62.
2 −1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 −1

        
2 −1 1 1 2 −3 2 −1 1 1 2 −3
10.63. 10.64. 10.65.
3 2 2 −1 1 2 3 2 2 −1 1 2

In P.10.66 to P.10.69, calculate the products of non-square matrices.

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1
 1 
10.66. 1 2 3 ⎣2⎦ 10.67. ⎣ 2 ⎦ 1 2 3
3 3

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
  1 2 1 2  
3 01 ⎣ 3 05
10.68. 5 −1 ⎦ ⎣
10.69. 5 −1 ⎦
−2 −1 4 −2 −1 4
0 1 0 −6
430 10 Linear Algebra

10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

The geometrical interoperation of a matrix is that it describes the transformation of the space itself
and by consequence all objects within. In some cases, however, there are vectors that do not change
their direction before and after the transformation. If existing, these vectors are very useful in many
engineering applications.

Reminder: Eigenvectors may be described as vectors that do not change their direction after
some space transformation. By definition, if the following equation is satisfied:

A v = λ v

then, λ ∈ C is a constant referred to as eigenvalue, and v is its associated eigenvector of matrix

A.

Furthermore, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors definition equation may be rewritten as

A v = λ v ⇒ A v − λ v = 0 ⇒ (A − λ I ) v = 0

where I is the identity matrix (i.e., a square matrix of the same size as A with the ones on the
main diagonal and zeros elsewhere). In order to satisfy this equation, as v = 0, it must be that
the determinant of (A − λ I ) equals zero; thus,

det (A − λ I ) = 0

is formal definition of the characteristic polynomial of matrix A.

In P.10.70 to P.10.71 derive v and its associated eigenvalue λ if existing:

      
3 −3 3 3 −3 2
10.70. A = , v = 10.71. A = v =
2 −4 1 2 −4 1

Given matrices in P.10.72 to P.10.76, calculate their respective eigenvalues λ and eigenvectors v, if
existing.

     
6 −1 −6 3 10 −5
10.72. 10.73. 10.74.
2 3 45 5 2

   
2 −5 cos π/6 − sin π/6
10.75. 10.76.
4 6 sin π/6 cos π/6
10.8 Matrix Inversion 431

In P.10.77 to P.10.78 prove that v is eigenvector of its associated matrix A, then determine its
eigenvalue λ,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 2 −2 −9 −1 4
10.77. A = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ , v = ⎣ 1 ⎦ 10.78. A = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ , v = ⎣ −3 ⎦
−4 −3 4 1 −4 −3 4 7

Given matrix in P.10.79 to P.10.82, calculate eigenvalue(s) λ and eigenvector(s), if existing.

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 200
10.79. ⎣ 0 5 1 ⎦ 10.80. ⎣ 0 4 5 ⎦
042 043

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 2 2 −2
10.81. ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦ 10.82. ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦
−2 −6 −8 −1 1 1

Calculate eigenvalues λ and eigenvectors v for matrices in P.10.83 to P.10.88. Note eigenvalues of
these matrices have “algebraic multiplicity” (geometric multiplicity is left for another time).

     
10 20 23
10.83. 10.84. 10.85.
21 02 02

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
324 102 1 −2 −1
10.86. ⎣ 2 0 2 ⎦ 10.87. ⎣ −1 1 3 ⎦ 10.88. ⎣ 1 7 1 ⎦
423 002 −2 −4 3

10.8 Matrix Inversion

Similar to “regular numbers” where a number multiplied by its inverse equal to one, matrices may
have their inverse, so that their product equals to “identity matrix,” that is to say a matrix whose
diagonal elements are all equal one and all the other elements equal zero.

Reminder: inverse A−1 of a matrix A exists only if its determinant does not equal zero, i.e.:

A A−1 = A−1 A = I, if A = 0

where I is identity matrix. Note that multiplication of matrix and inverse is commutative.
432 10 Linear Algebra

Given matrices in P.10.89 to P.10.91 calculate their respective inverse matrices.

    ⎡ ⎤
12 4 −2 123
10.89. 10.90.
34 2 3 10.91. ⎣ 4 5 4 ⎦
321

10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices

Examples in P.10.92 to P.10.97 are not to be solved by “brute force” matrix multiplication; instead
the goal is to master one of the general procedures for calculating matrix powers.

 2  5  5
20 20 20
10.92. 10.93. 10.94.
02 05 −1 3

⎡ ⎤3 ⎡ ⎤4 ⎡ ⎤10
202 200 100
10.95. ⎣ −1 2 1 ⎦ 10.96. ⎣ 0 2 1 ⎦ 10.97. ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦
014 012 010
10.1 Vector Definitions 433

Answers

10.1 Vector Definitions

10.1. The geometrical interpretation of space is based on the definition of a point, which is
visualized as a sphere whose radius equals zero (Fig. 10.1). Thus, assuming nothing else exists,
a point would represent “0-order space” annotated as R 0 .

(a) Line: multiple points aligned next to each other form a line. Therefore, it takes infinitely
points to create a line of any finite length L. If nothing else exists, a line represents one-
dimensional space, annotated as R 1 . The position of any point relative to the one that is
chosen to be the origin (thus numbered as “0”) is associated with a unique number showing
the distance from the origin, which is either in positive (“+”) or negative (“−”) direction.
(b) Surface: it takes infinitely lines in parallel to create a finite two-dimensional surface,
annotated as R 2 . An analogy to R 2 space would be a sheet of paper whose thickness
equals zero. In this case, the position of any point making the surface relative to the origin
is described by two numbers, which are referred to as “coordinates” and written as a two-
number pair (x, y), one for “negative–positive” and one for “south–north” distance.
(c) Volume: a stack of surfaces creates a volume, annotated as R 3 space. A visual analogy
would be a book where the position of any point is described by three numbers, (x, y, z),
one for “negative–positive,” one for “south–north,” and one for “up–down” distance.

Although human visualization of space is limited to three dimensions, note that in mathe-
matics, however, there is no limit on the order of space. Each dimension is described by one
variable x, y, z, . . . (thus one equation). In linear algebra, a n-dimensional matrix may be
seen a compact form of writing a system of n equations, thus describing n-dimensional space.
Note that each lower-order space can be seen as one of possible projections (“shadows”) of
the higher-order space. For example, if looked from “straight ahead” a line looks like a point.
Looked from “a side” a surface looks like a line. Looked from one direction, a cube (3D)
appears as a square (2D), or a sphere (3D) casts a shadow like a circle (2D), etc.

Fig. 10.1 P.10.1, geometrical interpretation of a point, line, surface, etc. Each point may be associated with a single
number (as in 1D line), two numbers (as two xy coordinates on a 2D surface), three numbers (as spatial xyz coordinates
in 3D volume), etc. Although higher-dimensional space is not humanly possible to visualize in the same way, the
mathematics is all the same
434 10 Linear Algebra

10.2. A vector signifies a variable that has two properties: magnitude and direction. That is to
say, a simple number is not a vector because it has only magnitude (“length”) but not direction.
In physics, “vector” takes the geometrical interpretation in graphical form of a “directed
arrow” that indicates both magnitude (i.e., the arrow length) and direction (i.e., from its tail to
the head).
In mathematics, a vector variable is annotated in algebraic form as

1D : a = ax i

2D : a = ax i + ay j

3D : a = ax i + ay j + az k

4D : a = ax i + ay j + az k + a0 m

etc.

where (ax , ay , az , a0 , ...) are vector magnitudes as measured along the orthonormal directions
(i, j, k,
 m,
 ...) respectively (also referred to as the “unit vectors”).
In informatics, the preferred way of representing a vector is in one-column matrix form, as,
for example,
⎡ ⎤
3.14
a = ⎣ −5 ⎦
2

where the column list may be interpreted as a list of orthonormal (i.e., orthogonal and
normalized) coordinates in each direction relative to the origin (0, 0, 0) of, in this case, 3D
space.

10.3. As defined, the three unit vectors are used to define 3D space and are written in a form
of 3 × 3 matrix as
⎡ ⎤
100
(i, j, k)
 = ⎣0 1 0⎦
001

where the first column is for i, the second column is for j, and the third column is for k
unit vector (Fig. 10.2). The rows are then coordinates in each of three normal directions, here

Fig. 10.2 P.10.3, 3D space as

defined by three orthonormal
vectors (i, j, k).
 Each unit vector
may be represented either
graphically or as a one-column
matrix, for example, i = [1, 0, 0],
j = [0, 1, 0], etc.
10.1 Vector Definitions 435

Fig. 10.3 P.10.4—graphical interpretation of vectors

(x, y, z). This resulting matrix where all elements along the main diagonal equal one and all
other matrix elements equal zero is known as “identity matrix” with properties similar to the
number one.

10.4. By convention, vectors are oriented in direction from the first to the second coordi-
nate.

(a) Given four points in 2D space: A = (−2, 2), B = (1, 4), C = (5, 6), D = (3, 1), vectors
−→ −→
AB and CD are as shown in Fig. 10.3a.
(b) By writing vectors in matrix form it is assumed that all vectors originate at (0, 0) point,
i.e., it is sufficient to write only the end coordinates. Geometrically, that means vectors are

translated so that their origin is at (0, 0) point, for example, as the final position of RQ;
see Fig. 10.3b.
 
−→ 3
RQ =
2

−→ −→
Similarly, after being translated to the origin, see Fig. 10.4, vectors AB and CD are written
as
   
−→ 3 −→ −2
AB = and CD =
2 −5

−→ −→
where “ 3’‘ is the horizontal projection of AB, “ 2” is the vertical projection of AB, and
they are both positive as oriented relative to the vector origin at (−2, 2). And, “ −2” is
−→ −→
the horizontal projection of CD, “ −5” is the vertical projection of AB, and they are both
negative as oriented relative to the vector origin at (5, 6). By definition, translated vectors
are still identical: they have the same magnitude and direction.
436 10 Linear Algebra

Fig. 10.4 P.10.4, vectors located

at arbitrary positions may be
translated to the origin by
“measuring” their horizontal and
vertical projections. For example,
vector defined by two points:
A(−2, 2) and B(1, 4), may be
written in matrix form as [3, 2]

Fig. 10.5 P.10.5, graphical

representation of three vectors
given in matrix form

10.5. Given
     
3  −4 −3
a = , b= , c =
3 3 −4

By convention, vector matrix form lists coordinates (x, y, z, ...) relative to the origin
(0, 0, 0, ...) in either vertical order (column vector) or horizontal order (row vector) and,
therefore the three vectors are as in Fig. 10.5.

10.2 Vector Operations

10.6. By Pythagoras’ theorem, given px , py , and pz vector projections, it follows that

  √
(a) p = (0, 1) ∴ |p|
 = 02 + 12 = 1 (c) p = (−3, 1) ∴ |p| = 32 + 12 = 10
 
 = 32 + 42 = 5
(b) p = (3, 4) ∴ |p|  = 22 + 32 + 62 = 7
(d) p = (2, 3, 6) ∴ |p|

10.7. Multiplying vector by a constant does not change the vector’s orientation, only its
magnitude; see Fig. 10.6. The constant multiplies all vector components, in 2D case both
xx and xy .
10.2 Vector Operations 437

Fig. 10.6 P.10.7, geometrical

interpretation of vector
multiplication by a constant. Each
vector coordinate is multiplied by
the constant. Multiplication of a
vector by negative constant changes
its direction but not the orientation

Fig. 10.7 P.10.8—comparison of number and vector addition operations

      
xx 3 2×3 6
(a) a = 2 x = 2 =2 = =
xy 2 2×2 4
       
2 2 x 2 3 2/3 × 3 2
(b) b = x = x
= = 2 = 4
3 3 xy 3 2  /3 × 2 /3
  
3 3 xx 3 3 −3/4 × 3 −9/4
(c) c = − x = − =− = =
4 4 xy 4 2 −3/4 × 2 −3/2

10.8. Geometrically, vector addition is done by a simple chaining of the vectors. Vector
representing the total sum starts at the tail of the first and ends at the head of the last vector in
this chain.

(a) Note that all vectors in 1D space are collinear (i.e., parallel, because there is only one
direction possible); therefore, their direction is already known. As a consequence, their
magnitudes are sufficient. In the more general sense, real and complex numbers are also
seen as vectors relative in the origin. As illustrated in Fig. 10.7a, the sum of two numbers
equals to the simple sum of their respective magnitudes.

2 + 3 = 5 and 2 + (−3) = −1
438 10 Linear Algebra

(b) In 2D space not all vectors are collinear, which is to say that in general, the sum of
two vectors is not equal to the simple sum of their magnitudes. Instead, the rules of
triangles must be applied; see Fig. 10.7b. Note that in vector matrix notification it is
vector coordinates (projections) that add in the same manner as the “regular” numbers.
For example, given that
       
a 1  bx 3
a = x = and b = =
ay 2 by −1

it follows that
             
ax bx 1 3 1+3 4 c
c = a + b = + = + = = = x
ay by 2 −1 2−1 1 cy

−→ −→ −→
10.9. Given AB and BA = −AB, their geometrical and matrix representations in 2D are as
follows.
−→
(a) Coordinates of AB are calculated as the difference between their end and starting points,
i.e.,

      
−→ 1 4 (1 − 4) −3
AB = − = =
−3 1 (−3 − 1) −4
       
−→ 4 1 (4 − 1) 3
BA = − = =
1 −3 (1 − (−3)) 4

−→ −→
By inspection of graph in Fig. 10.8, both |AB| and |BA| are hypothenuse of the same
right-angled triangle, thus calculated by Pythagoras’ theorem as
−→ −→  
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 = 32 + 42 = 5

(b) Similarly,
       
−→ −1 2 (−1 − 2) −3
AB = − = =
4 3 (4 − 3) 1
       
−→ 2 −1 (2 − (−1)) 3
BA = − = =
3 4 (3 − 4) −1

Thus,
−→ −→  
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 = 32 + 12 = 2

(c) Likewise,
       
−→ 4 −1 (4 − (−1)) 5
AB = − = =
2 −3 (2 − (−3)) 5
10.2 Vector Operations 439

Fig. 10.8 P.10.9, geometrical

−→
interpretation of vector AB given
by two points A(4, 1) and B(1, −3)
−→
in space. The resulting vector AB
is aligned with the hypotenuse of
right triangle; thus,
−→ −→
|AB| = |BA| = 5 as per
Pythagoras’ theorem

       
−→ −1 4 (−1 − 4) −5
BA = − = =
−3 2 (−3 − 2) −5

Thus,
−→ −→   √
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 = 52 + 52 = 5 2

(d) And,
       
−→ 3 1 (3 − 1) 2
AB = − = =
2 −2 (2 − (−2) 4
       
−→ 1 3 (1 − 3) −2
BA = − = =
−2 2 (−2 − 2) −4

so that,
−→ −→  
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 = 22 + 22 = 2

−→ −→ −→
10.10. Given AB and BA = −AB, their geometrical and matrix representations in 3D are
as follows.
−→
(a) Coordinates of AB are calculated as the difference
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 4 (2 − 4) −2
−→ ⎣
AB = 4 ⎦ − ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ (4 − 1) ⎦ = ⎣ 3 ⎦
−2 6 (−2 − 6) −8
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 2 (4 − 2) 2
−→ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
BA = 1 − 4⎦ = ⎣ (1 − 4) ⎦ = ⎣ −3 ⎦
6 −2 (6 − (−2)) 8
440 10 Linear Algebra

Fig. 10.9 P.10.10, vector in 3D

space is aligned with the diagonal
of a cuboid. The length of each
cuboid side is equal to its
corresponding orthogonal
coordinate

−→ −→
By inspection of graph in Fig. 10.9, both |AB| and |BA| are aligned with 3D hypothenuse
of right-angled triangle that is aligned with the diagonal of a cuboid; thus, by Pythagoras’
theorem
−→ −→   √
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 + |zB − zA |2 = 22 + 32 + 82 = 77

(b) Relative to the point of origin,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 2 (3 − 2) 1
−→ ⎣
AB = 0 ⎦ − ⎣ 3 ⎦ = ⎣ (0 − 3) ⎦ = ⎣ −3 ⎦
−1 4 (−1 − 4) −5
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 3 (2 − 3) −1
−→ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
BA = 3 − 0⎦ = ⎣ (3 − 0) ⎦ = ⎣ 3 ⎦
4 −1 (4 − (−1)) 5

−→ −→
By inspection of Fig. 10.9, AB coincides with the diagonal of a cuboid; thus, |AB| and
−→
|BA| as
−→ −→   √
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 + |zB − zA |2 = 12 + 32 + 52 = 35

10.11. Given that a = (2, −3) and b = (3, −1) are already placed at the origin,
     
2 3 5
c = a + b = + =
−3 −1 −4
     
2 3 −1
c = a − b = − =
−3 −1 −2

10.12. Given A(2, 3, 1), B(3, −1, 0), C = (−1, −2, 1), D = (−3, 3, −2), first, all vectors
are translated to the origin as:
10.2 Vector Operations 441

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 2 (3 − 2) 1
−→ ⎣
AB = −1 ⎦ − ⎣ 3 ⎦ = ⎣ (−1 − 3) ⎦ = ⎣ −4 ⎦
0 1 (0 − 1) −1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−3 −1 (−3 − (−1)) −2
−→ ⎣
CD = 3 ⎦ − ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ (3 − (−2)) ⎦ = ⎣ 5 ⎦
−2 1 (−2 − 1) −3

Then,
⎤ ⎡ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2 −1
−→ −→
(a) m = AB + CD = ⎣ −4 ⎦ + ⎣ 5 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
−1 −3 −4
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2 3
−→ −→ ⎣
(b) n = AB − CD = −4 ⎦ − ⎣ 5 ⎦ = ⎣ −9 ⎦
−1 −3 2

10.13. Similarly to A.10.12,

     
 −1 3 2
(a) p = a + b = + =
2 2 4
       
−1 3 (2 × (−1) − 3) −5
(b) m = 2 a − b = 2 − = =
2 2 (2 × 2 − 2) 2
         
 −1 3 −2 (3 × (−1) − 3 − (−2)) −4
(c) n = 3a − b − c = 3 − − = =
2 2 −3 (3 × 2 − 2 − (−3)) 7
       
1 3 1 −2 (2 × 3 − /2 × (−2))
1 7
(d) r = 2b − c = 2 − = = 11
2 2 2 −3 (2 × 2 − 1/2 × (−3)) /2

10.14. By inspection of Fig. 10.10a

Fig. 10.10 P.10.14—angular difference of two vectors

442 10 Linear Algebra

a = ax + ay

b = bx + by

where the horizontal and vertical projections are calculated as

√
π √ 3 3
|ax | = |
a | cos = 3 =
6 2 2
√
π √ 1 3
|ay | = |
a | sin = 3 =
6 2 2

|b x | = 1

|by | = 0

Method 1: matrix forms of the two vectors are therefore

   
3/2 1
a = √3 b =
/2 0

then,
     
13/2 5/2
p = a + b = √ = √3 +
03/2 /2
     
3/2 1 1/2
q = a − b = √3 − = √3
/2 0 /2

which leads to p and q as in Fig. 10.10b. By inspection of two right-angled triangles where p
and q form their respective hypothenuses, angle θ between p and q is then

θ =α−β ∴
√ √ √ ⎫
tan α = 3/2
1/2
= 3 ∴ α = arctan 3 = π
3
= 60◦ ⎬
√ √ √ ∴ θ = 40.89◦
⎭
tan β = 3/2
5/2
= 5
3
∴ α = arctan 5
3
= 19.1◦

Method 2: alternatively,
  
5/2 √ √
p = √
3/2
∴ |p|
 = (5/2)2 + ( 3/2)2 = 7
  
1/2 √
q = √
3/2
∴ |
q| = (1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2 = 1

Then by the law of cosines for triangle formed by p and q, see Fig. 10.11, it follows that the
third side of that triangle is a = 2. Then, by Pythagoras’ theorem
√ √ √
a 2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos θ ∴ 22 = ( 7)2 + 12 − 2 7 cos θ ∴ 2 7θ = 4
10.3 Linear Transformations 443

Fig. 10.11 P.10.14, the law of

cosines for triangles may be applied
to resolve angular difference θ
between vectors p and q

Fig. 10.12 P.10.15—graphical interpretations of “function” and “transformation” calculation “machines”

2 2
∴ cos θ = √ ∴ θ = arctan √ = 40.89◦
7 7

10.3 Linear Transformations

10.15. In its basic form, a function is equivalent to a machine that for any given number
input x performs an operation f (x) and produces the corresponding output y. Similarly,
for any given vector input v linear operation L( v ) performs an operation and produces the
corresponding vector output w, as illustrated in Fig. 10.12a.

Another way to visualize linear transformation is to visualize the input vector v being displaced
in space until it overlaps with the output vector w;  see Fig. 10.12b. By doing so, however,
linear operation L(v ) displaces all vectors in R 2 vector space, that is to say it displaces all
points of the 2D surface. That is because coordinates of any single point in space may be
interpreted as coordinates of vector from the origin to that point.
For example, see Fig. 10.13, while linear transformation L( v ) displaces basis vector i = (1, 0)
into its transformed version L(i) = (1, 3), at the same time basis vector j = (0, 1) is also

transformed into L(j) = (2, −1). As all points on the surface are simultaneously displaced,
then surface may be imagined as being “elastic” and that L( v ) “stretched” it entirely. That
444 10 Linear Algebra

Fig. 10.13 P.10.15, illustration of

a linear space transformation
before and after. As all points in the
original R2 space are displaced by
L(v ) transformation, the new space
appears as “stretched”

being so, as they originated from i = (1, 0) and j = (0, 1) basis vectors then it is true that
L(i) and L(j), respectively, represent basis vectors in the transformed “stretched” space.

In summary, for a transformation to be linear it must obey the following rules:

(a) After the transformation all grid lines must stay straight.
(b) All grid lines must stay parallel and equidistant because the distance between them must
always be one basis vector, both before and after L( v ) transformation.
(c) The origin point must not move.

 
As the consequence of the linearity, the numerical form of an arbitrary vector x = f (i, j )
does not change in the transformed space, i.e., L(  
x ) = f L(i ), L(j ) . For example, if vector
x = 2i + 3j then it transforms into L(
x ) = 2L(i) + 3L(j).

10.16. By the means of L( x ) transformation R2 space as defined by basis vectors (i, j),
see Fig. 10.14 (left), may be transformed, for example, into R2 space as in Fig. 10.14 (right).
The question is then: what is the form of linear transformation matrix L that causes that
transformation?

Observe the relationship between the original and transformed greed lines. In order to better
visualize it, the original grid is kept in the background of the transformed space. By definition,
each square of the original grid represents unit size as defined by basis vectors (i, j ).
Next, by following the basis vectors (i, j ) it can be deduced how the original R 2 space is
rotated, flipped, and stretched so that basis vectors (i, j ) are transformed into L(i ), L(j ),
respectively.
By inspection of the transformed space grid, expression for transformed L( v ) may be
compared with the original vector v. In order to be truly linear transformation, the numerical
forms of these two equations must stay the same, i.e.,

if in the original space, v = −2i + j

v ) = −2L(i ) + L(j )
then in the transformed space, L(

At the same time, coordinates of basis vectors L(i ) and L(j ) in the transformed 2D space, if
expressed in the units of transformed space, are
   
1 0
L(i ) = and, L(j ) =
0 1
10.3 Linear Transformations 445

Fig. 10.14 P.10.16, graphical interpretation of linear transformation L(v ) and relation between original and trans-
formed basis vectors. Numerically, expressions of vector v do not change before and after the transformation. In
addition, coordinates of transformed vectors may be expressed both in original and in transformed basis vector units

as their dot product is L(i ) · L(j ) = 1 · 0 + 0 · 1 = 0; by definition they are orthonormal.

However, if measured in the units of original non-transformed space where i = (1, 0) and
j = (0, 1), i.e., by using the background grid in Fig. 10.14 to read coordinates of L(i ), L(j ),
and L(v ), it follows that

L(i ) = (1, 3), L(j ) = (2, −1), and L(

v ) = (0, −7)

Therefore, the transformation matrix L in this particular example is

     
1 2 1 2
L(i ) = L(j ) = ∴ L=
3 −1 3 −1

It can be verified that the numerical form of v did not change, because
         
1 2 −2 2 0
v ) = −2L(i ) + L(j ) = −2
L( + = + = 
3 −1 −6 −1 −7

Thus, in compact matrix form, transformation of an arbitrary x is

    
x  1 2 xx
x = x ∴ L(  
x ) = L x = L(i ) L(j ) x =
xy 3 −1 xy

In this interpretation, space transformations may be formalized as the matrix–vector product.

10.17. Given data, and following discussion in A.10.16, it follows that

     
3 1 −1
L(i ) = L(j ) = and x = = (−1) i + 2j
1 2 2
446 10 Linear Algebra

Fig. 10.15 P.10.17, illustration of

linear transformation and x
coordinates before and after
transformation

Fig. 10.16 P.10.18—basic space transformations

The form of linear transformation form is then

   
31 −1
x ) = L x =
L( = (−1)L(i ) + 2L(j )
12 2

or, if measured in the units of original space:

       
3 1 (−1) × 3 + 2 × 1 −1
x ) = (−1)
L( +2 = =
1 2 (−1) × 1 + 2 × 2 3

The relation between the original and transformed space is illustrated in Fig. 10.15.

10.18. Movement of basis vectors (i, j) may be followed on graphs (see A.10.16) as:

(a) Rotation 90◦ counterclockwise: see Fig. 10.16a. Transformed basis vector coordinates as
measured in non-transformed units are
     
0 −1 0 −1
L(i ) = and L(j ) = ∴ L=
1 0 1 0

which is transformation matrix that performs 90◦ rotation counterclockwise of all points
in R2 space, therefore including basis vectors i and j.
(b) Shear 45◦ clockwise: this operation of shear bends the space so that horizontal vectors are
unchanged while vertical vectors lean “−45◦ ”; see Fig. 10.16b; thus,
     
 1  1 11
L(i ) = and L(j ) = ∴ L=
0 1 01
10.3 Linear Transformations 447

Fig. 10.17 P.10.18, illustration of

“first rotation 90◦ counterclockwise
then shear 45◦ clockwise”
combination of two
transformations. The resulting
matrix L, however, performs both
transformations simultaneously

Fig. 10.18 P.10.19, linear

combination of two vectors,
−
→ − → −
→
A = a +7 b

which is transformation matrix that performs shear of all points in R 2 space.

(c) First rotation 90◦ counterclockwise then shear 45◦ clockwise: linear transformations may
be performed one after another, where the order of transformations is not interchangeable.
The first step is rotation L1 then sheer L2 ; see Fig. 10.17. The final position is then
        
0 −1 11 11 0 −1 1 −1
L1 = ; L2 = ∴ L = L2 L1 = =
1 0 01 01 1 0 1 0

which is matrix that performs this rotation plus shear of all points in R2 space.
Multiple transformations are formalized as being equivalent to the product of subsequent
transformation matrices where transformation that is done first is written on the right side.
Note that in this interpretation, L is matrix that does both transformations simultaneously

10.19. Given vectors a = (2, 1), b = (1, 0), and m

 = (9, 1) this type of problems may be
solved by either geometric or numerical methods.

Method 1: create triangle defined by a and m

 vectors; see Fig. 10.18. By inspection of vector
addition graph, it is evident that

 = a + 7b
m

Method 2: general form of a linear combination is

−
→ −
→ −
→
m =na +k b
where n and k are coefficients to be calculated; therefore,
     
9 2 1
=n +k
1 1 0
448 10 Linear Algebra

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

9 = 2n + 1 k (10.1)
1 = 1n + 0k (10.2)

This system of linear equations may be solved by the elimination of variables method as

from (10.2): n = 1 ∴ from (10.1): 9 = 2 + k ⇒ k = 7

−
→ − → −
→
In conclusion, m = a + 7 b .

10.20. Given vectors u = (3, −1), v = (1, −2), w

 = (−1, 7), then, similarly to A.10.19,
       
3 1 −1 3
 = u + v + w
m = + + =
−1 −2 7 4

 = n
m u + k v
∴
     
3 3 1
=n +k
4 −1 −2

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

3 = 3n + 1k (10.3)
4 = −1n − 2k (10.4)

This system of linear equations may be solved by using multiple methods. For example,

Method 1: the elimination method

from (10.3): k = 3 − 3n ∴ from (10.4): 4 = −n − 2(3 − 3n) ⇒ n = 2

from (10.4): 4 = −2 − 2k ⇒ k = −3

 = 2
Therefore, m u − 3
v.

Method 2: Cramer’s rule (see Sect. 10.5) gives,

10.4 Determinants 449

⎫
3 1
 = = −5 = 0⎪
⎪
⎪
−1 −2 ⎪
⎪ n −10
⎪
⎪ n= = =2
⎪
⎬  −5
3 1
n = = −10 ∴
4 −2 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ k 15
⎪
⎪ k= = = −3
33 ⎪
⎪  −5
k = = 15 ⎭
−1 4

 = 2
Therefore, m u − 3
v

10.4 Determinants

10.21. Given a second-order matrix A, its determinant is calculated as

The geometrical interpretation is that this transformation A increases surface of 2D space six
times.

10.22. Given a second-order matrix A, its determinant is calculated as

The geometrical interpretation is that this transformation A increases surface of 2D space three
times, and at the same time 2D space is flipped over, thus negative sign.

10.23. Given a second-order matrix A, its determinant is calculated as

Geometrically, this linear transformation A forces 2D space (i.e., a surface) to collapse onto 1D
space (i.e., a line), i.e., one of the two coordinates is “flattened.” In general, a zero determinant
indicates a loss of at least one dimension in space.

2 −1
10.24. = 2 × 0 − 1 × (−1) = 1
1 0
450 10 Linear Algebra

√ √
3 −3 √ √ √ √ √ √ √
10.25. √ √2 = 3 × 2 2 − 3 × (−3 2) = 2 6 + 3 6 = 5 6
3 2 2

1 i
10.26. = 1 − (−i) × i = 1 − 1 = 0
−i 1

sin α cos α
10.27. = sin α sin α − (− cos α) cos α = sin2 α + cos2 α = 1
− cos α sin α

10.28. Given a third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated by multiple methods.

Method 1: cross-products as

Method 2: expansion along 1st row as (may be done by any row or column)

The geometrical interpretation is that this matrix transforms 3D space so that its volume is
increased ten times and the space is “inverted inside–out” (as per the negative sign of its
determinant).

10.29. Given a third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as,

Method 1: cross-products as

Method 2: expansion, for example, along the 1st column is

10.4 Determinants 451

10.30. Given a third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as,

Method 1: cross-products as

Method 2: expansion, for example, along the 2nd row is

10.31. Given a third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as,

Method 1: cross-product

Method 2: the cofactor expansion

452 10 Linear Algebra

The volume of this 3D space is increased 21 times and “inverted inside–out.”

10.32. Given a third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as,

Method 1: cross-product

Method 2: the cofactor expansion

The geometrical interpretation is that this matrix transforms 3D space so that its volume is
increased 39 times.

10.33. Given a third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as,

Method 1: cross-product

Method 2: any column or row could be chosen for cofactor expansion. It is beneficial,
however, to choose one that contains zeros, so that the amount of calculations is reduced.
In this example, the second column has two zeros, so the expansion is minimized as
10.4 Determinants 453

The geometrical interpretation is that this matrix transforms 3D space so that its volume is
increased 134 times.

10.34. Given a third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as,

Method 1: cross-product

Method 2: the cofactor expansion

The geometrical interpretation is that this matrix transforms 3D space so that at least one or
more dimensions are lost (as indicated by zero determinant). That is to say, 3D space collapsed
into 2D, 1D, or even point space.

10.35. Transformation of basis vectors (i, j) shows how the whole space is transformed.
Given transformation
 
30
L=
02

note that this transformation simply multiplies the space by factor three in i direction (first
column vector) and by factor two in j direction (second column vector), because
454 10 Linear Algebra

Fig. 10.19 P.10.35, positive

determinant value indicates the
space area multiplication factor
without the sign inversion (i.e.,
“page flipping”)

Fig. 10.20 P.10.36, negative

determinant value indicates the
space area multiplication factor and
“page flipping” as well; note the
left/right inversion of unit vectors

     
30 3 0
L= ∴ L(i ) = and L(j ) =
02 0 2

It should be observed, see Fig. 10.19, that:

(1) Relative position between basis vectors did not change, i.e., L(j) is still on left relative to
L(i). In other words, this transformation does not “flip” 2D space like a page in a book.
(2) The unit square area is increased by 3 × 2 = 6 positive factor. This (positive, zero,
or negative) space area multiplication factor is the geometrical interpretation of the
determinant.

Therefore, this matrix’s determinant is

30
|L| = =3×2−0×0=6
02

10.36. Given transformation

 
1 2
L=
1 −1

performs multiple operations simultaneously. By following basis vectors, it could be deduced

that 2D surface is rotated and flipped over; see Fig. 10.20.
     
1 2 1 2
L= ∴ L(i ) = and L(j ) =
1 −1 1 −1

and its determinant is

 
1 2
|L| = = 1 × (−1) − 1 × 2 = −3
1 −1

The geometrical interpretation is that the unit area is increased by a factor of “−3,” that is to
say, 2D surface is also “flipped over,” which is implied by the negative determinant.
10.5 Cramer’s Rule 455

Fig. 10.21 P.10.37, after applying

given transformation L, zero
determinant indicates the loss of at
least one spatial dimension

10.37. Given transformation

     
42  4  2
L(x) = ∴ L(i ) = and L(j ) = ∴ L(i ) = 2 L(j )
21 2 1

and therefore its determinant is

 
42
|L| = =4×1−2×2=0
21

Note that L(i ) and L(j ) are collinear because one is a simple multiple of the other, which is
easily shown by factoring “2” as
   
 4 2
L(i ) = =2 = 2 L(j )
2 1

After the transformation L, 2D surface collapsed into 1D line; see Fig. 10.21. In the paper page
analogy, a 2D surface is rotated sidewise so that only its side is visible, i.e., line. This reduction
of spatial dimension is the geometrical interpretation of the case when the determinant equals
zero. An alternative interpretation is that at least one of the equations (i.e., row) within L is
not independent.

10.5 Cramer’s Rule

Reminder: The extended matrix that corresponds to the given system of equations is trans-
formed into extended unit matrix, so that the solution vector [a, b, c] is found by inspection, for
example, as
⎡ ⎤
100a 1 x+ 0 y+ 0 z = a x=a
⎣ 0 1 0 b ⎦ ∴ 0 x+ 1 y+ 0 z = b ∴ y = b
001 c 0 x+ 0 y+ 1 z = c z=c

Systematically, each constant on the diagonal is transformed into “1” and all other constants
into “0,” in the lower triangle below the diagonal, and in the upper triangle above the diagonal.
456 10 Linear Algebra

10.38. Given system of linear equations

4x1 − 3x2 = 0
2x1 + 3x2 = 18

there are multiple methods to calculate its set of solutions. Each method has its advantages
and disadvantages depending on the system’s size and its coefficients. For the moment, note
the column vector on the right side of equations that is colored.

Method 1: Cramer’s rule is a formula to solve a system of linear equations with as many
equations as unknowns. Therefore, for the second-order system of equations there are three
determinants to calculate: one “principal” () and one “sub-determinant”: x1 and x2 for
each of the two variables. Sub-determinants are created by replacing its respective column
with the column vector on the right side of the equation system (colored). Thus,
 
4 −3 0 4 −3
A= ∴ = = 4 × 3 − 2 × (−3) = 18 = 0
2 3 18 2 3

where nonzero determinant implies the existence of a unique set of solutions,

0 −3
x1 = = 0 × 3 − 18 × (−3) = 3 × 18
18 3
4 0
x2 = = 4 × 18 − 2 × (0) = 4 × 18
2 18

Then, by Cramer’s rule the solution set is derived as

x1 3 ×
18 x1 4 ×
18
x1 = = = 3; x2 = = =4
 

18  

18

Method 2: the extended matrix rows’ (i.e., the right-side column vector is included)
transformations. In order to follow transformations, rows are numbered as “ (1)” and “ (2), ”
while the associated arithmetic operations are simply “ +, −, ÷, ×.” For example, notation
“ ← (1) ÷ 4” reads as “divide each coefficient in the first row on the left by four, including
the colored vector column,” or ‘ ← (2) − 2 × (1)” reads as “multiply each coefficient of the
first row on the left by negative two and add to the second row on the left.”

The objective is to transform the initial systems’ matrix into the unit matrix (i.e., where
all diagonal coefficients equal one, and all other coefficients equal to zero). It is done
by systematically converting each coefficient term, starting with the (a1,1 ) coefficient, then
by converting the lower triangle coefficients, and finally the upper triangle coefficients are
converted. For example,
   
4 −3 0 ← (1) ÷ 4 1 −3/4 0
A= =
2 3 18 2 3 18 ← (2) − 2 × (1)
10.5 Cramer’s Rule 457

   
1 −3/4 0 1 −3/ 4 0 ← (1) + 3/4 × (2)
= =
0 9/ 2 18 ← (2) ÷ 9/2 0 14
 
1 03
=
0 14

The last extended matrix form reads row by row as the following system of equations:

1 × x1 − 0 × x2 = 3 ⇒ x1 = 3
0 × x1 + 1 × x2 = 4 ⇒ x2 = 4

Method 3: the classic variable elimination, it is efficient hand method for small size systems
as

4x1 − 3x2 = 0 (10.5)

2x1 + 3x2 = 18 (10.6)
3
from (10.5) x1 = x2 (10.7)
4
3 2 × 2
18
then by substitution of x1 in (10.6): 2A x2 + 3x2 = 18 ∴ x2 = =4
4A 2 9

3
and, by substitution of x2 in (10.7): x1 = 4A = 3
4A

Naturally, both methods deliver the same set of solutions.

10.39. Given second-order system,

x + 2y = −5
3x − y = 13

Method 1: Cramer’s rule, the system of equations may be written in the form of a vector–
matrix product, i.e.,
⎫
⎪ 1 2
= ⎪
⎪ = −7
⎪
⎪ 3 −1
x −21
⎪
⎪ x= = =3
     ⎪
⎬  −7
1 2 x −5 −5 2
= ∴ x = = −21
3 −1 y 13 13 −1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
y 28
⎪
⎪ y= = = −4
1 −5 ⎪
⎪  −7
y = = 28 ⎭
3 13
458 10 Linear Algebra

Method 2: by the variable elimination,

x + 2y = −5
3x − y = 13 ×2

x + 2y = −5 (10.8)
6x − 2y = 26 (10.9)
∴ ((10.8) + (10.9))

x + 2y = −5
7x = 21 ∴ x=3 ∴ (back to (10.8))

3 + 2y = −5 ∴ y = −4

10.40. Given second-order system,

x + 2y = −8
2x − y = −1

Method 1: Cramer’s rule,

⎫
1 2
⎪
= ⎪
⎪ = −5
⎪
2 −1
⎪ x 10
⎪
⎪ x= = = −2
     ⎪
⎬  −5
1 2 x −8 −8 2
= ∴ x = = 10
2 −1 y −1 −1 −1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
y 15
⎪
⎪ y= = = −3
1 −8 ⎪
⎪  −5
y = = 15 ⎭
2 −1

Method 2: the elimination method

x + 2y = −8
2x − y = −1 ×2

x + 2y = −8
4x − 2y = −2 ∴

5x = −10 ∴ x = −2
10.5 Cramer’s Rule 459

−2 + 2y = −8 ∴ y = −3

Method 3: or, by the extended matrix transformations

   
1 2 −8 ← (1)  1 2 −8
A= =
2 −1 −1 ← (2) − 2 × (1) 0 −5 15 ← (2) ÷ (−5)
   
1 2 −8 ← (1) − 2 × (2) 1 0 −2
= =
0 1 −3 0 1 −3

The last extended matrix form reads row by row as

1 × x − 0 × y = −2 ⇒ x = −2
0 × x + 1 × y = −3 ⇒ y = −3

10.41. Given second-order system,

a+b =7
2a + 2b = 14

Method 1: Cramer’s rule,

    
11 x 7 11
= ∴ = =0
22 y 14 22

Consequently, the conclusion is that this system of equations does not have a unique set
of solutions. It should be noted that the two equations are not independent, and the second
equation is simply two times the first equation, i.e., not independent.

10.42. Given third-order system,

(x) (y) (z)

5x − 5y − 15z = 40 (1)
4x − 2y − 6z = 19 (2)
3x − 6y − 17z = 41 (3)

Method 1: the extended matrix transformations,

⎡ ⎤
5x − 5y − 15z = 40 5 −5 −15 40
4x − 2y − 6z = 19 ⇒ ⎣ 4 −2 −6 19 ⎦
3x − 6y − 17z = 41 3 −6 −17 41
460 10 Linear Algebra

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
5 −5 −15 40 ← (1) ÷ [5] 1 −1 −3 8
⎣ 4 −2 −6 19 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 4 −2 −6 19 ⎦ ← (2) − 4 × (1) ⇒
3 −6 −17 41 3 −6 −17 41 ← (3) − 3 × (1)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −1 −3 8 1 −1 −3 8
⎣ 0 2 6 −13 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2] ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 3 −13/2 ⎦ ⇒
0 −3 −8 17 0 −3 −8 17 ← (3) + 3 × (2)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −1 −3 8 ← (1) + (2) 1 0 0 3/2
⎣ 0 1 3 −13/2 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 3 −13/2 ⎦ ← (2) − 3 × (3) ⇒
0 0 1 − /2 5 0 0 1 −5/2
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 3/2 1x + 0y + 0z = 3/2  
⎣0 1 0 ⎦ 3 5
1 ∴ 0x + 1y + 0z = 1 ∴ {x, y, z} = , 1, −
2 2
0 0 1 −5/2 0x + 0y + 1z = −5/2

Method 2: Cramer’s rule.

10.5 Cramer’s Rule 461

Therefore,

x 15 3 y 10 z −25 5
x= = = ; y= = = 1; z= = =−
 10 2  10  10 2

Method 3: the cofactor expansion to calculate determinants then applies Cramer’s rule. Note
that numbers in the third column are rather large, so

Then,

x 15 3 y 10 z −25 5
x= = = ; y= = = 1; z= = =−
 10 2  10  10 2
462 10 Linear Algebra

10.43. Given third-order system of equations

2x − 3y − z = 5
x + y + 2z = 7
2x − y − z = 1

Method 1: Cramer’s rule

Then,

x 7
−14
 7 y  −2

20 z  19
−38 19
x= =  = ; y= =  = −2; z= =  =
 −10
 5 5  −10  −10
 5 5

10.44. Given third-order system of equations

x+y+z=3
x−y+z=5
−x + y − z = 10

Method 1: Cramer’s rule,

1 1 1 1 1
= 1 −1 1 1 −1 = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 − 1 + 1 = 0
−1 1 −1 −1 1

which is to say that this system does not have a unique set of solutions. It should be noted that
the second and third equation’s coefficients are not independent; there is a simple “−1” factor
10.5 Cramer’s Rule 463

between the two.

Method 2: it may be more obvious that the second and third equations are contradictory if the
system is solved by the elimination as,

x+y+z=3 ⇒x =3−y−z
x−y+z=5
−x + y − z = 10

(3 − y − z) − y + z = 5 ⇒ −2y + 3 = 5 ∴ y = −1

−(3 − y − z) + y − z = 10 ⇒ 2y − 3 = 10

2(−1) − 3 = 10 ⇒ −5 = 10

which, obviously, is false. Therefore, there is no unique set of solutions to this system.

10.45. Given third-order system of equations, note the positions of “0” coefficients that keep
places of the “missing” variables

x + y + z = 36
2x + 0y − z = −17
6x + 0y − 5z = 7

Method 1: for example, by the matrix transformations

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 36 ← (1)  1 1 1 36
⎣ 2 0 −1 −17 ⎦ ← (2) − 2 × (1) ⇒ ⎣ 0 −2 −3 −89 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ (−2) ⇒
6 0 −5 7 6 0 −5 7 ← (3) − 6 × (1)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 36 1 1 1 36
⎣ 0 1 3/2 89/2 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 3/2 89/2 ⎦ ⇒
0 −6 −11 −209 ← (3) + 6 × (2) 0 0 −2 58 ← (3) ÷ [−2]

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 36 ← (1) − (2) 1 0 −1/ 2 −17/2 ← (1) + 1/2(3)
⎣ 0 1 3/2 89/2 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 3/ 2 89/2 ⎦ ← (2) − 3/2(3) ⇒
0 0 1 −29 0 0 1 −29
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 −23
⎣ 0 1 0 88 ⎦ ∴ {x, y, z} = {−23, 88, −29}
0 0 1 −29
464 10 Linear Algebra

10.46. Given third-order system of equations

x+y =7
y+z=8
−x + 2z = 7

Method 1: for example, by the matrix transformations

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 7 ← (1)  110 7
⎣ 0 1 1 8 ⎦ ← (2)  ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 1 8⎦ ⇒
−1 0 2 7 ← (3) + (1) 0 1 2 14 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 7 ← (1) − (2) 1 0 −1 −1 ← (1) + (3)
⎣0 1 1 8⎦ ⇒ ⎣0 1 1 8⎦ ⇒
0 0 16 0 0 1 6
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
10 05 10 05
⎣ 0 1 1 8 ⎦ ← (2) − (3) ⇒ ⎣0 1 0 2⎦
00 16 00 16
∴ {x, y, z} = {5, 2, 6}

Method 2: by Cramer’s rule,

110 11
= 011 0 1 = 2 + (−1) + 0 − 0 − 0 − 0 = 1 = 0
−1 0 2 −1 0
710 71
x = 8 1 1 8 1 = 14 + 7 + 0 − 0 − 0 − 16 = 5
702 70
170 17
y = 081 0 8 = 16 + (−7) + 0 − 0 − 7 − 0 = 2
−1 7 2 −1 7
117 11
z = 018 0 1 = 7 + (−8) + 0 − (−7) − 0 − 0 = 6
−1 0 7 −1 0

x 5 y 2 z 6
∴ x= = =5 y= = =2 z= = =6
 1  1  1
⎡ ⎤
5
that is to say, v = ⎣ 2 ⎦ or, (x, y, z) = (5, 2, 6)
6
10.5 Cramer’s Rule 465

10.47. Given third-order system of equations

5x − 13y + 13z = 8
x − 3y + z = 4
−x + 2y − 5z = 3

Method 1: by Cramer’s rule,

5 −13 13
= 1 −3 1
−1 2 −5
−3 1 1 1 1 −3
= (−1)1+1 5 + (−1)1+2 (−13) + (−1)1+3 13
2 −5 −1 −5 −1 2
= 5 × 13 + 13 × (−4) + 13 × (−1) = 0

which is to say that this system does not have a unique set of solutions.

10.48. Two points A, B must be found on the linear equation f (x) simultaneously; there is
one equation corresponding to each point (x, y); therefore,

∴ ax + b = f (x)
(x, y) = (−2, 20) ∴ a(−2) + b = 20

(x, y) = (1, 5) ∴ a(1) + b = 5

Therefore, the matrix form of the problem is

a b f (x)
−2a +b = 20
a +b = 5

Method 1: for example, by the elimination

−2a + b = 20
a+b =5 ⇒a =5−b

−2(5 − b) + b = 20 ⇒ 3b − 10 = 20 ∴ b = 10 ∴ a = −5
∴ {a, b} = {−5, 10}

which is to say that f (x) = −5x + 10.

Verification:
466 10 Linear Algebra

f (−2) = −5(−2) + 10 = 20 
f (1) = −5(1) + 10 = 5 

Note that, given two points there is only one unique linear function that crosses both points.
However, there are infinitely many higher-order nonlinear functions that cross these two points.
It may be shown, for example, by deriving quadratic fitting function as,

∴ ax 2 + bx + c = f (x)
(x, y) = (−2, 20) ∴ a(−2)2 + b(−2) + c = 20

(x, y) = (1, 5) ∴ a(1)2 + b(1) + c = 5

Therefore, the matrix form of the problem is

a b c f (x)
4a −2b +c = 20
a +b +c = 5

that is to say, there are three unknown variables (a, b, c) and only two equations; consequently,
the system does not have a unique set of solutions. That being the case, one variable is always
dependent on the other two, for example,

4a − 2b + c = 20
a+b+c =5 ⇒a =5−b−c

c
4(5 − b − c) − 2b + c = 20 ⇒ b = −
2
 c c
a =5− − −c ∴ a =5−
2 2
 c c 
∴ {a, b, c} = 5 − , − , c
2 2

which is to say, as c is a parameter there are infinitely many quadratic functions of the form
f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c that cross the two given points. A couple of examples, see Fig. 10.22,
are as follows:

11 2 1
c = −1 : f1 (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = x + x−1
2 2
c = 0 : f2 (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = 5x 2
c = 4 : f3 (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = 3x 2 − 2x + 4
etc.

In conclusion, there are infinitely many curves that cross given two points, but linear function
is the only unique fitting “curve.”
10.5 Cramer’s Rule 467

Fig. 10.22 P.10.48, given two

points, there is only one linear
function that provides a unique
solution. Any other higher-order
polynomial, for example, quadratic,
is not unique due to unresolved
parameters

10.49. All three points A , B , C must be found on the quadratic equation f (x) simultane-
ously; there is one equation for each point (x, y), and therefore, three equations as

∴ ax 2 + bx + c = f (x)
(x, y) = (−2, 20) ∴ a(−2)2 + b(−2) + c = 20

(x, y) = (1, 5) ∴ a(1)2 + b(1) + c = 5

(x, y) = (3, 25) ∴ a(3)2 + b(3) + c = 25

so that the matrix form of the problem is

a b c
4a −2b +c = 20
a +b +c = 5
9a +3b +c = 25

that is to say,

A v = b
where,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 −2 1 a 20
A = ⎣ 1 1 1 ⎦ v = ⎣ b ⎦ and b = ⎣ 5 ⎦
9 31 c 25

Method 1: for example, by matrix transformations. Note that the order of equations (i.e., rows)
may be changed (e.g., notation (1) ↔ (2) reads as “swap positions of the first and second
row”) because the order of equations in the original system is written arbitrary to start with,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 −2 1 20 (1) ↔ (2) 1 11 5
⎣ 1 1 1 5⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 4 −2 1 20 ⎦ ← (2) − 4 × (1)
9 3 1 25 9 3 1 25
468 10 Linear Algebra

Fig. 10.23 P.10.49, unique

quadratic curve that fits three given
points in space

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5
⎣ 0 −6 −3 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ (−6) ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 1/2 0 ⎦
9 3 1 25 9 3 1 25 ← (3) − 9 × (1)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5
⎣ 0 1 1/2 0⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 1/2 0⎦
0 −6 −8 −20 ← (3) + 6 × (2) 0 0 −5 −20 ← (3) ÷ (−5)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 5 ← (1) − (2) 1 0 1/2 5
⎣ 0 1 1/2 0 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 1/2 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 1/2(3)
00 14 0 0 14
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 0 1/2 5 ← (1) − 1/2(3) 10 0 3
⎣ 0 1 0 −2 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 0 −2 ⎦ ∴ {a, b, c} = {3, −2, 4}
00 1 4 00 1 4

which is to say that f (x) = 3x 2 − 2x + 4; see Fig. 10.23. Following the discussion in A.10.48
there are infinitely many higher-order parametric curves that cross these three points; however,
being parametrized does not represent a unique set of solutions.

10.50. To say that two or more vectors are linearly independent is to say that they are not
parallel, or to say that their first derivatives (slopes) are not the same (see chapters in Vol. II
on calculus) or, equivalently, to say that the system’s determinant is  = 0. Given,
     
3 −2 7
a = b = c =
−2 1 4

(a) Linear combination is

a + nb
c = k
∴
     
7 3 −2
=k +n
−4 −2 1
10.5 Cramer’s Rule 469

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

7 = 3k − 2n
−4 = −2k + n

Therefore, the determinant is calculated as

3 −2    
= = 3 × 1 − −2 × (−2) = −1 = 0
−2 1

which is to say that equations (i.e., vectors) are indeed independent. More precisely,
Cramer’s rule gives,
⎫
7 −2 k −1
k = = −1⎪
⎪
⎪
⎬
k= = =1
−4 1  −1
∴
3 7 ⎪
⎪
= =2 ⎪
⎭
n 2
n
−2 −4 n= = = −2
 −1

which is to say, c = a − 2b

(b) Given
     
1  3 0
a = b= c =
2 4 −2

Linear combination is
     
0 1 3
a + nb ∴
c = k =k +n
−2 2 4

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

0 = k + 3n
−2 = 2k + 4n

Therefore, the determinant is calculated as

13
= = −2 = 0
24

which is to say that equations (i.e., vectors) are indeed independent. Cramer’s rule gives,
⎫
03 ⎪ k 6
k = =6 ⎪
⎪ k= = = −3
−2 4 ⎬  −2
∴
1 0 ⎪
⎪ −2
= −2⎪
n
n = ⎭ n= = =1
2 −2  −2

a + b
which is to say, c = −3
470 10 Linear Algebra

10.51. To say that two or more vectors are linearly independent is to say that they are not
parallel, or to say that their first derivatives are not same, or to say that the system’s determinant
is  = 0. Given,
     
1  3 0
a = b= c =
2 4 −2

(a) Linear combination is

a + nb
c = k
∴
     
0 1 3
=k +n
−2 2 4

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

0 = 1k + 3n
−2 = 2k + 4n

Therefore, the determinant is calculated as

13    
= = 1 × 4 − 2 × 3 = −2 =
 0
24

which is to say that equations (i.e., vectors) are indeed independent. More precisely,
Cramer’s rule gives,
⎫
k 6
=6 ⎪
03 ⎪
k = ⎪ k= = = −3
−2 4 ⎬  −2
∴
1 0 ⎪
⎪ −2
= −2⎪
n
n = ⎭ n= = =1
2 −2  −2

a + b
which is to say, c = −3
(b) Given
     
1  3 0
a = b= c =
2 4 −2

Linear combination is
     
0 1 3
a + nb ∴
c = k =k +n
−2 2 4
10.5 Cramer’s Rule 471

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

0 = k + 3n
−2 = 2k + 4n

Therefore, the determinant is calculated as

13
= = −2 = 0
24

which is to say that equations (i.e., vectors) are indeed independent. Cramer’s rule gives,
⎫
k 6
=6 ⎪
03 ⎪
k = ⎪ k= = = −3
−2 4 ⎬  −2
∴
1 0 ⎪
⎪ −2
= −2⎪
n
n = ⎭ n= = =1
2 −2  −2

a + b
which is to say, c = −3

10.52. Parallel vectors are said to be “collinear” (i.e., the angle between them is either zero or
π ), as opposed to “orthogonal” (i.e., the angle between them is ±π/2), or any other arbitrary
angle between the them. Recalling that the slope of a linear function is calculated as its first
derivative, then another method to establish spatial relationship (i.e., parallel, orthogonal, etc.)
between two vectors is to calculate and compare their respective first derivatives; see chapters
in Vol. II on calculus.

Reminder: One or more vectors are linearly independent if they are not collinear. One
possible way to formalize that statement is to write

if x = k y ⇒ (
x , y) are collinear

where k is the multiplying constant. Alternatively, the determinant of matrix that

includes collinear vectors equals zero.

Given
   
3  2
a = b=
λ 6

Method 1: saying that vectors a and b are collinear is to say that, for example,
   
3 2
a = k b ∴ =k
λ 6
472 10 Linear Algebra

where k is the multiplying parameter not equal to zero. Then, this system of equations is

3 = 2k 3
∴ k = 3/2 and as λ = 6k ∴ λ = 6A 3 =9
λ = 6k 2A

so that given λ = 9
       
3  2 3 3 2 3
a = , b= ∴ = ∴ if λ = 9 then a = b
9 6 9 2 6 2

In conclusion, given two vectors are independent if λ = 9.

Method 2: given
   
2 3
b = k
a ∴ =k
6 λ

The determinant is then calculated as

32
 = a b = = 3 × 6 − 2λ = 18 − 2λ = 0 ∴ λ = 9
λ6

In conclusion, for any λ = 9 these two vectors are independent (i.e., not parallel). Otherwise
for λ = 9 they are dependent (i.e., parallel), which is the consequence of a simple 3/2
multiplication factor between the two vectors.

10.53. Method 1: given vectors

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
6 3 λ
a = ⎣ 8 ⎦ b = ⎣ 4 ⎦ c = ⎣ 0 ⎦
4 2 1

by inspection, it is evident that a may be factored as

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
6 3
a = ⎣ 8 ⎦ = 2 ⎣ 4 ⎦ ≡ 2 b
4 2

which is to say that (  are collinear (i.e., dependent) regardless of λ.

a , b)

Method 2: the determinant of matrix of these three vectors is

=+6×4×1+3×0×4+λ×8×2

63λ 6 3 −4×4×λ−2×0×6−1×8×3
= 840 8 4 +H
=
24 H−H
16λ H−
16λ = 0
24
421 4 2
10.6 Vector Space 473

that is to say, the determinant equals zero regardless of λ; consequently, these three vectors are
dependent for any value of λ.

10.6 Vector Space

Modern interpretation of matrices is illustrated by multidimensional space, where column–vectors

are assembled together into a matrix, which then depicts various transformations of the given space.
In order to visualize these transformations, it is sufficient to follow the base vector transformations.
Note that base vectors define “unit volume of their respective space.” That is to say, in the case of 1D
space it is “unit” line length, in the case of 2D space it is “unit” square surface, and in the case of 3D
or higher-order space it is “unit volume.” It is assumed that the space is perfectly “stretchable” in any
direction and to any distance and direction. A banal example of a 2D space (epitomized as a plain
sheet of paper) transformation may be a simple rotation by 90◦ clockwise relative to one of its corner
points; see Sect. 10.3.

10.54. Given the matrix–vector product,

  
1 1 3
2 −1 0

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

        
1 1 3 1 1 3
L v = = 3 +0 =
2 −1 0 2 −1 6

Geometric interpretation of this operation may be illustrated by vector v = 3i + 0j that is
transformed to L( v ) = 3 L(i) + 0 L(j) ≡ 3i + 6j by the means of space transformation L,
see Fig. 10.24. Note that coordinates of transformed L( i ) and L( j ) are set by the columns
of L transformation matrix.
Therefore, the result of the matrix–vector product L( v ) = (3, 6) is shown in the units of the
original (i.e., non-transformed basis vectors i and j, as illustrated in Fig. 10.24.

Fig. 10.24 P.10.54, geometrical

interpretation of linear
transformation
L(v ) = 3 L(i) + 0 L(j)
474 10 Linear Algebra

Fig. 10.25 P.10.55, geometrical

interpretation of transformation
whose result is L v = λ v. As the v
stayed collinear after
transformation L, it is said that v
eigenvector vector of matrix L

10.55. Given the matrix–vector product,

  √ 
1 1 1+ 3
2 −1 2

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

  √       √ 
1 1 1+ 3 √ 1 1 3 + √3
L v = = (1 + 3) +2 =
2 −1 2 2 −1 2 3

Note however that,

  √ ! √ !
√ √ 3 √ 3 3 √ 3
3
3+ 3= 3 √ +1 = 3 √ √ +1 = 3 +1
3 3 3 3

√  √ 
= 3 1+ 3

that is to say,
  √  √ √   √ 
1 1 1+ 3 3 (1 + √3) √ 1+ 3 √
L v = = = 3 = 3 v
2 −1 2 2 3 2

In other words, after the space transformation

√ L this particular vector v stayed collinear; it was
simply multiplied by a constant “ 3”; see Fig. 10.25. Compare with the vector v in P.10.54
subjected to the same space transformation L.

Reminder: If matrix L does not affect direction of a certain vector v, as

L v = λ v

then it is said that this particular vector v is eigenvector of its associated transformation
matrix L, and constant λ is referred to as eigenvalue of this matrix L. Existence of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors for a given matrix is a very important property. Not all
matrices have eigenvalues and subsequently do not have eigenvectors.
10.6 Vector Space 475

Fig. 10.26 P.10.56, geometrical

interpretation of transformation
whose result is L v = λ v. As the v
stayed collinear after
transformation L, even though it
changed its direction, it is said that
v eigenvector vector of matrix L

10.56. Given the matrix–vector product,

  √ 
1 1 1− 3
2 −1 2

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

  √       √ 
1 1 1− 3 √ 1 1 3 − √3
L v = = (1 − 3) +2 =
2 −1 2 2 −1 −2 3

Note however that,

  √ ! √ !
√ √ 3 √ 3 3 √ 3
3
3− 3 = − 3 −√ + 1 = − 3 −√ √ + 1 = − 3 − +1
3 3 3 3

√  √ 
=− 3 1− 3

that is to say,
  √   √ √   √ 
1 1 1− 3 − 3 (1 − √3) √ 1− 3 √
L v = = =− 3 = − 3 v
2 −1 2 −2 3 2

In other words, after the space transformation

√ L this particular vector v stayed collinear; it was
simply multiplied by a constant “− √ 3”; see Fig. 10.26 (compare with P.10.54). In conclusion,
this particular constant λ = − 3 happens to be eigenvalue, and therefore, this particular
vector v is its associated eigenvector of the given transformation matrix L.

10.57. Given the matrix–vector product,

  
2 −1 −5
3 2 3

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

476 10 Linear Algebra

Fig. 10.27 P.10.57, geometrical

interpretation of linear
transformation
L(v ) = −5 L(i) + 3 L(j)

Fig. 10.28 P.10.58, geometrical

interpretation of linear
transformation
L(v ) = 3 L(i) − 2 L(j)

        
2 −1 −5 2 −1 −13
L v = = −5 +3 =
3 2 3 3 2 −9

That is, vector v = −5i + 3j is transformed to L(

v ) = −5 L(i) + 3 L(j) ≡ −13i − 9j by the
means of space transformation L; see Fig. 10.27. Note that coordinates of transformed L( i )
and L( j ) are set by the columns of L transformation matrix. The result of the matrix–vector
product L( v ) = (−13, −9) is shown in the units of the original (i.e., non-transformed basis
vectors i and j, as illustrated in Fig. 10.27.

10.58. Given the matrix–vector product,

  
2 −3 3
1 2 −2

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

        
2 −3 3 2 −3 12
L v = =3 + (−2) =
1 2 −2 1 2 −1

That is, vector v = 3i − 2j is transformed to L(v ) = 3 L(i) − 2 L(j) ≡ 12i − j by the
means of space transformation L; see Fig. 10.28. Note that coordinates of transformed L( i )
and L( j ) are set by the columns of L transformation matrix. The result of the matrix–vector
product L( v ) = (12, −1) is shown in the units of the original (i.e., non-transformed basis
vectors i and j, as illustrated in Fig. 10.28.
10.6 Vector Space 477

Fig. 10.29 P.10.59, geometrical

interpretation of linear
transformation
L(v ) = 4 L(i) = 4 L(j) that results
in loss of spatial dimension

10.59. Given the matrix–vector product,

  
11 3
22 1

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

          
11 3 1 1 4 1
L v = =3 +1 = =4 = 4 L( i ) = 4 L( j )
22 1 2 2 8 2

It is to be noted that the two rows of transformation matrix are not independent, that is to say,
one can be derived as the multiple of the other.
Consequently, L( i ) and L( j ) are collinear, and furthermore, the transformed vector L(v)
is aligned with both of them at the same time. Another hint is that determinant |L| = 0. The
geometrical interpretation of this case is that the original 2D space collapsed into 1D space;
see Fig. 10.29. This is the general consequence of transformations whose determinant equals
zero.

10.60. Given the matrix–matrix product,

  
1 1 2 −1
2 −1 3 2

geometrically, it may be interpreted as “linear transformation of linear transformation,” i.e.,

two transformations happening at the same time. That is to say, in practical sense, the matrix–
matrix product may be decomposed into two matrix–vector products. Then, the two resulting
vectors are simply combined in the final matrix as,
    
1 1 2 −1 i j
= x x
2 −1 3 2 iy jy

That is to say,
          
i : 1 1 2 1 1 (2 + 3) 5
= 2 +3 = =
2 −1 3 2 −1 (4 − 3) 1
478 10 Linear Algebra

Fig. 10.30 P.10.60, geometrical

interpretation transformation
resulting from a two-matrix
multiplication

          
1 1 −1 1 1 (−1 + 2) 1
j : = ( −1) +2 = =
2 −1 2 2 −1 (−2 − 2) −4

so that the final result is

    
1 1 2 −1 5 1
=
2 −1 3 2 1 −4

The overall transformation is illustrated in Fig. 10.30 where narrow line arrows represent first
transformations of i and j at ( 1, 2) and ( 1, −1) (i.e., left-side matrix), as measured by the
units of the original space. Then, wide line arrows represent the final destination of i and j
after second transformations (i.e., right-side matrix).

10.61. Given the matrix–matrix product

  
2 −1 2 −3
3 2 1 2

then, it follows
    
2 −1 2 −3 i j
= x x
3 2 1 2 iy jy

where,
          
i : 2 −1 2 2 −1 (4 − 1) 3
=2 + = =
3 2 1 3 2 (6 + 2) 8
          
2 −1 −3 2 −1 (−6 − 2) −8
j : = (−3) +2 = =
3 2 2 3 2 (−9 + 4) −5

Therefore,
10.6 Vector Space 479

    
2 −1 2 −3 3 −8
=
3 2 1 2 8 −5

10.62. Given the matrix–matrix product

  
2 −3 1 1
1 2 2 −1

it follows that
    
2 −3 1 1 i j
= x x
1 2 2 −1 iy jy

where,
          
i : 2 −3 1 2 −3 (2 − 6) −4
= +2 = =
1 2 2 1 2 (1 + 4) 5
          
2 −3 1 2 −3 (2 + 3) 5
j : = + (−1) = =
1 2 −1 1 2 (1 − 2) −1

Therefore,
    
2 −3 1 1 −4 5
=
1 2 2 −1 5 −1

10.63. Given the matrix–matrix product

  
2 −1 1 1
3 2 2 −1

it follows that
    
2 −1 1 1 ix jx
=
3 2 2 −1 iy jy

where,
          
i : 2 −1 1 2 −1 (2 − 2) 0
= +2 = =
3 2 2 3 2 (3 + 4) 7
          
2 −1 1 2 −1 (2 + 1) 3
j : = + (−1) = =
3 2 −1 3 2 (3 − 2) 1

Therefore,
    
2 −1 1 1 0 3
=
3 2 2 −1 7 1
480 10 Linear Algebra

By comparison with P.10.60 note that matrix–matrix multiplication is not commutative

operation.

10.64. Given the matrix–matrix product

  
2 −3 2 −1
1 2 3 2

it follows that
    
2 −3 2 −1 i j
= x x
1 2 3 2 iy jy

where,
          
i : 2 −3 2 2 −3 (4 − 9) −5
=2 +3 = =
1 2 3 1 2 (2 + 6) 8
          
2 −3 −1 2 −3 (−2 − 6) −8
j : = (−1) +2 = =
1 2 2 1 2 (−1 + 4) 3

Therefore,
    
2 −3 2 −1 −5 −8
=
1 2 3 2 8 3

By comparison with P.10.61 note that matrix–matrix multiplication is not commutative

operation.

10.65. Given the matrix–matrix product

  
1 1 2 −3
2 −1 1 2

it follows that
    
1 1 2 −3 ix jx
=
2 −1 1 2 iy jy

where,
          
i : 1 1 2 1 1 (2 + 1) 3
=2 + = =
2 −1 1 2 −1 (4 − 1) 3
          
1 1 −3 1 1 (−3 + 2) −1
j : = (−3) +2 = =
2 −1 2 2 −1 (−6 − 2) −8

Therefore,
10.6 Vector Space 481

    
1 1 2 −3 3 −1
=
2 −1 1 2 3 −8

By comparison with P.10.65 note that matrix–matrix multiplication is not commutative

operation.

10.66. Two non-square matrices are multiplied as the same as the two square matrices while
keeping in mind that

Reminder: product C of two non-square matrices A, B is possible if the number of

columns n in the left-side matrix is equal to the number or rows k in the matrix on the
right side. The resulting matrix has the number of rows m and the number of columns l,
as

Am,n Bn,l = Cm,l

which is not necessarily a square matrix.

Given the matrix product of two vectors,

⎡ ⎤
1

1 2 3 ⎣2⎦
3

note that left-side matrix is in “1, 3” format and the right-side matrix is in “3, 1” format; thus,
the resulting product must be a matrix sized as “1, 1,” because the number of rows on the left
is “1” and the number of columns on the right-side vector is also “1.” Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
 1  
1 2 3 ⎣ 2 ⎦ = 1 · 1 + 2 · 2 + 3 · 3 = 14
3

10.67. Given the matrix product of two vectors,

⎡ ⎤
1 
⎣2⎦ 1 2 3
3

note that left-side matrix is in “3, 1” format and the right side matrix is in “1, 3” format; thus,
the resulting product must be a matrix sized as “3, 3,” because the number of rows on the left
is “3” and the number of columns on the right-side vector is also “3.” Therefore,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1·1 1·2 1·3 123
1 2 3 ⎣2⎦ = ⎣2·1 2·2 2·3⎦ = ⎣2 4 6⎦
3 3·1 3·2 3·3 369
482 10 Linear Algebra

10.68. Given matrix–product of two vectors,

⎤⎡
 
1 2
3 01 ⎣
5 −1 ⎦
−2 −1 4
0 1

note that left-side matrix is in “2, 3” format and the right-side matrix is in “3, 2” format; thus,
the resulting product must be a matrix sized as “2, 2”; therefore,
⎡ ⎤
  1 2  
3 01 ⎣ ⎦ ix jx
5 −1 =
−2 −1 4 iy jy
0 1

where,
⎡ ⎤
  1        
i : 3 0 1 ⎣5⎦ = 3 0 1 3
+5 +0 =
−2 −1 4 −2 −1 4 −7
0
⎡ ⎤
  2        
3 01 ⎣ 3 0 1 7
j : −1 ⎦ = 2 + (−1) + =
−2 −1 4 −2 −1 4 1
1

So that,
⎡
⎤
 
1 2  
3 01 ⎣ 3 7
5 −1 ⎦ =
−2 −1 4 −7 1
0 1

10.69. Given the matrix product of two vectors,

⎡ ⎤
1 2  
⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ 3 01
−2 −1 4
0 1

note that left-side matrix is in “3, 2” format and the right-side matrix is in “2, 3” format; thus,
the resulting product must be a matrix sized as “3, 3,” as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   ix jx kx
⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ 3 0 1
= ⎣ iy jy ky ⎦
−2 −1 4
0 1 iz jz kz

where,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   1 2 −1
i : ⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ 3
= 3 ⎣ 5 ⎦ + (−2) ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 17 ⎦
−2
0 1 0 1 −2
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 483

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   1 2 −2
0
j : ⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ = 0 ⎣ 5 ⎦ + (−1) ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
−1
0 1 0 1 −1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   1 2 9
1
k : ⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 5 ⎦ + 4 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
4
0 1 0 1 4

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   −1 −2 9
⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ 3 01
= ⎣ 17 1 1 ⎦
−2 −1 4
0 1 −2 −1 4

10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

10.70. Simple calculation of the matrix–vector product is

        
3 −3 3 (3 × 3 − 1 × 3) 6 3
A v = = = = 2 = λ v
2 −4 1 (2 × 3 − 4 × 1) 2 1

Therefore, v is eigenvector of matrix A and its associated eigenvalue is λ = 2.

10.71. A simple calculation of the matrix–vector product is

        
3 −3 2 (2 × 3 − 1 × 3) 3 2
A v = = = = λ
2 −4 1 (2 × 2 − 4 × 1) 0 1

Therefore, v is not eigenvector of matrix A because there is no eigenvalue λ for which the
definition equation is possible.

10.72. Given
 
6 −1
2 3

one possible procedure to calculate its eigenvalues and eigenvectors (if exist) may be,

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
484 10 Linear Algebra

       
6 −1 10 6 −1 λ0
det (A − λ I ) = −λ = −
2 3 01 2 3 0λ
6 − λ −1
= = (6 − λ)(3 − λ) − 2(−1) = λ2 − 9λ + 20
2 3−λ
= λ2 − 5λ − 4λ + 20 = λ(λ − 5) − 4(λ − 5) = (λ − 5)(λ − 4) = 0
∴ λ1 = 4, λ2 = 5

Therefore, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 4, λ2 = 5.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = 4:
        
6 −1 10 x 6 − 4 −1 x
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = −4 =
2 3 01 y 2 3−4 y
    
2 −1 x 0
= =
2 −1 y 0

therefore, the objective is to calculate ( x, y) coordinates of v1 . Evidently, rows of this

simple 2D matrix are not independent, which implies that this system of equations must
have parametrized set of solutions. It may be resolved in the extended matrix form as
   
2 −1 0 ← (1) ÷ 2 1 −1/2 0
=
2 −1 0 2 −1 0 ← (2) − 2(1)
 
1 −1/2 0 ← (1)
=
0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 !!!

That is to say, as the consequence of two equations being dependent, the second equation
collapses into its trivial case. Thus, because it is multiplied by zero, coordinate y may take
arbitrary value (except the infinity) and the second equation is still correct. That being the
case, it may be parametrized as y = t , where t is an arbitrary parameter. By substitution
of y in ← (1), it follows that

1 1 1
1x − y = 0 ∴ 1x − t = 0 ⇒ x = t
2 2 2

which is to say, the first equation is correct for any value of y as long as y is two times the
value of x. It means that parametrized form of v1 is
       
x t/2 1/2 1
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 485

Case λ2 = 5: same procedure as for λ1 results in

        
6 −1 10 x 6 − 5 −1 x
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = −5 =
2 3 01 y 2 3−5 y
    
1 −1 x 0
= =
2 −2 y 0

Therefore,
   
1 −1 0 1 −1 0
=
2 −2 0 ← (2) − 2(1) 0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and,

1x − 1y = 0 ∴ x − 1t = 0 ⇒ x = t

which is to say that y must equal to x, and therefore parametrized form of v2 is
     
t 1 1
v2 = =t =
t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
3. Verification:
        
6 −1 1 (1 · 6 + 2 · (−1)) 4 1
A v1 = = = =4 = λ1 v1 
2 3 2 (1 · 2 + 2 · 3) 8 2
        
6 −1 1 (1 · 6 + 1 · (−1)) 5 1
A v2 = = = =5 = λ2 v2 
2 3 1 (1 · 2 + 1 · 3) 5 1

10.73. Given
 
−6 3
45

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

det (A − λ I ) = 0
       
−6 3 10 −6 3 λ0
∴ det (A − λ I ) = −λ = −
45 01 45 0λ
−6 − λ 3
= = (−6 − λ)(5 − λ) − 4 · 3 = λ2 + λ − 42
4 5−λ
= λ2 − 6λ + 7λ − 42 = λ(λ − 6) + 7(λ − 6) = (λ − 6)(λ + 7) = 0
486 10 Linear Algebra

Therefore,

λ1 = 6, λ2 = −7

In summary, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 6, λ2 = −7.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = 6:
        
−6 3 10 x −6 − 6 3 x
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = −6 =
45 01 y 4 5−6 y
    
−12 3 x 0
= =
4 −1 y 0

therefore, the objective is to calculate ( x, y) coordinates of v1 . Evidently, rows of this

simple 2D matrix are not independent, which implies that this system of equations must
have parametrized set of solutions. It may be resolved in the extended matrix form as
   
−12 3 0 ← (1) ÷ [−12] 1 −1/4 0
=
4 −1 0 4 −1 0 ← (2) − 4(1)
 
1 −1/4 0
=
0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 !!!

That is to say, as the consequence of two equations being dependent, the second equation
collapses into its trivial case. Thus, see A.10.72, y = t , where t is an arbitrary parameter.
By substitution of y in first row, it follows that

1 1 1
1x − y = 0 ∴ 1x − t = 0 ⇒ x = t
4 4 4

which is to say that the first equation is correct for any value of y as long as it is four times
the value of x. It means that parametrized form of v1 is
       
x t/4 1/4 1
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 4

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 4 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
Case λ2 = −7: repeated procedure results in
        
−6 3 10 x −6 + 7 3 x
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = − (−7) =
45 01 y 4 5+7 y
    
1 3 x 0
= =
4 12 y 0
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 487

Therefore,
   
1 30 1 30
=
4 12 0 ← (2) − 4(1) 0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and,

1 x + 3 y = 0 ∴ x + 3 t = 0 ⇒ x = −3t

which is to say, in plain words, that x must equal to “−3y.” Therefore, v2 is
     
−3t −3 −3
v2 = =t =
t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
3. Verification:
        
−6 31 (1 · (−6) + 4 · 3) 6 1
A v1 = = = =6 = λ1 v1 
45 4 (1 · 4 + 5 · 4) 24 4
        
−6 3 −3 ((−3) · (−6) + 1 · 3) 21 −3
A v2 = = = = −7 = λ2 v2 
45 1 ((−3) · 4 + 1 · 5) −7 1

10.74. Given
 
10 −5
5 2

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
       
10 −5 10 10 −5 λ0
det (A − λ I ) = −λ = −
5 2 01 5 2 0λ
10 − λ −5
= = (10 − λ)(2 − λ) − 5 · (−5) = λ2 − 12λ + 45
5 2−λ
=0
∴ λ1 = 6 − 3j, λ2 = 6 + 3j (j 2 = −1)

Therefore, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 6 − 3j, λ2 = 6 + 3j .

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)
488 10 Linear Algebra

Case λ1 = 6 − 3j :
  
10 − (6 − 3j ) −5 x
(A − λ1 I ) v1 =
5 2 − (6 − 3j ) y
    
4 + 3j −5 x 0
= =
5 −4 + 3j y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as the same as the matrices with real coefficients, as
   
4 + 3j −5 0 ← (1) · [4 − 3j ] 25 −20 + 15j 0 ← (1) ÷ 25
=
5 −4 + 3j 0 5 −4 + 3j 0
   
1 −4/5 + 3/5 j 0 1 −4/5 + 3/5 j 0
= =
5 −4 + 3j 0 ← (2) − 5(1) 0 00

=
⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and,

1 x + (−4/5 + 3/5 j ) y = 0 ∴ x + (−4/5 + 3/5 j ) t = 0 ⇒ x = (4/5 − 3/5 j ) t

so that,
       
x (4/5 − 3/5 j ) t 4/5 − 3/5 j 4 − 3j
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 5

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 5 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 6 + 3j :
       
10 − (6 + 3j ) −5 x 4 − 3j −5 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = = =
5 2 − (6 + 3j ) y 5 −4 − 3j y 0

Again,
   
4 − 3j −5 0 ← (1) · [4 + 3j ] 25 −20 − 15j 0 ← (1) ÷ 25
=
5 −4 − 3j 0 5 −4 − 3j 0
   
1 −4/5 − 3/5 j 0 1 −4/5 − 3/5 j 0
= =
5 −4 − 3j 0 ← (2) − 5(1) 0 00

=
⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and,

1 x + (−4/5 − 3/5 j ) y = 0 ∴ x + (−4/5 − 3/5 j ) t = 0 ⇒ x = (4/5 + 3/5 j ) t

10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 489

so that,
       
x (4/5 + 3/5 j ) t 4/5 + 3/5 j 4 + 3j
v2 = = =t =
y t 1 5

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 5 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

10.75. Given
 
2 −5
4 6

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
2 − λ −5
det (A − λ I ) = = (2 − λ)(6 − λ) − 4 · (−5) = λ2 − 8λ + 32 = 0
4 6−λ
∴ λ1 = 4 − 4j, λ2 = 4 + 4j (j 2 = −1)

Therefore, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 4 − 4j, λ2 = 4 + 4j .

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = 4 − 4j :
       
2 − (4 − 4j ) −5 x −2 + 4j −5 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = = =
4 6 − (4 − 4j ) y 4 2 + 4j y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as same as matrices with real coefficients, as

   
−2 + 4j −5 0 ← (1) · [−2 − 4j ] 20 10 + 20j 0 ← (1) ÷ 20
=
4 2 + 4j 0 4 2 + 4j 0
   
1 1/2 + j 0 1 1/2 + j 0
= =
4 2 + 4j 0 ← (2) − 4(1) 0 00

=
⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and,

1 x + (1/2 + j ) y = 0 ∴ x + (1/2 + j ) t = 0 ⇒ x = (−1/2 − j ) t

490 10 Linear Algebra

so that,
       
x (−1/2 − j ) t −1/2 − j −1 − 2 j
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 4 + 4j :
       
2 − (4 + 4j ) −5 x −2 − 4j −5 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = = =
4 6 − (4 + 4j ) y 4 2 − 4j y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as the same as the matrices with real coefficients, as
   
−2 − 4j −5 0 ← (1) · [−2 + 4j ] 20 10 − 20j 0 ← (1) ÷ 20
=
4 2 − 4j 0 4 2 − 4j 0
   
1 1/2 − j 0 1 1/2 − j 0
= =
4 2 − 4j 0 ← (2) − 4(1) 0 00

=
⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and,

1 x + (1/2 − j ) y = 0 ∴ x + (1/2 − j ) t = 0 ⇒ x = (−1/2 + j ) t

so that,
       
x (−1/2 + j ) t −1/2 + j −1 + 2 j
v2 = = =t =
y t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

10.76. Given
  √ 
cos π/6 − sin π/6 3/2 −1/2
= √
sin π/6 cos π/6 1/2 3/2

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as :

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 491

√
3/2 − λ √ −1/2 √ √ √
det (A − λ I ) = 1/2 3/2 − λ
= ( 3/2 − λ)( 3/2 − λ) + 1/4 = λ2 − 3λ + 1 = 0
√ √
∴ λ1 = 3/2 − 1/2 j, λ2 = 3/2 + 1/2 j (j 2 = −1)
√ √
Therefore, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 3/2 − 1/2 j, λ2 = 3/2 + 1/2 j .
2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)
√
Case λ1 = 3/2 − 1/2 j :
√ √  
− ( 3/2 − 1/2 j ) √
3/2 −1/2 x
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = √
1/2 3/2 − ( 3/2 − 1/2 j ) y
    
1/2 j −1/2 x 0
= =
1/2 1/2 j y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as the same as the matrices with real coefficients, as
   
−1/2 0 ← (1) · [−2 j ]
1/2 j 1 j 0
= 1 1
1/2 1/2 j 0 /2 /2 j 0 ← (2) − 1/2(1)
 
1 j 0
=
0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

1 x + j y = 0 ∴ x + j t = 0 ⇒ x = −j t

       
x −j t −j −j
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 1

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

√
Case λ2 = 3/2 + 1/2 j :
√ √  
− ( 3/2 + 1/2 j ) √
3/2 −1/2 x
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = √
1/2 3/2 − ( 3/2 + 1/2 j ) y
    
−1/2 j −1/2 x 0
= 1/2 −1/2 j
=
y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as the same as the matrices with real coefficients, as
   
−1/2 j −1/2 0 ← (1) · [2 j ] 1 −j 0
1/2 −1/2 j 0
= 1/2 −1/2 j 0 ← (2) − 1/2(1)
492 10 Linear Algebra

 
1 −j 0
=
0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and,

1x − j y = 0 ∴ x − j t = 0 ⇒ x = j t

so that,
       
x jt j j
v2 = = =t =
y t 1 1

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

10.77. Given,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 2
A = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ , v = ⎣ 1 ⎦
−4 −3 4 1

The matrix vector product is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 2 ((−2) · 2 + (−9) · 1 + (−1) · 1) −14
A v = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ (2 · 2 + (−6) · 1 + (−5) · 1) ⎦ = ⎣ −7 ⎦
−4 −3 4 1 ((−4) · 2 + (−3) · 1 + 4 · 1) −7
⎡ ⎤
2
= −7 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ v
1

Therefore, v is eigenvector and λ = −7 is eigenvalue of A.

10.78. Given,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 4
A = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ , v = ⎣ −3 ⎦
−4 −3 4 7

The matrix vector products is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 4 ((−2) · 4 + (−9) · (−3) + (−1) · 7) 12
A v = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ ⎣ −3 ⎦ = ⎣ (2 · 4 + (−6) · (−3) + (−5) · 7) ⎦ = ⎣ −9 ⎦
−4 −3 4 7 ((−4) · 4 + (−3) · (−3) + 4 · 7) 21
⎡ ⎤
4
= 3 ⎣ −3 ⎦ = λ v
7
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 493

Therefore, v is eigenvector and λ = 3 is eigenvalue of A.

10.79. Given,
⎡ ⎤
300
⎣0 5 1⎦
042

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

3−λ 0 0
det (A − λ I ) = 0 5−λ 1 (take advantage of zeros to calculate )
0 4 2−λ
5−λ 1 · · · ·
= (3 − λ) −0 +0
4 2−λ · · · ·
 
= (3 − λ) (5 − λ)(2 − λ) − 4
= −λ3 + 10λ2 − 27λ + 18 = 0

Three roots of this characteristic polynomial are: λ1 = 1, λ2 = 3, λ3 = 6.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that,

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 1:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 4 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
041 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2000 ← (1) ÷ [2] 1 0 0 0
⎣ 0 4 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [4] = ⎣ 0 1 1/4 0⎦
0410 0 4 1 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
1 0 00
⎣ 0 1 1/4 0 ⎦
0 0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ z=t

and, by substituting z in rows (1) and (2)

1x + 0y + 0z = 0 ⇒ x = 0
0 x + 1 y + 1/4 z = 0 ⇒ y = −1/4 t
494 10 Linear Algebra

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −1/4 t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1/4 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 4

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 4 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 3:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
00 0 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = ⎣ 0 2 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 4 −1 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤
00 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ x = t
⎣ 0 2 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2]
0 4 −1 0 ← (3) ÷ [4]
⎡ ⎤
0 0 00 x=t
⎣ 0 1 1/2 0 ⎦
0 1 −1/4 0

that is to say x = t, then from rows (2) and (3) it follows that

0 x + 1 y + 1/2 z = 0 ⇒ y = 1/2 z
0 x + 1 y − 1/4 z = 0 ⇒ y = −1/4 z

which is possible only if z = 0 followed by y = 0. Consequently

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = t ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
z 0 0 0

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

Case λ3 = 6:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−3 0 0 x 0
(A − λ3 I ) v3 = ⎣ 0 −1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 4 −4 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 495

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−3 0 0 0 ← (1) ÷ [−3] 1 0 00
⎣ 0 −1 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−1] = ⎣ 0 1 −1 0 ⎦ =
0 4 −4 0 0 4 −4 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
1 0 00
⎣ 0 1 −1 0 ⎦
0 0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ z=t

that is to say z = t, then from rows (1) and (2) it follows that

1x + 0y + 0z = 0 ⇒ x = 0
0x + 1y − 1z = 0 ⇒ y = z = t

in other words, as long as y = z any arbitrary value (except infinity) of t is valid.

Consequently,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 0 3 · 0 + 0 · (−1) + 0 · 4 0 0
⎣ 0 5 1 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 0 + 5 · (−1) + 1 · 4 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦ = 1 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ1 v1 
042 4 0 · 0 + 4 · (−1) + 2 · 4 4 4
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 1 3·1 + 0·0 + 0·0 3 1
⎣ 0 5 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 1 + 5 · 0 + 1 · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = 3 ⎣ 0 ⎦ = λ2 v2 
042 0 0·1 + 4·0 + 2·0 0 0
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 0 3·0 + 0·1 + 0·1 0 0
⎣ 0 5 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 0 + 5 · 1 + 1 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 6 ⎦ = 6 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ3 v3 
042 1 0·0 + 4·1 + 2·1 6 1

10.80. Given,
⎡ ⎤
200
⎣0 4 5⎦
043

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

2−λ 0 0
det (A − λ I ) = 0 4−λ 5 (take advantage of zeros to calculate )
0 4 3−λ
496 10 Linear Algebra

4−λ 5 · · · ·
= (2 − λ) −0 +0
4 3−λ · · · ·
 
= (2 − λ) (4 − λ)(3 − λ) − 20
= −λ3 + 9λ2 − 6λ − 16 = 0

Three roots (see chapters on algebra) of this characteristic polynomial are:

λ1 = −1, λ2 = 2, λ3 = 8.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that,

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = −1:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 5 5 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
044 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3000 ← (1) ÷ [3] 1 00 0
⎣0 5 5 0⎦ ⎣
← (2) ÷ [5] = 0 1 1 0⎦
0440 0 44 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
10 00 ⇒ x=0
⎣0 1 1 0⎦
00 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ z = t

and, by substituting z = t in row (2)

0 x + 1 y + 1 z = 0 ⇒ y = −t

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 2:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
000 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = ⎣ 0 2 5 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
041 z 0
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 497

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
000 0 ⇒ x=t 0 0 00
⎣025 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2] = ⎣ 0 1 5/2 0 ⎦
041 0 ← (3) ÷ [4] 0 1 1/4 0

which is to say that x = t and from rows (2) and (3)

0 x + 1 y + 5/2 z = 0 ⇒ y = −5/2 z
0 x + 1 y + 1/4 z = 0 ⇒ y = −1/4 z

which is possible only if z = 0 , then it follows that y = 0 . That being the case,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = t ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
z 0 0 0

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ3 = 8:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−6 0 0 x 0
(A − λ3 I ) v3 = ⎣ 0 −4 5 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 4 −5 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−6 0 0 0 ← (1) ÷ [−6] 1 0 00
⎣ 0 −4 5 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−4] = ⎣ 0 1 −5/4 0 ⎦ =
0 4 −5 0 0 4 −5 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
10 00 ⇒ x=0
⎣ 0 1 −5/4 0 ⎦
00 0 0 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ z = t

which is to say that z = t and from row (2)

0 x + 1 y − 5/4 z = 0 ⇒ y = 5/4 t

That being the case,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 5/4 t ⎦ = t ⎣ 5/4 ⎦ = ⎣ 5 ⎦
z t 1 4
498 10 Linear Algebra

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 4 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 0 2 · 0 + 0 · (−1) + 0 · 1 0 0
⎣ 0 4 5 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 0 + 4 · (−1) + 5 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦ = −1 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ1 v1 
043 1 0 · 0 + 4 · (−1) + 3 · 1 −1 1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 1 2·1 + 0·0 + 0·0 2 1
⎣ 0 4 5 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 1 + 4 · 0 + 5 · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = 2 ⎣ 0 ⎦ = λ2 v2 
043 0 0·1 + 4·0 + 3·0 0 0
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 0 2·0 + 0·5 + 0·4 0 0
⎣ 0 4 5 ⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 0 + 4 · 5 + 5 · 4 ⎦ = ⎣ 40 ⎦ = 8 ⎣ 5 ⎦ = λ3 v3 
043 4 0·0 + 4·5 + 3·4 32 4

10.81. Given,
⎡ ⎤
4 6 10
⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦
−2 −6 −8

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

4−λ 6 10
det (A − λ I ) = 3 10 − λ 13
−2 −6 −8 − λ
10 − λ 13 3 13 3 10 − λ
= (4 − λ) −6 + 10
−6 −8 − λ −2 −8 − λ −2 −6
 
= (4 − λ) (10 − λ)(−8 − λ) − (−6) × 13
 
− 6 3(−8 − λ) − (−2) × 13
 
+ 10 3 × (−6) − (−2)(10 − λ)
= (−λ3 + 6λ2 − 6λ − 8) + (−12 + 18λ) + (20 − 20λ)
= −λ3 + 6λ2 − 8λ = 0

Roots of this characteristic polynomial may be found as,

−λ3 + 6λ2 − 8λ = 0
−λ(λ2 − 6λ + 8) = 0
−λ(λ2 − 4λ − 2λ + 8) = 0
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 499

 
−λ λ(λ − 4) − 2(λ − 4) = 0
−λ(λ − 2)(λ − 4) = 0
∴
λ1 = 0, λ2 = 2, λ3 = 4

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that,

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 0:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = A v1 = ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−2 −6 −8 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 0 ← (1) ÷ [4] 1 3/2 5/2 0
⎣ 3 10 13 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 10 13 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 3 × (1)
−2 −6 −8 0 −2 −6 −8 0 ← (3) ÷ [−2]
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 3/2 5/2 0 1 3/2 5/2 0
= ⎣ 0 11/2 11/2 0 ⎦ ← (2) × 2/11 = ⎣ 0 1 1 0 ⎦
0 3/2 3/2 0 ← (3) × 2/3 0 1 1 0 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 3/2 5/2 0 ⇒ 1 x + 3/2 y + 3/2 z = 0
⎣
= 0 1 10 ⎦ ⇒ 0x + 1y + 1z = 0
0 0 00 ⇒ z=t

That is to say, from rows (2) and (1) it follows that

y + z = 0 ∴ y = −z ∴ y = −t
3 5 3 5
x + y + z = 0 ∴ x − t + t = 0 ∴ x + t = 0 ∴ x = −t
2 2 2 2

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x −t −1 −1
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
500 10 Linear Algebra

Case λ2 = 2:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 6 10 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = ⎣ 3 8 13 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−2 −6 −10 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 6 10 0 ← (1) ÷ [2] 1 3 50
⎣ 3 8 13 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 8 13 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 3(1)
−2 −6 −10 0 −2 −6 −10 0 ← (3) + 2(1)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 3 50 13 50 ⇒ 1x + 3y + 5z = 0
= ⎣ 0 −1 −2 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−1] = ⎣ 0 1 2 0 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x + 1 y + 2 z = 0
0 0 00 00 00 ⇒z=t

That is to say, from (2) and (1) row

y + 2z = 0 ∴ y = −2z ∴ y = −2t

x + 3y + 5z = 0 ∴ x − 6t + 5t = 0 ∴ x − t = 0 ∴ x = t

and,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −2t ⎦ = t ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ −2 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ3 = 4:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 6 10 x 0
(A − λ3 I ) v3 = ⎣ 3 6 13 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−2 −6 −12 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 6 10 0 ← (1) ↔ (2) 3 6 13 0 ← (1) ÷ [3]
⎣ 3 6 13 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 6 10 0 ⎦
−2 −6 −12 0 −2 −6 −12 0 ← (3) ÷ [−2]
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2 13/3 0 1 2 13/3 0
= ⎣ 0 6 10 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [6] = ⎣ 0 1 5/3 0 ⎦
1 3 6 0 ← (3) − (1) 0 1 5/3 0 ← (3) − (2)
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 501

⎡ ⎤
1 2 13/3 0 ⇒ 1 x + 2 y + 13/3 z = 0
= ⎣ 0 1 5/3 0 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x + 1 y + 5/3 z = 0
00 00 ⇒z=t

That is to say, from rows (2) and (1) it follows that

5 5 5
y+ z=0 ∴ y=− z ∴ y=− t
3 3 3
13 10 13
x + 2y + z = 0 ∴ x − t + t = 0 ∴ x + t = 0 ∴ x = −t
3 3 3

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x −t −3
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −5t/3 ⎦ = ⎣ −5 ⎦
z t 3

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 3 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 −1 4 · (−1) + 6 · (−1) + 10 · 1 0
A v1 = ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 · (−1) + 10 · (−1) + 13 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣0⎦
−2 −6 −8 1 −2 · (−1) + (−6) · (−1) + (−8) · 1 0
⎡ ⎤
−1
= 0 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ1 v1 (i.e. zero times any vector, including v1 ) 
1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 1 4 · 1 + 6 · (−2) + 10 · 1 2
A v2 = ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦ ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 · 1 + 10 · (−2) + 13 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ −4 ⎦
−2 −6 −8 1 −2 · 1 + (−6) · (−2) + (−8) · 1 2
⎡ ⎤
1
= 2 ⎣ −2 ⎦ = λ2 v2 
1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 −3 4 · (−3) + 6 · (−5) + 10 · 3 −12
A v3 = ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦ ⎣ −5 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 · (−3) + 10 · (−5) + 13 · 3 ⎦ = ⎣ −20 ⎦
−2 −6 −8 3 −2 · (−3) + (−6) · (−5) + (−8) · 3 12
⎡ ⎤
−3
= 4 ⎣ −5 ⎦ = λ3 v3 
3
502 10 Linear Algebra

10.82. Given,
⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2
⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦
−1 1 1

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

2−λ 2 −2
det (A − λ I ) = 1 3 − λ −1
−1 1 1−λ
3 − λ −1 1 −1 1 3−λ
= (2 − λ) −2 −2
1 1−λ −1 1 − λ −1 1
 
= (2 − λ) (3 − λ)(1 − λ) − (−1)
 
− 2 1(1 − λ) − 1

 
− 2 1 − (−1)(3 − λ)
= (−λ3 + 6λ2 − 12λ + 8) + 2λ + (−8 + 2λ)
= −λ3 + 6λ2 − 8λ = 0

Roots of this characteristic polynomial may be found as (see A.10.81),

λ1 = 0, λ2 = 2, λ3 = 4

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that,

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 0:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = A v1 = ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−1 1 1 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 3 −1 0
⎣ 1 3 −1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 2 −2 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 2(1)
−1 1 1 0 ← (3) + (2) 04 00
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 3 −1 0 1 3 −1 0
= ⎣ 0 −4 0 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 −4 0 0⎦
0 4 0 0 ← (3) + (2) 0 0 0 0
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 503

⇒ 1x + 3y − z = 0
⇒ 0x − 4y + 0z = 0
⇒ z=t

That is to say, from rows (2) and (1) it follows that

−4y = 0 ∴ y = 0

x + 3(0) − t = 0 ∴ x = t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = t ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 2:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 2 −2 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = ⎣ 1 1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−1 1 −1 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 2 −2 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 1 −1 0
⎣ 1 1 −1 0 ⎦ =⎣ 0 2 −2 0 ⎦
−1 1 −1 0 ← (3) + (2) 0 2 −2 0 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 1 −1 0 ⇒ 1x + 1y − 1z = 0
= ⎣ 0 2 −2 0 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x + 2 y − 2z = 0
00 00 ⇒z=t

That is to say, from (2) and (1) row

2y − 2z = 0 ∴ y = t

x+y−z=0 ∴ x+t −t =0 ∴ x =0

and,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z t 1 1
504 10 Linear Algebra

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ3 = 4:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 2 −2 x 0
(A − λ3 I ) v3 = ⎣ 1 −1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−1 1 −3 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 2 −2 0 ← (1) ↔ (2) 1 −1 −1 0
⎣ 1 −1 −1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ −2 2 −2 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−2]
−1 1 −3 0 ← (3) + (2) 0 0 −2 0 ← (3) ÷ [−2]
⎡ ⎤
1 −1 −1 0 ⇒ 1x − 1y − 1z = 0
= ⎣ 1 −1 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ 1 x − 1 y + 1 z = 0
0 0 10 ⇒z=0

That is to say, from rows (1) and (2) it follows that

x−y−0=0 ∴ x =y =t

x−y+0=0 ∴ x =y =t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z 0 0 0

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 1 2 · 1 + 2 · 0 + (−2) · 1 0 1
A v1 = ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 1 + 3 · 0 + (−1) · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = 0 ⎣ 0 ⎦ = λ1 v1
−1 1 1 1 (−1) · 1 + 1 · 0 + 1 · 1 0 1
(i.e., zero times any vector, including v1 ) 
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 0 2 · 0 + 2 · 1 + (−2) · 1 0 0
A v2 = ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 0 + 3 · 1 + (−1) · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 ⎦ = 2 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ2 v2 
−1 1 1 1 (−1) · 0 + 1 · 1 + 1 · 1 2 1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 1 2 · 1 + 2 · 1 + (−2) · 0 4 1
A v3 = ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 1 + 3 · 1 + (−1) · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 4 ⎦ = 4 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ3 v3 
−1 1 1 0 (−1) · 1 + 1 · 1 + 1 · 0 0 0
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 505

10.83. Given
 
10
21

it follows that,

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
1−λ 0
det (A − λ I ) = = (1 − λ)(1 − λ) − 2 · 0 = 0
2 1−λ
∴ λ1 = 1, λ2 = 1

That is to say, there is duplicity of eigenvalues λ1 = λ2 = 1.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) may be calculated as

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = λ2 = 1:
   
000 (1) ↔ (2) 1 0 0 ⇒ x + 0·y = 0 ∴ x = 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = =
200 ← (2) ÷ [2] 0 00 ⇒y=t

that is to say, all vectors are of the form

       
x 0 0 0
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. Since all eigenvectors are generated by a single eigenvector (by changing t), it
is said that eigenspace has dimension “1.”
3. Verification:
      
10 0 1·0 + 0·1 0
A v1 = = = = λ1 v1 
21 1 2·0 + 1·1 1

10.84. Given
 
20
02

it follows that,
506 10 Linear Algebra

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
2−λ 0
det (A − λ I ) = = (2 − λ)(2 − λ) − 0 · 0 = 0
0 2−λ
∴ λ1 = 2, λ2 = 2

That is to say, there is duplicity of eigenvalues λ1 = λ2 = 2.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) may be calculated as

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = λ2 = 2:
 
000 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 =
000 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0

Consequently, both coordinates (x, y) may be arbitrary, that is to say, two possible
eigenvectors are as follows:
       
x t 1 1
x = t ⇒ y = 0 ∴ v1 = = =t =
y 0 0 0
       
x 0 0 0
y = t ⇒ x = 0 ∴ v2 = = =t =
y t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1. Since there are two distinct
eigenvectors, it is said that eigenspace has dimension “2.”
3. Verification:
        
20 1 2·1 + 0·0 2 1
A v1 = = = =2 = λ1 v1 
02 0 0·1 + 2·0 0 0
        
20 0 2·0 + 0·1 0 0
A v2 = = = =2 = λ2 v2 
02 1 0·0 + 2·1 2 1

10.85. Given
 
23
02

it follows that,

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 507

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
2−λ 3
det (A − λ I ) = = (2 − λ)(2 − λ) − 0 · 3 = 0
0 2−λ
∴ λ1 = 2, λ2 = 2

That is to say, there is duplicity of eigenvalues λ1 = λ2 = 2.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) may be calculated as

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = λ2 = 2:
   
0 30 (1) ↔ (2) 000 ⇒x=t
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = =
0 00 030 ⇒ 3y = 0 ∴ y = 0

that is to say, all vectors are of the form

       
x t 1 1
v1 = = =t =
y 0 0 0

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. Since all eigenvectors are generated by a single eigenvector (by changing t), it
is said that eigenspace has dimension “1.”
3. Verification:
        
23 1 2·1 + 3·0 2 1
A v1 = = = =2 = λ1 v1 
02 0 0·1 + 2·0 0 0

10.86. Given,
⎡ ⎤
324
⎣2 0 2⎦
423

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

det (A − λ I ) =
3−λ 2 4
−λ 2 2 2 2 −λ
= 2 −λ 2 = (3 − λ) −2 +4
2 3−λ 4 3−λ 4 2
4 2 3−λ
     
= (3 − λ) −λ(3 − λ) − 4 − 2 2(3 − λ) − 8 + 4 4 + 4λ
508 10 Linear Algebra

   
= (3 − λ) λ2 − 3λ − 4 − 2 −2λ − 2 + 16 + 16λ
= −λ3 + 6λ2 + 15λ + 8 = −(λ − 8)(x + 1)2 = 0

Three roots of this characteristic polynomial are: λ1 = 8, λ2 = −1, λ3 = −1, i.e., there is
second-order multiplicity of λ2,3 eigenvalue.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that,

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 8:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−5 2 4 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 2 −8 2 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
4 2 −5 z 0

It can be verified that determinant |A − 8I | = 0 indicating that at least two equations

are correlated, i.e., not independent. Consequently Cramer’s rule cannot deliver a complete
solution of this system of equations. By writing the extended matrix form and doing row
transformations,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−5 2 4 0 ← (1) ÷ [−5] 1 −2/5 −4/5 0
⎣ 2 −8 2 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2] = ⎣ 1 −4 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) − (1)
4 2 −5 0 4 2 −5 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2/5 −4/5 0 1 −2/5 −4/5 0
= ⎣ 0 −18/5 9/5 0 ⎦ ← −5/9 (2) = ⎣ 0 2 −1 0 ⎦
0 18 −9 0 ← (3) ÷ [9] 0 2 −1 0 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 −2/5 −4/5 0
⎣
= 0 2 −1 0 ⎦
0 0 00 ⇒ z=t

and, by substituting z = t in rows (1) and (2)

2 4 2 4
x− y− z=0 ⇒x= y+ z
5 5 5 5
0 x + 2y − z = 0 ⇒ z = 2y
2 4
∴ x= y + 2y = 2y ⇒ x = z = t
5 5

so that, x = t, y = t/2 and z = t,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 2
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t/2 ⎦ = t ⎣ 1/2 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z t 1 2
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 509

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2,3 = −1: (double eigenvalue)

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
  424 x 0
A − λ2,3 I v2,3 = ⎣2 1 2⎦⎣y ⎦ = ⎣0⎦
424 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
424 0 ← (1) ÷ [2] 212 0 212 0
⎣2 1 2 0⎦ = ⎣2 1 2 0 ⎦ ← (2) − (1) = ⎣ 0 0 0 0⎦
424 0 ← (3) ÷ [2] 212 0 ← (3) − (1) 000 0

which is to say that, aside from the trivial solution x = y = z = 0, any other linear
combinations that satisfy row (1) are valid solutions, for example,

−y − 2z
2x + y + 2z = 0 ⇒ x =
2
∴
⎤ ⎡⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
t 1 1
if y = 0 : x = −z ∴ x = t, z = −t ⇒ v2 = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = t ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−t −1 −1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
t 1 1
y
if z = 0 : x = − ∴ x = t, y = −2 t ⇒ v3 = ⎣ −2 t ⎦ = t ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ −2 ⎦
2
0 0 0

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
324 2 3·2 + 2·1 + 4·2 16 2
⎣ 2 0 2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 · 2 + 0 · 1 + 2 · 2 ⎦ = ⎣ 8 ⎦ = 8 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ1 v1 
423 2 4·2 + 2·1 + 3·2 16 2
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
324 1 3 · 1 + 2 · 0 + 4 · (−1) −1 1
⎣ 2 0 2 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 · 1 + 0 · 0 + 2 · (−1) ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = −1 ⎣ 0 ⎦ = λ2 v2 
423 −1 4 · 1 + 2 · 0 + 3 · (−1) 1 −1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
324 1 3 · 1 + 2 · (−2) + 4 · 0 −1 1
⎣ 2 0 2 ⎦ ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 · 1 + 0 · (−2) + 2 · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 ⎦ = −1 ⎣ −2 ⎦ = λ3 v3 
423 0 4 · 1 + 2 · (−2) + 3 · 0 0 0
510 10 Linear Algebra

10.87. Given,
⎡ ⎤
102
⎣ −1 1 3 ⎦
002

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

det (A − λ I ) =
1−λ 0 2
1−λ 3 · · −1 1 − λ
= −1 1 − λ 3 = (1 − λ) −0 +2
0 2−λ · · 0 0
0 0 2−λ
 
= (1 − λ)(1 − λ)(2 − λ) − 0 + 2 −1 · 0 − 0(1 − λ) = (1 − λ)(1 − λ)(2 − λ)

Three roots of this characteristic polynomial are: λ1 = 2, λ2 = 1, λ3 = 1, i.e. there is

second order multiplicity of λ2,3 eigenvalue.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that,

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 2:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 2 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ −1 −1 3 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 00 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form and doing row transformations,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 2 0 ← (1) ÷ [−1] 1 0 −2 0 ⇒ 1x + 0y − 2z = 0
⎣ −1 −1 3 0 ⎦ ← (2) − (1) = ⎣ 0 −1 1 0⎦ ⇒ 0x − 1y + 1z = 0
0 0 00 ⇒ z=t 0 0 0 0 ⇒z=t

and, by substituting z = t in rows (1) and (2)

x − 2t = 0 ⇒ x = 2t
−y + t = 0 ⇒ y = t

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 2t 2 2
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z t 1 1
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 511

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 1: (double eigenvalue)

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
002 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2,3 = ⎣ −1 0 3 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
001 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
002 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 0 −3 0 ← (1) + 3(3)
⎣ −1 0 3 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−1] = ⎣ 0 0 2 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 2(3)
001 0 00 10
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0 ⇒ 1x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ x = 0
=⎣0 0 0 0⎦ ⇒ y = t
0 0 1 0 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 1z = 0 ∴ z = 0

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z 0 0 0

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1. Since the third eigenvector may
be generated only by changing the value of t, it is said that this eigenspace has dimension
“2.”

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
102 2 1·2 + 0·1 + 2·1 4 2
⎣ −1 1 3 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ (−1) · 2 + 1 · 1 + 3 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 ⎦ = 2 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ1 v1 
002 1 0·2 + 0·1 + 2·1 2 1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
102 0 1·0 + 0·1 + 2·0 0 0
⎣ −1 1 3 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ (−1) · 0 + 1 · 1 + 3 · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦ = 1 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ2 v2 
002 0 0·0 + 0·1 + 2·0 0 0

10.88. Given,
⎡ ⎤
1 −2 −1
⎣ 1 7 1⎦
−2 −4 3
512 10 Linear Algebra

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as:

1 − λ −2 −1
det (A − λ I ) = 1 7−λ 1
−2 −4 3 − λ
7−λ 1 1 1 1 7−λ
= (1 − λ) − (−2) + (−1)
−4 3 − λ −2 3 − λ −2 −4

cont.
     
= (1 − λ) (7 − λ)(3 − λ) − (−4) + 2 (3 − λ) − (−2) − −4 − (−2)(7 − λ)
= −λ3 + 11λ2 − 35λ + 25 = −(λ − 5)(λ − 5)(λ − 1)

Three roots of this characteristic polynomial are: λ1 = 1, λ2 = 5, λ3 = 5, i.e., there is

second-order multiplicity of λ2,3 eigenvalue.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that,

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 1:

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 −2 −1 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 1 6 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−2 −4 2 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form and doing row transformations,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 −2 −1 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 6 1 0
⎣ 1 6 1 0⎦ = ⎣ 0 −2 −1 0⎦
−2 −4 2 0 ← (3) + 2(2) 0 8 4 0 ← (3) + 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
1 6 1 0 ⇒ 1x + 6y + 1z = 0
= ⎣ 0 −2 −1 0 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x − 2 y − 1 z = 0
0 0 00 ⇒z=t

and, by substituting z = t in row (2) then in row (1)

−2y − t = 0 ∴ y = −(1/2) t

x + 6 (−1/2) t + t = 0 ∴ x = 2t

so that,
10.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 513

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 2t 2 4
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −(1/2) t ⎦ = t ⎣ −(1/2) ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 5: (double eigenvalue)

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−4 −2 −1 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2,3 = ⎣ 1 2 1⎦⎣y ⎦ = ⎣0⎦
−2 −4 −2 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−4 −2 −1 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 2 10
⎣ 1 2 1 0⎦ = ⎣ −4 −2 −1 0 ⎦ ← (2) + 4(1)
−2 −4 −2 0 ← (2) + 2(2) 0 0 00 ⇒z=t
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
12 10 1 2 1 0 ⇒ 1x + 2y + 1z = 0
= ⎣ 0 6 3 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [3] = ⎣ 0 2 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x + 2 y + 1 z = 0
00 00 ⇒z=t 00 00 ⇒z=t

and, by substituting z = t in row (2) then in row (1)

2y + t = 0 ∴ y = −(1/2) t

x + 2 (−1/2) t + t = 0 ∴ x = 0

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ (−1/2) t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1/2 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. Since the third eigenvector may be generated only by changing the value of t,
it is said that this eigenspace has dimension “2.”

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2 −1 4 1 · 4 + (−2) · (−1) + (−1) · 2 4 4
⎣ 1 7 1 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 4 + 7 · (−1) + 1 · 2 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦ = 1 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ1 v1
−2 −4 3 2 (−2) · 4 + (−4) · (−1) + 3 · 2 2 2
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2 −1 0 1 · 0 + (−2) · (−1) + (−1) · 2 0 0
⎣ 1 7 1 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 0 + 7 · (−1) + 1 · 2 ⎦ = ⎣ −5 ⎦ = 5 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ2 v2
−2 −4 3 2 (−2) · 0 + (−4) · (−1) + 3 · 2 10 2
514 10 Linear Algebra

10.8 Matrix Inversion

10.89. Given
 
12
A=
34

1. det(A):

12
= = 1 · 4 − 2 · 3 = −2 = 0 ∴ A−1 exists
34

2. One possible method of matrix inversion is by Gaussian elimination, i.e., by writing the
extended matrix form and doing row transformations. Starting with the “ A | I ” extended
form the objective is to derive “I | A−1 ” form, as
   
12 10 1 2 10
⇒ ⇒
3 4 0 1 ← (2) − 3(1) 0 −2 −3 1 ← (2) ÷ [−2]
" #$ % " #$ %
A I
   
1 2 1 0 ← (1) − 2(2) 1 0 −2 1
⇒
0 1 3/2 −1/2 0 1 3/2 −1/2
" #$ % " #$ %
I A−1

Therefore,
 
−1 −2 1
A = 3
/2 − /2
1

3. Verification:
      
12 −2 1 1 · (−2) + 2 · (3/2) 1 · 1 + 2 · (−1/2) 10
AA−1 = 3/2 −1/2
= =
34 3 · (−2) + 4 · (3/2) 3 · 1 + 4 · (−1/2) 01

10.90. Given
 
4 −2
A=
2 3

1. det(A):

4 −2
= = 4 · 3 − 2 · (−2) = 16 = 0 ∴ A−1 exists
2 3

2. One possible method of matrix inversion is by Gaussian elimination, i.e., by writing the
extended matrix form and doing row transformations. Starting with the “ A | I ” extended
form the objective is to derive “I | A−1 ” form, as
10.8 Matrix Inversion 515

   
4 −2 1 0 ← (1) ÷ [4] 1 −1/2 1/4 0
⇒ ⇒
2 3 01 2 3 0 1 ← (2) − 2(1)
" #$ % " #$ %
A I
   
1 −1/2 0 1/4 1 −1/2 1/40 ← (1) + 1/2(2)
⇒ ⇒
0 4 −1/2 1 ← (2) ÷ [4] 0 1 −1/8 1/4
 
1 0 3/16 1/8
0 1 −1/8 1/4
" #$ % " #$ %
I A−1

Therefore,
 
3/16 1/8
−1
A = −1/8 1/4

3. Verification:
      
−1 4 −2 3/16 1/8 4 · 3/16 + (−2) · (−1/8) 4 · 1/8 + (−2) · 1/4 10
AA = = =
2 3 −1/8 1/4 2 · 3/16 + 3 · (−1/8) 2 · 1/8 + 3 · 1/4 01

or, by linear combination

         
4 −2 3/16 4 −2 (12/16 + 1/4) 1
+= 3/16
−1/8 = =
2 3 −1/8 2 3 (6/16 − 3/8) 0
          
4 −2 1/8 4 −2 (4/8 − 1/2) 0
= 1/8 + 1/4 = 2 =
2 3 1/4 2 3 ( /8 + 3/4) 1

10.91. Given
⎡ ⎤
123
A = ⎣4 5 4⎦
321

1. det(A):

123
 = 4 5 4 = −3 − 2(−8) + 3(−7) = −8 = 0 ∴ A−1 exists
321

2. One possible method of matrix inversion is by Gaussian elimination, i.e., by writing the
extended matrix form and doing row transformations. Starting with the “ A | I ” extended
form the objective is to derive “I | A−1 ” form, as
516 10 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤
123 100
⎣ 4 5 4 0 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 4(1) ⇒
3 2 1 0 0 1 ← (3) − 3(1)
" #$ % " #$ %
A I
⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 100
⎣ 0 −3 −8 −4 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−3] ⇒
0 −4 −8 −3 0 1 ← (2) ÷ [−4]
⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 1 0 0
⎣ 0 1 8/3 4/3 −1/3 0⎦ ⇒
0 1 2 3/4 0 −1/4 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 1 0 0
⎣ 0 1 8/3 4/3 −1/3 0⎦ ⇒
0 0 −2/3 −7/12 1/3 −1/4 ← (3)[−3/2]
⎡ ⎤
12 3 1 0 0
⎣ 0 1 8/3 4/3 −1/3 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 8/3(3) ⇒
0 0 1 7/8 −1/2 3/8
⎡ ⎤
12 3 1 0 0 ← (1) − 2(2)
⎣ 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 ⎦ ⇒
0 0 1 7/8 −1/2 3/8

⎡ ⎤
1 0 3 3 −2 2 ← (1) − 3(3)
⎣ 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 ⎦ ⇒
0 0 1 7/8 −1/2 3/8
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 3/8 −1/2 7/8
⎣ 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 ⎦
0 0 1 7/8 −1/2 3/8
" #$ % " #$ %
I A−1

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
−1/2 7/8
3/8

A−1 = ⎣ −1 1 −1 ⎦
7/8 −1/2 3/8

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
123 3/8 −1/2 7/8 100
AA−1 = ⎣ 4 5 4 ⎦ ⎣ −1 1 −1 ⎦ = · · · = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
321 7/8 −1/2 3/8 001
10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 517

10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices

Reminder: In general, the calculation of matrix powers is a very time-consuming process.

However, one special type of matrices may be raised to powers by the process of “diagonaliza-
tion.” By definition,

1. Square matrix A is diagonalizable if it is similar to a diagonal matrix. This is conditioned by

the existence of two extra matrices: an invertible matrix P and a diagonal matrix D. If they
exist, then it is possible to write these products

D = P −1 AP or, equivalently
A = P D P −1

where:
(a) P is a matrix that has its inverse, i.e., P P −1 = I exists.
(b) D is a diagonal matrix
2. In this form, for example,

)(P D 
P −1
A5 = AAAAA = (P D  )(P D 
P −1 )(P D 
P −1 )(P D P −1 )
P −1
= P DDDDDP −1 = P D 5 P −1

That is to say, the problem of calculating A5 is replaced with the problem of calculating D 5 and
calculation of P −1 matrix, which may be easier to calculate.

10.92. Given
 2
20
02

note that this matrix is already in diagonal form; therefore,

 2    
20 22 0 40
= =
02 0 22 04

10.93. Given,
 5
20
05

note that this matrix is already diagonal; therefore,

 5    
20 25 0 32 0
= =
05 0 55 0 3125
518 10 Linear Algebra

10.94. Given
 
20
A=
−1 3

note that this matrix is not diagonal; however, it may be possible to diagonalize it.

1. Eigenvalues of A are roots of characteristic polynomial as

     
20 10 2−λ 0
det(A − λI ) = −λ = = (2 − λ)(3 − λ) = 0
−1 3 01 −1 3 − λ

Therefore, two eigenvalues are λ1 = 2 and λ2 = 3.

2. Eigenvectors are,
 
000 ⇒x=t
λ1 = 2 : A − λ1 I = 0 ∴
−1 1 0 ⇒ −x + y = 0 ∴ x = y = t
     
x t 1
∴ v1 = = =
y t 1

after the arbitrary t = 1 as convenient value, and



−1 0 0 ⇒ −x + 0y = 0 ∴ x = 0
λ2 = 3 : A − λ2 I = 0 ∴
−1 0 0 ⇒ −x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t
     
x 0 0
∴ v2 = = =
y t 1

after the arbitrary t = 1 as convenient value. Note that two eigenvectors are linearly
independent; in other words, matrix A is diagonalizable.
3. Diagonal matrix D consists of eigenvalues as
   
λ1 0 20
D= =
0 λ2 03

4. Matrix P and its P −1 , by definition, are

 
 10
P = v1 v2 =
11

where, det P is:

10
det P = = 1 = 0
11

Therefore, its inverse matrix exists and consequently A is diagonalizable. The inverse of P
may be derived by transformation “P |I → I |P −1 ” as
10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 519

     
1010 10 10 −1 10
= ∴ P =
1101 ← (2) − (1) 0 1 −1 1 −1 1

5. Now, the fifth power of diagonalizable matrix A is

  5      
−1 10 2 0 10 10 32 0 10
A =PD P
5 5
= =
11 0 35 −1 1 11 0 243 −1 1
    
32 0 10 32 0
= =
32 243 −1 1 −211 243

which may be verified by repetitive matrix multiplications. Note that for higher-order ma-
trices the above method may be much more efficient than the “brute force” multiplications.

10.95. Given
⎡ ⎤
202
A = ⎣ −1 2 1 ⎦
014

then,

1. Eigenvalues of A are roots of characteristic polynomial as

2−λ 0 2
|A − λI | = −1 2 − λ 1
0 1 4−λ
2−λ 1 · · −1 2 − λ
= (2 − λ) −0 +2
1 4−λ · · 0 1
   
= (2 − λ) (2 − λ)(4 − λ) − 1 + 2 −1(1) = −λ3 + 8λ2 − 19λ + 12
= −(λ − 1)(λ − 3)(λ − 4) = 0

Three distinct eigenvalues are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 3, and λ3 = 4; thus, matrix A is diagonalizable.

2. Eigenvectors are therefore,
Case λ1 = 1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
102 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ −1 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
013 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1020 102 0
⎣ −1 1 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) + (1) = ⎣ 0 1 3 0⎦
0130 013 0 ← (3) − (2)
520 10 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤
10 20
⎣0 1 3 0⎦
00 00 ⇒ z=t

and, by substituting z in rows (1) and (2)

1 x + 0 y + 2 z = 0 ⇒ x = −2t
0 x + 1 y + 3 z = 0 ⇒ y = −3 t

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x −2t −2 −2
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −3 t ⎦ = t ⎣ −3 ⎦ = ⎣ −3 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 3:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 2 x 0
(A − λ I 
v
1 ) 1 = ⎣ −1 −1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0⎦
0 11 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 2 0 ← (1) ÷ [−1] 1 0 −2 0
⎣ −1 −1 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) − (1) = ⎣ 0 −1 −1 0⎦
0 11 0 0 1 1 0 ← (3) + (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 0 −2 0
⎣ 0 −1 −1 0⎦
0 0 0 0 ⇒ z=t

and, by substituting z in rows (1) and (2)

1 x + 0 y − 2 z = 0 ⇒ x = 2t
0 x − 1 y − 1 z = 0 ⇒ y = −t

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 2t 2 2
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1
10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 521

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ3 = 4:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 0 2 x 0
⎣
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = −1 −2 1 ⎦ ⎣ y = 0⎦
⎦ ⎣
0 10 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤
−2 0 2 0 ⇒ −2x + 0y + 2z = 0 ∴ x = z = t
⎣ −1 −2 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ − 1 x + −2 y + 1 z = 0 ∴ y = 0 (because x = z)
0 10 0 ⇒ 0x + 1y + 0z = 0 ∴ y = 0

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = t ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. These three eigenvectors are easily verified by definition.

3. Diagonal matrix D consists of eigenvalues as

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
λ1 0 0 100
D = ⎣ 0 λ2 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 3 0 ⎦
0 0 λ3 004

4. Matrix P and its P −1 , by definition, are

⎡ ⎤
 −2 2 1
P = v1 v2 v3 = ⎣ −3 −1 0 ⎦
1 11

where, det P is:

⎡ ⎤
−2 2 1
det(P ) = ⎣ −3 −1 0 ⎦ = −2(−1) − 2(−3) + (−3 + 1) = 6 = 0
1 11

Therefore, its inverse matrix exists and consequently A is diagonalizable. The inverse of P
may be derived by transformation “P |I → I |P −1 ” (note: if multiple transformations are
listed at the same time, then “ () ↔ ()” is the last to do) as
522 10 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 2 1 1 0 0 ← (1) + 2(3) 111001
⎣ −3 −1 0 0 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) + 3(3) = ⎣ 0 2 3 0 1 3 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2]
1 1 1 0 0 1 (3) ↔ (1) 0 4 3 1 0 2 ← (3) − 2(2)
⎡ ⎤
11 10 0 1
= ⎣ 0 1 3/2 0 1/2 3/2 ⎦
0 0 −3 1 −2 −4 ← (3) ÷ [−3]
⎡ ⎤
11 1 0 0 1
= ⎣ 0 1 3/2 0 1/2 3/2 ⎦ ← (2) − 3/2(3)
0 0 1 −1/3 2/3 4/3
⎡ ⎤
111 0 0 1 ← (1) − (3)
= ⎣ 0 1 0 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
0 0 1 −1/3 2/3 4/3
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 1/3 −2/3 −1/3 ← (1) − (2) 1 0 0 −1/6 −1/6 1/6
= ⎣ 0 1 0 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
0 0 1 − /3 /3 /3
1 2 4 0 0 1 −1/3 2/3 4/3

⎡ ⎤
−1/6 −1/6 1/6
∴ P −1 = ⎣ 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
−1/3 2/3 4/3

5. The third power of this diagonalizable matrix A is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤3 ⎡ ⎤
−2 2 1 100 −1/6 −1/6 1/6
A3 = P D 3 P −1 = ⎣ −3 −1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 3 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
1 11 004 −1/3 2/3 4/3
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
−2 2 1 1 0 0 −1/6 −1/6 1/6
= ⎣ −3 −1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 27 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
1 11 0 0 64 −1/3 2/3 4/3
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
−2 54 64 −1/6 −1/6 1/6
= ⎣ −3 −27 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
1 27 64 −1/3 2/3 4/3
⎡ ⎤
6 16 58
= ⎣ −13 14 13 ⎦
−8 29 72

which may be verified by repetitive matrix multiplications of A.

10.96. Given
⎡ ⎤
200
A = ⎣0 2 1⎦
012
10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 523

then,

1. Eigenvalues of A are roots of characteristic polynomial as

⎤
2−λ 0 0
2−λ 1
|A − λI | = 0 2−λ 1 ⎦ = (2 − λ)
1 2−λ
0 1 2−λ
 
= (2 − λ) (2 − λ)(2 − λ) − 1 = −(λ − 1)(λ − 2)(λ − 3) = 0

Therefore, the three distinct eigenvalues are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 2, and λ3 = 3. Consequently,

matrix A is diagonalizable.
2. Eigenvectors are therefore,
Case λ1 = 1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
100 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
011 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
100 0 10 00 ⇒ x=0
⎣0 1 1 0⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ y = −z = −t
011 0 ← (3) − (2) 00 00 ⇒ z=t

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 2:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
000 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
010 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤
0000 ⇒ x=t
⎣ 0 0 1 0⎦ ⇒ z = 0
0100 ⇒ y=0
524 10 Linear Algebra

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v2 = y = 0 = t 0 = 0 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
z 0 0 0

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

Case λ3 = 3:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 0 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 −1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y = 0⎦
⎦ ⎣
0 1 −1 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤
−1 0 0 0 ⇒ x = 0
⎣ 0 −1 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ y = z = t
0 1 −1 0 ⇒ y = z = t

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. These three eigenvectors are easily verified by definition.

3. Diagonal matrix D consists of eigenvalues as

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
λ1 0 0 100
D = ⎣ 0 λ2 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 2 0 ⎦
0 0 λ3 003

4. Matrix P and its P −1 , by definition, are

⎡ ⎤
 010
P = v1 v2 v3 = ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦
101

where, det P is:

⎡ ⎤
010
det(P ) = ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦ = −(−1)(1) − 1 = 2 = 0
101
10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 525

Therefore, its inverse matrix exists and consequently A is diagonalizable. The inverse of P
may be derived by transformation “P |I → I |P −1 ” as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
010100 101001
⎣ −1 0 1 0 1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 1 0 0⎦
1 0 1 0 0 1 (3) → (1) −1 0 1 0 1 0 ← (3) + (1)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
101001 1 0 1 0 0 1 ← (1) − (3)
= ⎣0 1 0 1 0 0⎦ = ⎣0 1 0 1 0 0⎦
0 0 2 0 1 1 ← (3) ÷ [2] 0 0 1 0 1/2 1/2
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0 −1/2 1/2
= ⎣0 1 0 1 0 0⎦
0 0 1 0 1/2 1/2

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
0 −1/2 1/2
P −1 = ⎣1 0 0⎦
0 1/2 1/2

5. Thus, the fourth power of this diagonalizable matrix A is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤4 ⎡ ⎤
010 100 0 −1/2 1/2
A4 = P D 4 P −1 = ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 2 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 0 0⎦
101 003 0 1/2 1/2
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
010 1 0 0 0 −1/2 1/2
= ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 16 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 0 0⎦
101 0 0 81 0 1/2 1/2
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
0 16 0 0 −1/2 1/2
= ⎣ −1 0 81 ⎦ ⎣ 1 0 0⎦
1 0 81 0 1/2 1/2
⎡ ⎤
16 0 0
= ⎣ 0 41 40 ⎦
0 40 41

which may be verified by repetitive matrix multiplications of A.

10.97. Given
⎡ ⎤
100
A = ⎣0 0 1⎦
010

then,
526 10 Linear Algebra

Method 1:

1. Eigenvalues of A are roots of characteristic polynomial as

⎤
1−λ 0 0
−λ 1
|A − λI | = 0 −λ 1 ⎦ = (1 − λ)
1 −λ
0 1 −λ
= (1 − λ)(λ2 − 1) = −(λ − 1)(λ − 1)(λ + 1) = 0

Therefore, the three eigenvalues are λ1,2 = 1 (double value), λ3 = −1. It is necessary to
verify if there are three independent eigenvectors or not.
2. Eigenvectors are therefore,
Case λ3 = −1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
011 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 0 ← (1) ÷ [2] 100 0 ⇒ x=0
⎣0 1 1 0⎦ = ⎣0 1 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ y = −z = −t
011 0 011 0 ⇒ y = −z = −t

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ1,2 = 1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 0 0 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 −1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 1 −1 z 0

by writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤
0 0 0 0 ⇒ x=t
⎣ 0 −1 1 0⎦ ⇒ y = z
0 1 −1 0 ⇒ y=z

Thus, there are two possible nontrivial (i.e., x = y = z = 0) normalized solutions,

10.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 527

t =1 : ⇒ y=z=0
t =0 : ⇒ y=z=1

so that,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 0
v1 = ⎣ 0 ⎦ , v2 = ⎣ 1 ⎦
0 1

There are three distinct eigenvectors; therefore, A is diagonalizable (may be verified by

multiplication).

3. Diagonal matrix D consists of eigenvalues as

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
λ1 0 0 10 0
D = ⎣ 0 λ2 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
0 0 λ3 0 0 −1

4. Matrix P and its P −1 , by definition,

⎡ ⎤
 10 0
P = v1 v2 v3 = ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦
01 1

where, det P is:

⎡ ⎤
10 0
det(P ) = ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦ = (1)(1 + 1) = 2 = 0
01 1

Therefore, its inverse matrix exists and consequently A is diagonalizable. The inverse of P
may be derived by transformation “P |I → I |P −1 ” as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
10 0100 10 01 00
⎣ 0 1 −1 0 1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 −1 0 1 0 ⎦
0 1 1 0 0 1 (3) − (2) 0 0 2 0 −1 1 ← (3) ÷ [2]
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
10 01 0 0 1001 0 0
= ⎣ 0 1 −1 0 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) + (3) = ⎣ 0 1 0 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
0 0 1 0 −1/2 1/2 0 0 1 0 −1/2 1/2

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0
P −1 = ⎣ 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
0 −1/2 1/2
528 10 Linear Algebra

5. Thus, the tenth power of diagonalizable matrix A is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤10 ⎡ ⎤
10 0 10 0 1 0 0
A10 = P D 10 P −1 = ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
01 1 0 0 −1 0 −1/2 1/2
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
10 0 100 1 0 0
= ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
01 1 001 0 −1/2 1/2
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
10 0 1 0 0
= ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
01 1 0 −1/2 1/2
⎡ ⎤
100
= ⎣0 1 0⎦
001

Method 2:: Instead of diagonalization, it can be noted that

⎡ ⎤10 ⎡⎡ ⎤2 ⎤5 ⎡ ⎤5 ⎡ ⎤
100 100 100 100
⎣0 0 1⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
010 010 001 001

Method 3:: or, a simple exchange of the last two rows

⎡ ⎤10 ⎡ ⎤10 ⎡ ⎤
100 100 100
⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ← (2) ↔ (3) = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
010 001 001
Algebraic Identities
A

1. Logarithmic identities

log(ab) = log a + log b

log a n = n log a
ln a
logb a =
ln b

2. Exponential formulas

a 0 = 1, (a = 0)
def

a1 = a
def

a n = a · a ·
a · · · a
def

n times

a n+1 = a · a ·
a · · · a = a · a ·
a · · · a · a = a n · a
def

(n+1) times n times

a n+m = a · a ·
a · · · a = a · a ·
a · · · a · a · a ·
a · · · a = a n a m
def

(n+m) times n times m times

 n m def n n  n
a = a · a· · · an = a · a· · · a = a n m = a m
m times (n×m) times

1
a −n = , (a = 0)
def

an
(a b)n = a n bn
a n an
= n = a n b−n , (b = 0)
b b
n def √
a m = a n , (a ≥ 0)
m

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 529
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3
Trigonometric Identities
B

1. Pythagoras’ identity

sin2 α + cos2 α = 1

2. Rotation identities formulas

cos(−α) = cos α sin(α + π ) = − sin α

sin(−α) = − sin α  π 
cos α ± = ∓ sin α
tan(−α) = − tan α 2
 π 
cos(α + π ) = − cos α sin α ± = ∓ cos α
2

3. The angle addition and subtraction formulas

sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β
tan α ± tan β
tan(α ± β) =
1 ∓ tan α tan β

4. Small–angle approximations: valid for angles α ≤ 10◦ (or close to) ≈ 0 , then

cos α ≈ 1
sin α ≈ α
tan α ≈ α

5. Power reduction formulas:

1 − cos(2α)
sin2 α =
2
1 + cos(2α)
cos2 α =
2

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 531
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3
532 B Trigonometric Identities

6. Double and triple–angle formulas

2 tan α
sin(2α) = 2 sin α cos α = (sin α + cos α)2 − 1 =
1 + tan2 α
1 − tan2 α
cos(2α) = cos2 α − sin2 α = 2 cos2 α − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 α =
1 + tan2 α
2 tan α
tan(2α) =
1 − tan2 α
π π 
sin(3θ) = 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ = 4 sin θ sin − θ sin +θ
3 3
 π  π 
cos(3θ) = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ = 4 cos θ cos − θ cos +θ
3 3
3 tan θ − tan3 θ π  π 
tan(3θ) = = tan θ tan − θ tan +θ
1 − 3 tan θ
2 3 3

7. Half–angle formulas: can be derived as

 
1 − cos(2α)  α  1 − cos 2
α 1 − cos α α 1 − cos α
2
sin2 α = ∴ sin2 = = ∴ sin = ±
2 2 2 2 2 2
 α
1 + cos(2α)  α  1 + cos 2
2 1 + cos α α 1 + cos α
cos2 α = ∴ cos2 =  = ∴ cos = ±
2 2 2 2 2 2
∴

α 1 − cos α
tan2 =±
2 1 + cos α
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© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 533
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3
Index

A G
Absolute numbers, 7–8, 22–28 Geometry, 177–274
Algebra, 21, 22, 24, 36, 67, 119, 268, 317–373, 496
Amplitude, 144, 146
Arbitrary base, 146, 147, 154, 166, 171–173 I
Identities, 13, 29, 33, 39, 40, 45, 46, 49, 50, 55, 62, 65,
68, 70, 79, 88, 89, 91, 117, 123, 135, 136, 147,
B 152, 160–162, 165, 166, 239, 275, 276, 278–279,
Bode plot, 375–420 281, 284, 287, 292–302, 307, 317, 320, 324, 328,
329, 333, 341–350, 355–357, 366, 375, 377, 399,
430, 431, 435, 529, 531–532
C Inequalities, 23–27, 85–110, 140, 153, 168–174, 276,
Circles, 116, 177, 275, 317, 433 280, 311–316, 363
Complex numbers, 317–320, 323–333, 336, 337, 341, Irrational equations, 111–136
342, 354, 357, 358, 363, 366, 370, 437 Irrational numbers, 111–112, 114–118, 187–189, 213
Complex plane, 319, 323–325, 333–337, 351, 360, 364,
365, 367
Complex transfer function, 376 L
Line, 46, 88, 119, 154, 177, 286, 323, 379, 433
Linear algebra, 423–528
D Linear equations, 85–110, 157, 167, 180, 207, 265, 266,
Determinant, 423, 426–428, 430, 431, 449–456, 461, 361, 362, 428, 448, 456, 465
468–473, 477, 508 Linear transformation, 423, 425–426, 443–449, 473, 476,
477
Logarithm, 117, 137, 142, 143, 146–148, 171–173, 377
E
Eigenvalues, 423, 430–431, 474, 475, 483–513, 518, 519,
521, 523, 524, 526, 527
Eigenvectors, 423, 430–431, 474, 475, 483–513, 518, N
519, 521, 523, 524, 526, 527 Numbers, 3, 29, 88, 111, 141, 186, 290, 317, 375, 423
Equations, 22, 36, 85, 111, 138, 179, 276, 320, 377, 428
Euler’s equation, 320, 342, 370
Exponent, 12, 13, 15, 29, 111, 113, 141, 142, 145, 148, P
154, 164, 166, 328, 331 Partial fraction decomposition, 38, 74–83
Phase, 307, 323, 337, 339, 342, 371, 372, 376, 377,
379–392, 394, 396–417, 419, 420
F Piecewise linear approximation, 377, 384–390, 392–398,
Factor theorem, 36–37, 55, 61, 64–74, 93, 94 404, 406, 408, 410, 412, 417, 420
Fractional powers, 5–6, 15–21, 353 Planar space, 204, 205

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 535
Switzerland AG 2025
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81076-3
536 Index

Point, 22, 72, 88, 120, 137, 177, 283, 327, 380, 423 S
Polynomials, 24, 29–83, 88, 91–95, 122, 153, 206, 363, Special angles, 275–277, 283, 286, 330, 331, 339,
368, 371, 428, 430, 467, 483, 485, 487, 489, 490, 355–357
493, 495, 496, 498, 502, 505–508, 510, 512, 518, System of equations, 97, 163, 428, 448, 455–457, 459,
519, 523, 526 462–465, 469–472, 484, 486, 508
Pythagoras, 115, 177, 178, 186–188, 190–196, 198, System of inequalities, 107–110
204–206, 221, 223, 225, 227, 230, 235, 236, 244,
255, 258, 259, 262–264, 271–273, 275–277, 281,
283, 286, 289, 294, 299, 318, 323, 329, 333, 337, T
357, 436, 438–440, 442, 531 Triangle, 32, 115, 177, 276, 317, 438
Trigonometry, 234, 275–316

R
Radicals, 5–6, 15–21, 111–114, 117–119, 121–123, 128, V
133, 135, 136, 353 Vector space, 429, 443, 473–483