Notes Unit 2: OOP Using C++ Structure 24 22 23 24 28 268 ar 28 29 2.10 an 212 2.13 214 2.18 216 217 218 219 2.20 224 224 Introduction Tokens Keywords Identifiers Constants Basic Data Types User Defined Data Types Derived Data Types ‘Symbolic Constants ‘Type Compatibility Variables 2.11.1 Dynamic Initiaization of Variables Reference Variables Operations in C++ 243.4 Arithmetic Operators 2.13.2 Assignment Operators 2433 Unary Operators 2.13.4. Prefix and Postfix Notations 2.13.5. Relational Operators 2.13.8 Shift Operators 2.13.7 BitWise Operators 213.8 Logical Operators 2.13.9 Conditional Operators 2.13.10 Order of Precedence of Operators Scope resolution operator Member dereferencing operator Memory management operators Manipulators Type cast operator Expression and their types Operator Overioading Control structure Summary(00? Using C++ 222 Check Your Progress 2.23 Questions and Exercises 224 Key Terms 2.25 Further Readings Objectives ‘After studying this unit, you should be able to: + Understand the identifiers +Learn the user dafine data type. Understand basic data type. +Learn ebout operations and expressions, + Understand operator and function overloading 2.1 Introduction ‘As we know, the smallest individual units in @ program are known as tokens. A C++ program is written using these tokens, white spaces, and the syntax of the language Most of the C++ tokens are basically similar to the C tokens with the exception of some additions and minor modifications, 2.2 Tokens ‘The smallest individual units in a program are known as tokens. The tokans of C++ are: Keywords Identifiers Constants Strings © Operators A C++ program is writen using these tokens, white spaces, and the syntax of the language. 2.3 Keywords ‘The keywords implement specific C++ language features. They are explicitly reserved identifiers and cannot be used as names for the program variables or other user-defined program elements. Table 2.1 gives the complete sat of C++ keywords. Table 2.1: C++ Keywords asm double new switeh auto else operator template: break: enum private this case extem protected _| throw catch float public tn char for register typedet 21 Notes22 Notes (Object Oriented Programmimg wit C+ class friend return union const goto short unsigned continue it signed virtual default inline size of void delete int static volatile oo. long struct while 2.4 Identifiers Identifiers refer to the names of variables, functions, arrays, classes, ete., created by the programmer. They are the fundamental requirement of any language. Each language has its own rules for naming these identifiers. 2.5 Constants ‘Sometimes, an unchanging value or fixed value is used throughout a program. Such @ Quantity is called 2 constant. For instance, if a program deals with the area and Circumference of circles, the constant value pi (=3 14158) would be used frequently A constant is declared by wniting const before the keyword (@.9. int, long, float) in the declaration For example: const int num;(1) Type of constant are: ‘© Integer Constants: An integer constant \ike 1768 is an int A long constant is written with a terminal / cell / or L, as in 56704124L, an integer too big to fit into an int will also be taken as a long. Unsigned constant are viitten with a terminal u or v, and the suffix vor vindicate unsigned long © Character Constants: A character is a letter, numeral, or special printing or non- printing symbol which can be handled by the computer system. These available symbols define the system's character set. © Floating Point Constants: Floating point numbers are numbers that have 2 decimal point. The compiler differentiates between floating point number and integers because they are stored differently in the computer Exponential (Scientific) Notation: Floating point numbers may also be expressed In Scientific notation. For example, the expression 123. 45e0 represents a floating point number in scientific notation. It refers to the number ordinarily written as 423.45 x 106, which ts equivalent to the number 123, 450,000. 2.6 Basic Data Types Basic data type is a data element, which is characteristic by restricting it to a particular range of possible values. A variabie of type int, for example, may have an integer value ‘reater than or equal to some lower limit and less than or equal to some upper limi.(00° Using C++ Main Program: ‘yee antay structure v Integral type Void Floating type int char float double Figure 2.1: Hierarchy of C++ Data Types ‘The basic data types in C++ are described in the following section: Character denoted by char is the dala type that holds an integral value corrasponding to the representation of an element of the ASCII character set Integer denoted by int is the data type that nolds an integer value or a whole umber. Real donoted by float is the data type that holds a single-precision floating point value or a real umber; or double is the data type that holds @ double-precisian floating point value or @ real umber. Boolean denoted by bool is the data type that holds a boolean value of true or false Byte is the smallest addressable memory unit. Bit, which comes trom Binary digiT, is a memory unit that can store either a Q ora 1. A byte nas & bits, The data type byle sizes are as follows: © char takes 1 byte ® Int takes 2 bytes ® float takes 4 bytes © double takes 8 bytes qualifiers are additional attributes to a data type to possibly change the size and / of the interpretation of the sign bit of a data type. They are as follows © Signed which is the default value: Positive or negative values may be assigned to 2 variable of type signed. 23 Notes24 Notes ‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+ unsigned Only positive values may be assigned to @ variable of type unsigned sizeof ( unsigned int ) sizeof ( int ) 2 bytes = 2bytes ‘= _short which is used with int. This may change the size of sizeof (short int) <= sizeof (int) <= __ sizeof ( long int ) bytes = 2 bytes < 4 bytes long which is used with int and double. This changes the size of int and double. sizeof ( float ) sizeot (double) sizeof ( Jong double } 4 bytes < — Bbytes < 10 bytes © Avariable is a valid ID which refers to a memory location where a value, which may be changed, may be stored for use by 2 program. ll variables must be declared with a name and a data type at the beginning of a block before they can be referenced in a statement. The syntax of vanable declaration is as follows VARIABLE-DECLARATION == { QUALIFIER | 2} TYPE ID { = INITIAL. VALUE |23{, 1D }* 5 Example intcount float Number, Sum ; float Average ; int Count = 0, Miles long int Velocity long double Sum = 0 © Aconstant, which must be @ valid |D, is a memory location where @ value, which may not be changed, may be stored for use by a program. The syntax of constant doclaration is as follows CONSTANT. DECLARATION = const { QUALIFIER | 2} TYPE ID = CONSTANT- EXPRESSION | Example: const float Pi= 3.1418; const unsigned int Depth = 35800 27 User Defined Data Types ‘© Structures and Classes: User-defined data types such as struct and union are also legal in C++, but in G++ some more features have been added to make them suitable for object-oriented programming. C++ also permits us to define another User-defined data type known as class which can be used, just ke any other basic data type, to declare variables. The class variables are known as objects, which are the central focus of object-oriented programming ‘© Enumerated Data Type: An onumerated data type is another user-defined type which provides @ way for attaching names to numbers, thereby increasing(00° Using C++ comprehensibility of the code The enum keyword (from C) automatically enumerates a lst of words by assigning them valuas 0, 1, 2, and so on. This facility provides an alternative means for creating symbolic constants. The syntax of an ‘enum statement is similar to that of the struct statement Examples: enum shape (circle, square, tangle} 2.8. Derived Data Types © Arrays: The application of arrays in C++ is similar to that in C. The only exception is the way character arrays are initialized In G++, the size should be one larger than the number of characters inthe string. chaz = © Functions: Functions have undergone major changes in C++ While some of these changes are simple, others require a new way of thinking when organizing our programs. Many of these modifications and improvements were driven by the requirements of the object-onented concept of C++. Some of these were introduced to make the C++ program more reliable and readable. Function is briefly explained inthe chapter 3, © Pointer Pointers are declared and initialized as in C. Examples int* ip; Int pointer Ip = &x, // address of x assigned to ip “ip = 103/50 assigned to x through indirection (C++ adds the concept of constant pointer and pointer to a constant char * const ptrl = "GOOD", // constant pointer |.e,, cannot modify the address that ptr is initialized to. int const * ptr2 = &m, / pointer to a constant plr2 is declared as pointer to a constant. it can point to any variable of correct type, but the contents what it points to cannot be changed. We can also declare both the Pointer and the vanable as constants in the following way. const char* const ep = "xy2" ‘This statement declares cp as a constant pointer to the string, which has been declared a constant In this case, neither the address assigned to the pointer cp nor the Contents it points to can be changad. Pointers are extensively used in C=* for memory management and achieving polymorphism. Pointers ate briefly explained in the chapter 7 2.9 Symbolic Constants ‘There are two ways of creating symbolic constants in C++ 1 Using the qualifier const 2. Defining a set of integer constants using enum kayword. In G++, we can use const in a constant expression, such as 10 const int siz char name|size}, const allows us to create typed constants instead of having to use #define to create constants that have no type information. 25 Notes26 Notes ‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+ The scoping of const values differs. A const in C++ defaults to the internal linkage and therefore it is local to the file where itis declared. In ANSI C, const values are global in nature They are visible outside the file in which they are declared. However, they can be made local by declanng them as static. To gve a const value extemal linkage so that it can be referenced from another file, we must explicitly define it as an exter in G++. Example: exter const float total = 100, ‘Another method of naming integer constants is as follows enum (XY Z} This defines X.Y and Z as integer constants with values 0, 1, and 2 respectively This is equivalent to const X= 0 const Y= 1 const Z = 2 We can also assign values to X, Y, and Z explicitly. enum {X = 100, Y = 50, Z = 200} Such values can be any integer values 2.10 Type Compatibility Both Type conversion and Type casting in C+ are used to convert one predefined type to another type. Type Conversion is the process of converting one predefined type into another type. and type Casting is the converting one predefined type into another ‘ype forcefully Need of Type Conversion and Type Casting in ++ ‘An Expression is composed of one or more operations and operands. Operands consists of constants and variables. Constants and expressions of different types are mixed together in an expression. so they afe converted to same type or says that a conversion is necessary to convert different types into same type Types of Type Conversions in C++ (C++ facilitates type conversion into 2 forms ‘© Implicit Type Conversion ‘© Explicit Type Conversion Implicit Type Conversions Implicit Type Conversion is the conversion performed by the compiler without programmers intervention itis applied, whenever, different data types are intermixed in an expression, so as not to loose information. ‘The C++ compiler converts all operands upto the type of the largest operand, which 's called type promaton.(00° Using C++ Usual Arithmetic Conversions are summarized in the following table — % Then resultant ‘StepNo. By CHMersHPE | type of other | Otherwise operand 1 Tong double | long double ‘step2 2 double double ‘step 3 3 float float ‘Step 4 integral promotion 4 = takes place followed | — by step 5 5 unsigned long _| unsigned long Stop 6 (long int (provided tong intean fepresent all values | StP7 long intant the | of unsigned int) 6 other is (i) unsigned tong unsignedint | iif all values of unsigned int cant | Step 7 be represented by tong int) 7 Tong tong Step 8 Both 8 uneioted cnsaned operandsare int ‘The step 1 and 2 in the above table will be read as — either operand is of type long double, the other is converted to long © step double. © Step2 : Othenwise, ifeither is of type double, the other is converted to double. Aiter applying above arithmetic conversions, gach pair f operands is of same type: land the result of each operation is the same as the type of both operands 27 Notes(Object Oriented Programmimg with C+ Example of implicit Type Conversion: Explicit Type Conversion Explicit Type conversion is also called type casting. It is the conversion of one operand to @ specific type. An explicit conversion is a user defined that forces an expression to be of specific type ‘Syntax: (type) expression Example: float(a+b/5) ; This expression evaluates to type float, Problem in Explicit Type Conversion Assigning a value of smaller data type to a larger data type, may not pose any problem. But, assigning a value of larger data type to smaller type, may poses problems. The problem is that assigning to a smaller data type may loose information, or result in lasing some precision Conversion Problems sno | Conversion Potential Problems 1 Double to float Loss of precision(significant figures) a, Float to int Loss of fractional part(00° Using C++ 29 = (ing ta nbn Loss of Information as original valuemay be ‘out of range for target type Notes Type Compatibility In an assignment statement, the types of right types and left side of an assignment should be compatible, so that conversion can take place. For example, hex, (where ch is of char data type and xis of integer data type) include int main) t float x x= (float) 7/5 coute=x="==x, } 2.11 Variables Variables are the entity whose values changes during the execution of program. We know that, in C, all variables must be declared before they are used in executable statements. This 's true with C++ as well C++ allows the declaration of @ variable anywhere in the scope. This means that a variable can be declared right at the place of its frst use. This makes the program much easier fo write and reduces the errors that may be caused by having fo scan back and forth. It also makes the program easier to understand because the variables are declared in the context of their use. The example below illustrates this point ‘ Disadvantage: This siyle of declaration is that we cannot see at a glance all the variables used in a scope.30 Notes (Object Oriented Programming with O-+ 2.14.1 Dynamic Initialization of Variables C++, permits initialization of the variables at run time. This is referred to as dynamic inttilization. In this, a variable can be initialized at run time using expressions at the place of declaration. Consider the folowing valid initialization statements: oe float area = 3.1415 trad trad; This means that both the declaration and initialization of a variable can be done simultaneously at the place where the variable is used forthe first time, The following two statements in the example of the previous section £224 /) declaze where can be combined into a single statement Fae eum /is itialize dynamically Dynamic initalizaton is extensively used in object-oriented programming. We can create exactly the type of object needed using information thet is known only at the run time. 2.12 Reference Variables Arreference variable provides an alternative name for a previously defined variable. For example, if we make the variable sum a reference to the variable total, then sum and ‘otal can be used interchangeably to represent that variable, A reference variable is created as follows: data type & reference-name * variable-name Example: at & sum = ‘otal is @ float type variable that has already been declared, sum is the alternative name declared to represent the variable total. Both the variables refer to the same data object in the memory. Initialization of reference variable: Areference variable must be initialized at the time of declaration, + The statement(00° Using C++ will change the value of both total and sum to 110. Likewise, the assignment will change the value of both the variables to zero, A reference variable must be initialized at the time of declaration, this establishes the correspondence between the reference and the data object that it names. Note that the initialization of a reference variable 's completely different from assignment tok. Note that C++ assigns additional meaning to the symbol & Here, & is not an address operator, ‘The notation floats & means reference to float. Other examples are: int n[to]; inte x= afl0); //x is «: char s a=; // initialize reference to aL ‘The variable x is an altemative to the array element n[i0]. The variable a is initiaized to the new line constant. This creates a reference to the otherwise unknown location where the new line constant \n is stored. ‘The following references are also allowed ‘The first set of daclarations causes m to refer to x which is pointed to by the pointer and the statement in (i) creates an int object with value 50 and name n. Consider the following £(m)s J \When the function call f(m) is executed, the following initialization occurs: Int ax sm ‘Thus x becomes an alias of m after executing the statement £(m); 31 Notes32 Notes (Object Oriented Programming with O-+ Such funetions calls are known as cells by reference whose implementation is illustrated in Figure 22. Since the variable x and m are aliases, when the function increments x, m is also incremented. The value of m becomes 20 after the function is executed In traditional C, we accomplish this operation using pointers and dereferencina techniques. it met a {po} io | ane lecation, call ‘wo names $4) _/_-_______« it x= Figure 2.2: Call by Reference Mechanism The call by reference machanism is useful in object-oriented programming because it permits the manipulation of objects by reference and eliminates the copying of objact parameters back and forth. Note thal the references can be created nat only for built Gata types but also for user-defined data types such as structures and classes. References work wonderful well with these user-defined data types. 2.13 Operations in C++ Constant, variables, array elements function references can be joned together by various operators to form expressions. The data items on which the operators act upon are called operands. Some operators require two operands, whule others act upon only ‘one operand. Most operators allow the individual operands to be expressions. A few operators permit only single variables as operands Operators can be classified as: ‘Arithmetic operators ‘Assignment operators Unary operators Rwitional operators Shift operators Bit-wise operators Logical operators Conditional operators 2.13.1 Arithmetic Operators There are five arithmetic operators in C. They are Operator Function + addition . subtraction : muttiplication 1 division % remainder efter integer division Operands acted upon by artthmetic operators must represent nument values. So, the operands can be integer, floating-point or characters. The remaindar operator (°b) ‘which is also called as modulus operator requires that both operands to be integers and(00° Using C++ the second operand be nonzero. Similarly, the division operator (/) requires that the second operand be nonzero. Division of one integer quantity by another is referred to as integer division Example Suppose that @ and b are integer variables whose values are 2 and 1, respectively Several aritnmetic expressions involving these variables are shown below, together with their resulting values, Expression Value ath 3 a-b 1 atb 2 alb 2 a%b o Now suppose that 2 and b are floating-point variables whose values are 4.9 and 20, respectively. Several arithmetic expressions involving these variables are shown below, together with their resulting values Expression Value atb 65 a-b 25 atb 9.0 alb 2.25 Operands which are differ in type may undergo type conversion before the expression takes on its final value. In generai, the final result will be expressed in the highest precision possible, consistent with the data type of the operands. The following rules apply when neither operand is unsigned. 1. If both operands are floating-point types whose precision’s differ (e.g. a float and a double), the lower-precision operand will be converted to the precision of the other operand, and the result will be expressed in this higher precision. Thus, an operation between a float and double will result in a double; a float and a long double will result in a long double, and @ double and a long double will result in a long double. 2. If one operand is a floating-point type (@ 9, float, double or long double) and the other is a char or an int (including short int or long int), the char or int will be converted to the floating-point type and the result will be expressed as such. Hence, an operation between an int and a double wil result n a double. 3. if neither operand is a floating-point type but one is long int, the other will be converted to long int and the result will be long int. Thus, an operation between & Jong int and an int will result in a tong int 4. If neither operand is @ floating-point type or a long int, then both operands will be Converted to int (if necessary) and the result will be int. Thus, an operation between a short into and an int will result in an int. 33 Notes34 Notes ‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+ 2.13.2 Assignment Operators Table 2.2: Assignment operator Operate] Desciption pe] Ewbnatin =| Assign hevaliootinerightoperand | a= | Assgnste valusotbToa tothe ie + =) Adds cperardsand assigns the reoul Addsthootbios tothe lef operand he expression could also be writen] asazab ~= | Subtactstre ight operand fom thee Subtacisb Forma Sperandandstuestreresutin ele Equivalentto a= arb peran =| Nuitplestheletonerandey henght | —a"=0 | wutplesine vauesaande andsior| operand and siaresiheresultin re let therecut ina operand Equivalentto 3= a°b Dudes te letoperanduyiherght | ab | Duesabybandstors tie esutin opetend and staresthereoultinihe lett Equivalentto a= aro operand T=] Diides fe letoperandtyinengnt | ab] Dwdeesbybandebas heramande] Dpetendandstores the remainderin ina, thelefioperané Equivalentto a= xy Any of the operators used as shown below A b that is, bis evaluated before the operation takes place. You can also assign values to more than one variable at the same time. The assignment will ake place from the nght to the left. For example, A=b=0, In the example given above, frst b willbe intialized and then a willbe initialized 2.13.3 Unary Operators: The unary operators operate on a single operand and following are the examples of Unary operators: © The increment (++) and decrement (—-) operators © The unary minus (-) operator. © The logical nat (1) operator ‘The unary operators operate on the object for which they were called and normally, this operator appears on the left side of the object, as in lob, -obj, and ++0bj but sometime they can be used as postiix as well ike obj++ or obj Table 2.3: Unary operator Operator Deseription Bare Eiplanaion += nveasee The valusofiieOpeiand Dyone ae Fauna —_Deerensnstne value tte cparand by ane quilt a= =r(00° Using C++ 2.13.4 Prefix and Postfix Notations ‘The increment operator, +=. can be used in two ways: © Asa prefix, in which the operator precedes the variable ++ var © As a postfix, in which the operator follows the vanable. Ivars, ‘The following code segment differentiates the two notations: 2.13.5 Relational Operators been weitten aa var Relational operators evaluate to true or false, and are used for comparing two numbers Table 2.4: Assignment operator Operator [Description Bampe | Elna Evaiateswheherthe operands areequal Retunsinueifthevauesare equalandfaseathenise ' Evaluate swhetherthe operands arentequsl | al=y | Retumstrue tthevalues are notequaland fase cherstse > Evaateswheherthelettoperand isgreaier | a>b | Retumstue fais geaterbian ‘thanthe nahtoperand bandtalse < Evayateswhethortheletoperandistessthan | a>| Shisbis tothe rant fling sianbi ate Bipbnaion The resulta Fis 810 eNided. by 2? An explanatontoiows, “The recultof his i8 10 ‘multiplied by 27 An plan atontoions, <= _| Shitsbistotelet fingzeros atheniont 2.13.7 Bit Wise Operators Table 2.6: Bit wise operators ‘Gperator | Description [Ean | Eptanabn a Eralusiestoatnaivaie mera [aes | ANOweuisinal teanthonie np) | stvsestibien re operands Set, ary ther combinabon resasingd 7 Eyaualestobianvale aera [at | ORresuts ina Owen bobine (om | Btvace oronme nto cperanas brs ate0, argatercomanston rsa} * Evuatvstoabinaryeave tora [as y | xoRsutsinaamantonts gor | Bevacescorontnetwo cperands Spore sarovaieand Me isha cfesetvaues ~ Comets alt bis oDeandall bts sample phontolow anvesion | wots 2.13.8 Logical Operators Use logical operators to combine the results of Boolean expressions. Table 2.7: Logical operators Operator Description Example && | Called Logical AND operator. Ifboth the | (A && B) is false operands are non-zero, then condition becomes true. Il | Called Logical OR Operator. if any of the | (A || B) is true. two operands is non-zero, then condition bacomes true 1 | Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to NA 88 8) 1s true, reverses the logical state of its operand. IF ‘a condition is true, then Logical NOT operator will make false. 2.13.9 Conditional Operators Table 2.8: Conditional operators Operator [Description Beare Emhnation (conditon)| Evauatastovalt iMheconditon | a= @c) ? be | Asassignedinevauent, fo vat ,va12|retums true andvat 2 ifthe contin Is greater than c, else ais retrnstalse assignedthevaiue of.(00° Using C++ This example finds the maximum of two given numbers, = (numl > aund) In the above program code, we determine whether numt is greater than num2. The variable, imax is assigned the value, numt, if the expression, (num >um2), evaluates to true, and the value, num2, if the expression evaluates to false. The above program code can be modified using the conditional operator as Imax = (num > num2)? num : num2; ‘The ?: Operator is called the ternary operator since it has three operands. 2.13.10 Order of Precedence of Operators The table shows the order of precedence of operators. Those with the same level of precedence are listed in the same row. The order can be changed by using parentheses at appropriate places Type Operators High Precedence 00 Unary Multiplicative *1% Additive + Shift Relational Equality Bitwise Logical Conditional 2 Assignment = ‘The unaty operators, assignment operators and the conditional operator group from the right to the left. All other operators group from the left to the right, 2.14 Scope resolution operator The scope resolution (-) operator is used to qualify hidden names. One can use the unary scope operator if a namespace scope or global scope name Is hidden by an ‘explicit declaration ofthe same name ina block or class 37 Notes38 Notes (Object Oriented Programming with C++ For example: int count = 0; int main(void) { int count = 0, 1 {1 set global count to 4 count count = 2; 1/ sat local count to 2 return 0 } Program explanation © count declared in the main () function hides the integer namad count declared In global namespace scope ©The statement 1 accesses the variable named count declared in global namespace scope Consider an another exampl In this the declaration of the variable x hides the class type x, but you can still use the static class member by qualifying it with the class type x and the scope resolution operator #include x | | m Bitwise expressions: It manipulates date at bit level Example. a >> 4 and b<< 2 Pointer expressions: It ives address values as output are. Example, &, ptr. ‘Special assignment expressions: |t can be categorized further depending upon the way the values are assigned to the variables Chained assignment: It is an assignment expression in which the same value is assigned to more than one variable, by using a single statement, Example: a = (b=20); In the example describe above, first the value 20 is assigned to variable b and then to variable a Embedded assignment: itis an assignment expression, which is enclosed within another assignment expression, Example: a=20+(b=30) Inthe example descnbe above, the value 30 is assigned to variable b and then the resull of (20+ 30) is assigned to variable a = Compound Assignment: Itis an assignment expression, which uses a compound assignment operator which iS @ combination of the assignment ‘operator with a binary arithmetic operator. Example-a + =20 In the example describe above, the operator += is a compound assignment ‘operator, also known as short-hand assignment operator(00° using C++ 2.20 Operator Overloading Operator overloading is one of the most exciting features of object onented programming. It can transform complax, obscure program listings into intuitively obvious ones. For example, a statement like 3. add objects (41, 2) can be changed to the much more readable d3sa1+a2, ‘The rather forbidding term operator overloading refers to giving the normal C++ operators, such as +. *, <=, and += additional meanings when they are applied to user- defined data types. Normally +0 Works only with basic types like int and float, and attempting to apply it when a, b, and ¢ are objects of a user-defined class will cause complaints from the compiler. However, using overloading. You can make this statement legal even when a, b and c are user defined types. In effect, operator overloading gives you opportunity to work, you can change C++ ‘operators to do whatever you want. By using classes to create new kinds of variables, and operator overloading to create new definitions for operators, you can extend C++ to be, in many ways, a new language of your own design. Another kind of operation, data types Conversion, is closely connected with operator overioading. C++ handles the conversion of simple types, like int and float, automatically, but conversions involving user-defined types require some work on the programmer's part The general form of an operator function is where returniype is the type of value returned by the specified operation and op is the operator being overioaded. The op is preceded by the keyword operator. operator op is the funetion name. Operator functions must be either member functions (non-static) or friend functions, A basic difference between them is thet a friend function will have only one argument ‘or unary operators and two for binary operators, while a member function has no arguments for unary operators and only one for binary operators. This is because the object used to invoke the member function is t_sed implicitly and therefore is available for the member function, This is not the case with frend functions. Arguments may be passed either by value or by reference ‘The process of overloading involves the following steps: © First, create a class that defines the data type that is to be used in the overloading operation © Declare the operator function operator op ( ) in the public part of the class. Itmay be either a member function or a friend function © Define the operator function to implement the required operations. Overloaded operator functions can be invoked by expressions such as 41 Notes42 Notes Otjct Oriented Programming wth C++ op x or x op for unary operators and xopy for binary operators. 0 x (or x op) would be interpreted as operator op (x) for friend function! Similarly, the expression x op y would be interpreted as either x operator oP(Y) in case of member functions, or operator op (x, y) in case of friend functions. When both the forms are declared, standard argument matching is applied to resolve any ambiguity, This operator changes the sign of an operand when applied to an object in much the same way as is applied to an int or float variable. The unary minus when applied to {an object should change the sign of each of its data items. 2.21 Control structure The flow of control jumps from one part of the program to another, depending on calculations performed in the program. Program statements that cause such jumps are called Controf statements There are two major categories of control statements 4. Decisions 2. Loops Decisions In. program a decision causes a one-time jump to a different part of the program, dapending on value of an expression. Decisions can be made in C= = in several ways, such a8 if else statement, simple if statement, switch statement and consitional operator The if Statement The if statement is the simplest of the decision statements. Our next program provides an example, 1) dex cee < void maia () cout << is greater than(00° Using C++ The if keyword is followed by a test expression in parentheses. The syntax of if is very much like that of while. The difference is that the statements following the if are ‘executed only once if the test expression is true; the statements following while are executed repeatedly until the test expression becomes false. The output of above program is Ourpur Enter a number: 120 ‘That number is greater than 100 eo if the number entered is less than 100, the program will terminate without prating anything Test False Expression y True Body off ——— Figure 2.3: Operation of if statement The if else Statement ‘The if... else statement is used when we want to do one thing if a condition is true and do something else ifs false. It consists of an if statement, followed by a statement r block of statements, followed by the keyword else, followed by another statement or block of statements. Hore’s a variation of our pravious IF example, with an alse added to the if / ite // cencnsteates ifsles statens # include 43 Notes44 Notes (Object Oriented Programmimg with C+ Output Or ifelse Enter @ number: 300 That number is greater than 100 > else Enter a number: 30” That number is less than 100 co Bony oft Boayofene Figure 2.4: Operation of the if.....else statement Nested if The loop and decision structures, we've seen so far, can be nested inside one another. You can nest ifs inside loops, loops inside ifs, ifs inside ifs, and so on, Here’s an example, PRIME, that nests an if within a for loop. This example tells yo if ‘a number you enter Is a prime number.(00° Using C++ unsigned long ny 3 + Output 1 22231 er divisible by 11 ‘This program accepts a number from user that is assigned to n. It then uses a for loop to divide n by all numbers from 2 upto n/2. The divisor is j, the loop variable. if any value of | divides evenly into n, then n Is not prime and the remainder is 0. so the % ‘operator in if statement is used to test for this condition with each value j. If the number 's not prime, it tells the user and exit from the program. Nested else Statements ‘An if statement can be nested inside an if. else statement, which can be nested inside another if.. else statement, which can be nested inside yet another if_.else statement land so on. Ifthe first test condition is false, the second one is examined and so on until all the conditions have been checked. if anyone proves true, the appropriate action 1s taken. Such a nested group of f..else statements is called a decision tree. Example void main( ) £ intade clrser(y; 45 Notes46 (Object Oriented Programmimg with C+ cout <<"enler 3 number’ Notes cinssa>>b>>c; iffa>b) { if(a>c) { cout <<"a is greatest’, d alse { cout <<" is greatest’ d y else { if(b> 0) { cout <= "b is greatest’; I else 4 printt(c is greatest’) y } geten(), } Else it The general form of else.sf ladder is, iffexpression 1) ( statement-block1, } else iffexpression 2) { statement-block2; }(00° Uking C++ se ifexpression 3 ) ‘ statoment-block3, , else detault-statement, ‘The expression is tested from the top(of the ladder) downwards. As soon as the true condition is found, the statement associated with itis executed. Example: void main( ) t inte cout << "enter a number"; cina> a; cout << “divisible by both § and &" ) else if a: ce cout << “divisible by: , else if(a%s: ( cout << “divisible by 5", ) else fe cout << “divisible by none” ) getehd, , The Switeh Statement Ifyou nave a large decision tree, and all the decisions depend on the value of the same variable, you will find a switch statement more useful than @ series of if tions. Here's a simple example else construc- 47 Notes48 Notes (Object Oriented Programmimg with C+ // denonaceates switch scacement #idclade e/iestream.ch > cous << “M coue << “High speed \n” This program prints one of three possible messages depending on whether the user inputs the number 23, 45, or 78. The keyword switch is followed by a switch variable in parentheses switch (speed) Braces then delimit a number of case statements. Each case keyword is followed by a constant, which is not in parentheses but is followed by a colon case 33 The data type of the case constants should match that of the switch variable Before enterng the switch, the program should assign a value to the switch variable This value will usually match @ constant in one of the case statements. When this is the case, the statements immediately following the keyword case will be executed, until a break is reached Output of the above program is Enter 23, 45 or 78 : 45 Medium speed co(00° Using C++ The break Statement Previous program has a break statement at the end of each case section. The break keyword causes the entire switch statement to exit. Don't forget the break, without i control passes down (or “falis through’) to the statements for the next case, which is usually not what you want. If the value of the switch variable doesn't match any of the case constants, then control passes to the end of the switch without doing anything. The break keyword is also used fo escape from loops. # include # include < conio -h > getene () << ch Notice that break only takes you out of the innermost loop. This is true no matter what constructions are nested inside each other break only takes you out of the construction in which its embedded. if there were a switch within a loop, a break in the ‘switch would only take you out of the switch, not out of the loop 49 Notes50 Notes (Object Oriented Programming with C++ Continue Continue statement works somewhat like the break statement. Instead of forcing termination, however, continue forces the next iteration of the loop to take place, skipping any code in between, For the for loop, continue causes the conditional test and increment portions of the loop to execute. For the while and do...while loops, program control passes to the conditional tests. Syntax The syntax of a continue statement in C++ is: continue; Flow Diagram: > a if condition is true if condition is false Example: #include a> Body ot foop v Increment exgression Figure 2.5: Operation of the for loop The while Loop The for loop does something a fixed number of times. If you don't know how many tines yyou want to do something before yau start the loop, the iuhile loop is used Hore is a program to demonstrate the use of while loop ed to ca numbers ude < anip.h > uw 53 Notes54 Notes (Object Oriented Programmimg with C+ The output of the above program is 1 8 ar 64 125 216 343 512 728 The next number would be 1000, but by this time the loop has terminated The while loop contains a test expression but no initialization or increment expres- sions. As long as the test expression is true, the loop continues to be executed. In the above example, the test expression is true until pow> 999. Although thera is no initialization expression, the loop variable (here pow) must be intalized before the loop begins. The loop body must also contain some statement that changes the value of the loop variable, otherwise the loop would never end The do Loop Ina while loop, the test expression is evaluated at the beginning of the loop. If the test expression is false when the oop Is entered, the loop body won't be executed at all Sometimes you want to guarantee that the loop body is executed at least once, no matter what the initial state of the test expression. In this case, you should use do loop, which places the test expression at the end of the loop. Consider the program aiven below to demonstrate the use of do loop ates DO Lo! void main ((00° Using C++ cour << ‘The keyword do marks the beginning of the loop. Braces delimit the body of the loop and a while statement provides the test expression and terminates the loop. Following each computation, the above program asks if the user wants to do another. if yes, the user enters a ‘character, and the test expression: Chien remains true. |f user enters ‘r’, the test expression becomes false and the loop torminates. The Figure 2.6: Operation of do-loop 2.21 Summary ‘Smallest individual units in @ program are known as tokens. The kaywords implement specific C++ language features. Identifiers refer to the names of variables, functions, arrays, classes, etc , created by the programmer. A constant is an entity which do not change during the execution of program, and 1s declared by writing const before the keyword (e.g int, long, foat) in the declaration Basic data type is a data element, which is characteristic by restricting it to a particular range of possible values. Variables ere the enlily whose values changes during the execution of program. C++, permits initialization of the variables at run time. This is referred to as dynamic initialization. A reference variable provides an alternative name for a previously defined variable. Constant, variabies, array elements function references can be joined together by various operators fo form expressions. 55 Notes56 Notes ‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+ Variable which stores the address of another variable is called a pointer, that "point to" the variable whose address they store. An expression is @ combination of variables, constants and aperators that represents a computation 2.22 Check Your Progress Multiple Choice Questions 1. The size_t integer type in C++ is? 4) Unsigned integer of at least 64 bits ) Signed integer of at least 16 bits c) Unsigned integer of at least 18 bits d) Signed integer of at least 64 bits, 2. What is the output ofthe following program? #include using namespace std intmaing, t intx= 4 unsigned int y ifle> ye cout << "xis greater" pelse { cout << is greater’ } , a) x is greater b) ys greater c) Implementation defined d) Avbitrary 3. Which of these expressions will retum true if the input integer v is a power of two? avlw+t)) b&w) cywlwed )(v&(v-1) 4. What isthe value of the following 6-bit integer afterall statements are executed? intx= xeet: xe, a) 1 by a ©) 127 d) Implementation defined 5. Which of these expressions will make the rightmost set bit zero in an input integer ”O0P Using C++ a) x=) (e1) b) x=x & (x1) ©) x=x| (1) 4d) x=x8 Oe) 6. Which of these expressions will solate the rightmost set bit? a) x=x&(-x) b) x= x8 (x) c) x=K a(x) d) x=x" (x) 7. 0948, 786427373824, ‘x’ and OX2t are respectively a) decimal, character, octal, hexadecimal b) octal, hexadecimal, character, decimal ) hexadecimal, octal, decimal, character 4) octal, decimal, character, hexadecimal 8. What will be the output of this program? #include using namespace std, int maing) t inta = 8, cout <<"ANDing integer’ with ‘true":" << a && true; retum 0, } a) ANDing integer ‘a’ with ‘true’ 2 b) ANDing integer ‘a’ with ‘true’ 0 ©) ANDing integer “a with ‘rus’ :1 d)_ None of the mentioned 9. What will be output of this program? #include using namespace std; int main) { inti= 3; int =i /-2, intk =i %-2 cout <<1 <

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