Comprehensive Notes: History of India for Punjab PCS Prelims

I. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) (Approx. 3300 BCE - 1300 BCE)
Introduction & Discovery
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), flourishing between approximately 3300 BCE and
1300 BCE, represents one of the world's earliest and most extensive urban
civilizations. As a Bronze Age culture located in the northwestern regions of the
Indian subcontinent, its discovery significantly pushed back the antiquity of
Indian urban life.
* Key Discoveries:
* Harappa: The first site identified in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni. Located in the
Punjab region (present-day Pakistan) on the banks of the Ravi River. Due to its
primary discovery, the civilization is often termed the Harappan Civilization.
* Mohenjo-Daro: Meaning "Mound of the Dead" , discovered in 1922 by R.D.
Banerjee. Situated in Sindh (present-day Pakistan) near the Indus River.
* Nomenclature:
* Besides "Harappan Civilization," it is sometimes referred to as the Sarasvati
Civilization due to the high concentration of sites found along the Ghaggar-Hakra
river system, often identified with the mythical Sarasvati River mentioned in Vedic
texts.
* The name 'India' itself is believed to be derived from the river Indus.
Geographical Extent
The civilization covered a vast geographical area, estimated at approximately 1.3
million square kilometers, significantly larger than contemporary civilizations in
Mesopotamia or Egypt. Its expanse formed a triangle encompassing parts of modern-
day Pakistan, Afghanistan, and northwestern/western India.
* Boundaries: Key sites marking its extent include:
* West: Sutkagendor (Balochistan, Pakistan).
* East: Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India).
* North: Manda (Jammu, India) (Generally known).
* South: Daimabad (Maharashtra, India).
* Core Area: The central zone lay primarily in the plains of the Indus and the
(now extinct) Ghaggar-Hakra rivers.
Phases
The Harappan civilization evolved over millennia, conventionally divided into
several phases:
* Pre-Harappan: c. 7000 – 5500 BCE
* Early Harappan: c. 5500 – 2600 BCE (Emergence of villages, rudimentary urban
features, use of copper, wheel, plough).
* Mature Harappan: c. 2600 – 1900 BCE (Peak urban phase, large cities, uniform
standards).
* Late Harappan: c. 1900 – 1300 BCE (Decline, abandonment of cities, continuation
of crafts).
* Post-Harappan: c. 1500 – 600 BCE.
Key Features & Town Planning
The IVC is renowned for its sophisticated urban planning, indicating a high degree
of social organization and engineering skill.
* Grid Pattern: Cities were typically laid out on a grid pattern, with streets
running North-South and East-West, intersecting at right angles.
* Citadel and Lower Town: Most major settlements were divided into two main parts:
a smaller, raised western mound known as the Citadel, likely housing important
public or religious structures and possibly the ruling elite, and a larger eastern
Lower Town, containing residential and commercial areas. Both sections were often
fortified.
* Dholavira is unique for its three distinct parts.
* Chanhudaro is the only major city identified without a citadel.
* Drainage System: A remarkably advanced covered drainage system is a hallmark of
IVC cities. Household drains (from bathrooms and kitchens) connected to main street
drains, which were covered with bricks or stone slabs. Manholes and soak pits were
provided for cleaning and maintenance. This indicates a strong emphasis on
sanitation and public health.
* Building Materials: Standardized baked bricks were extensively used,
particularly for houses, wells, bathing platforms, and drains. Mud bricks were also
used, often for foundations or fortifications. Stone was used where available
(e.g., Dholavira, Ropar). Bricks often maintained a consistent ratio (e.g., 4:2:1)
across different sites, suggesting standardized production.
* Major Structures:
* Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro): A large, rectangular, brick-lined public tank,
possibly used for ritual purification. Steps led down into the tank, which was made
watertight using bitumen or gypsum mortar. Adjacent rooms may have served as
changing rooms.
* Granaries: Monumental structures identified at Harappa (a series of six) and
Mohenjo-Daro (the largest single building) suggest systematic collection and
storage of surplus grain, implying an organized administrative or economic system.
The high degree of uniformity in town planning, brick sizes, weights, and seals
across such a vast geographical area points towards a sophisticated level of socio-
political organization or strong cultural cohesion. While direct evidence for a
centralized state (like palaces or royal burials) is lacking, the standardization
suggests either effective administrative control, perhaps by a merchant class , or
deeply ingrained cultural norms guiding construction and production. This contrasts
significantly with the political fragmentation observed in later periods like the
Mahajanapadas.
Key Sites & Findings
The following table summarizes key IVC sites and their significant findings,
crucial for prelims preparation:
| Site Name | Location (Modern State/Country) | River | Excavator(s) | Key
Findings/Features |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Punjab, Pakistan | Ravi | Daya Ram Sahni (1921) | First site; 6
Granaries; Barracks; R-37 & H-cemeteries; Stone Lingam/Yoni; Virgin Goddess Seal;
Copper Scale/Mirror; Vanity Box; Dice; Bronze dog chasing deer; Sandstone Torsos |
| Mohenjo-Daro | Sindh, Pakistan | Indus | R.D. Banerjee (1922) | "Mound of the
Dead"; Great Bath; Great Granary (largest building); Assembly Hall; Bronze Dancing
Girl; Steatite Bearded Man (Priest-King); Pashupati Seal; Woven Cotton Piece;
Unicorn Seals (most numerous) |
| Lothal | Gujarat, India | Bhogavo (near Sabarmati confluence) | R.Rao (1953) |
Dockyard (Artificial Port); Rice Husk Evidence; Fire Altars; Double Burial; Bead
Making; Chess Playing; Ivory Weight Balance; Copper Dog |
| Dholavira | Gujarat, India (Rann of Kutch) | Luni (nearby) | J.P. Joshi, R.S.
Bisht (1967-) | Unique 3-part city division; Advanced Water Management (Reservoirs,
Dams); Stadium; Large Inscription ("Signboard"); Use of Sandstone |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan, India | Ghaggar | A. Ghosh (1953) | "Black Bangles";
Ploughed Field (earliest); Fire Altars; Camel Bones; Wooden Plough; Evidence of
Earthquake; Unique Burials (pits without remains) |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana, India | Ghaggar | | Largest IVC site in India; Evidence of
all phases; DNA analysis suggests indigenous origin |
| Chanhudaro | Sindh, Pakistan | Indus | N.G. Majumdar (1931) | Only major city
without a Citadel; Bead-making Factory; Inkpot; Evidence of Lipstick use |
| Banawali | Haryana, India | Ghaggar (ancient Saraswati) | R.S. Bisht (1974) |
High-quality Barley; Terracotta Plough Model; Oval-shaped settlement; Radial
Streets |
| Surkotada | Gujarat, India | | J.P. Joshi (1964) | Horse Bones (most tangible
evidence); Bead Making |
| Ropar | Punjab, India | Sutlej | Y.D. Sharma (1952-53) | Burial of Dog with
Human; Steatite Seal; Copper Implements; Evidence of later cultures (PGW, Maurya,
Gupta) |
| Sanghol | Punjab, India | Sutlej (anciently) | | Late Harappan site; Also
significant Buddhist site (Stupa, Monastery); Important trade route location |
Economy
The Harappan economy was diverse and well-developed, based primarily on
agriculture, supplemented by crafts and extensive trade networks.
* Agriculture: As the backbone of the economy , agriculture thrived in the fertile
river plains.
* Crops: Major crops included wheat and barley. Evidence of rice cultivation
exists, notably at Lothal and Rangpur. The IVC is credited with the first
production of cotton. Other crops included peas, sesame, dates, lentils, and
millets.
* Techniques: Used wooden ploughs. Irrigation likely relied on seasonal river
floods and wells. Advanced water management systems, including reservoirs and
possibly canals, were used, especially evident at Dholavira.
* Animal Domestication: A wide range of animals were domesticated for milk, meat,
hides, and labour, including cattle (humped and shorthorn), buffaloes, sheep,
goats, pigs, dogs, and cats. Elephants were possibly domesticated for ivory. Camel
bones were found at Kalibangan. The presence and role of the horse remain debated,
though potential remains have been found at Surkotada.
* Crafts and Industry: The Harappans were highly skilled artisans.
* Metallurgy: As a Bronze Age civilization, they expertly used copper and bronze
for tools, weapons, vessels, and sculptures. Stone tools (like chert blades)
continued to be used. Iron was not known.
* Bead Making: A prominent industry, especially at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Beads
were made from carnelian, amethyst, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, faience,
shell, lapis lazuli, and gold.
* Seal Carving: Intricately carved seals, mostly square and made of steatite,
were a hallmark.
* Pottery: Primarily wheel-made, with plain red ware being common. Distinctive
black-on-red painted designs. Some polychrome, incised, and perforated pottery also
found. Miniature vessels show remarkable craftsmanship.
* Terracotta: Used for figurines (mother goddess, animals, toys like carts and
whistles).
* Textiles: Evidence of cotton and wool weaving, indicated by finds of spindle
whorls. A piece of woven cotton was found at Mohenjo-Daro.
* Other Crafts: Brick-making, masonry, shell working, ivory carving.
* Trade: Extensive internal and external trade networks existed.
* Transport: Utilized river systems (Indus) and overland routes (pack oxen).
* External Trade: Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Persia
(Iran), Oman, and Afghanistan. Indus seals and artifacts found in Mesopotamian
cities.
* Imports: Gold (from South India or Afghanistan), Silver, Copper (from
Afghanistan or Rajasthan), Tin, Lapis Lazuli (Afghanistan), Jade (Central Asia),
Turquoise (Persia).
* Exports: Agricultural products (grains), cotton textiles, pottery, beads,
ivory products.
* Maritime Trade: Facilitated by port cities like Lothal (with its dockyard),
Sutkagendor, Balakot, and possibly Dholavira.
* Standardization: Use of standardized weights (often cubical, made of chert)
and measures facilitated trade.
Society & Culture
* Social Structure: Appeared to be a predominantly urban society with a
significant middle class. Differences in house sizes and grave goods suggest the
existence of social stratification, possibly including priests, merchants,
artisans, peasants, and laborers. Unlike Mesopotamia or Egypt, there's no clear
evidence of rule by priests; some suggest a merchant class may have held power.
* Dress and Ornaments: People wore garments made of cotton and wool, likely
similar to a dhoti and shawl. They were fashion-conscious, with various hairstyles
and beards being common. Both men and women adorned themselves with ornaments like
necklaces, bangles, and earrings made from materials like terracotta, stone, shell,
ivory, faience, and metals.
 * Script: The Indus script remains undeciphered. It is pictographic, with about
400-600 distinct signs identified. Inscriptions are typically short and found on
seals, pottery, copper tablets, and other artifacts. The script was generally
written from right to left. Some longer seals show a boustrophedon style
(alternating direction in lines).
* Art and Sculpture: Harappan art displays a high degree of realism, especially in
animal figures.
* Stone Sculpture: Notable examples include the red sandstone male torso from
Harappa and the steatite bearded man (often called the "Priest-King") from
Mohenjo-Daro.
* Bronze Casting: The lost-wax technique (cire perdue) was used. The most famous
example is the "Dancing Girl" statuette from Mohenjo-Daro. Figures of animals like
buffaloes and goats were also cast.
* Terracotta: Numerous figurines were produced, often considered artistically
cruder than stone or bronze works, though more realistic examples exist from
Gujarat and Kalibangan. The most common type is the Mother Goddess figurine.
Figurines of bearded males, animals (bulls, dogs, monkeys, birds), and toys (carts,
whistles, rattles, gamesmen) were also made.
* Seals: Thousands have been found, mostly square plaques made of steatite.
* Purpose: Primarily used for commercial purposes, likely for stamping goods or
indicating ownership. They might also have served as amulets or identity markers.
* Features: Engraved with animal figures and script. The unicorn is the most
common motif. Other animals include the humped bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant,
goat, buffalo, and mythical creatures.
* Pashupati Seal: A famous seal from Mohenjo-Daro depicts a seated figure,
possibly three-faced and ithyphallic, in a yogic posture, surrounded by an
elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, and buffalo, with deer below the throne. Often
interpreted as a prototype of the Hindu god Shiva (Pashupati - Lord of Animals),
though some scholars suggest a female deity or other interpretations.
* Other Seals: Some seals depict narrative scenes, trees (pipal), or composite
creatures. The swastika symbol appears on some seals.
Religion
Determining IVC religious beliefs is challenging due to the undeciphered script and
lack of identifiable temples or large religious structures. Evidence suggests:
* Mother Goddess Worship: Numerous terracotta female figurines, often heavily
jeweled, suggest the prevalence of a Mother Goddess cult, likely associated with
fertility.
* Male Deity Worship: The "Pashupati Seal" suggests the worship of a male deity,
possibly a prototype of Shiva. Terracotta figurines of bearded males might also
represent deities. Possible evidence of phallic (lingam) worship exists.
* Nature Worship: Veneration of animals (humped bull, unicorn, tiger, elephant)
and trees (especially the Pipal tree) is indicated by their frequent depiction on
seals.
* Fire Worship: Fire altars found at sites like Lothal and Kalibangan suggest fire
rituals might have been practiced.
* Burial Practices: The dead were generally buried in pits, often laid north-
south. Grave goods like pottery and ornaments suggest a belief in an afterlife.
Cremation was also practiced, with ashes sometimes interred in urns. Unique burial
practices were noted at Kalibangan (circular pits without human remains) and Ropar
(dog buried with human).
Decline
The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization began around 1900-1800 BCE , leading
to the abandonment of major cities and a shift towards rural settlements (Late
Harappan phase). The causes are debated, with no single theory universally
accepted. The decline was likely a gradual process resulting from multiple
interacting factors.
* Aryan Invasion/Migration Theory: Once popular, suggesting invading Aryans
destroyed the cities. This is now largely discredited due to a lack of
archaeological evidence for widespread destruction or conquest and chronological
inconsistencies.
* Environmental & Climatic Factors:
* Climate Change: Increased aridity, weakening of monsoons.
* River System Changes: Drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) river system.
Changes in the course of the Indus River (avulsion). These would have severely
impacted agriculture and water availability.
* Floods & Tectonics: Evidence of repeated flooding at Mohenjo-Daro. Earthquakes
or tectonic uplifts could have altered river courses or caused destruction. The
"natural dam" theory proposed by Raikes/Dales suggests tectonic uplift near Sehwan
blocked the Indus, flooding Mohenjo-Daro.
* Ecological Degradation: Deforestation (possibly for firing bricks), overgrazing,
soil salinity, and general over-exploitation of resources could have damaged the
environment's carrying capacity.
* Decline in Trade: A decline in trade, particularly with Mesopotamia, might have
weakened the urban economy.
* Internal Factors: Possible breakdown of social order, administrative collapse,
or internal socio-cultural shifts.
The multi-causal nature of the decline is now widely accepted. Environmental
changes likely played a significant role, possibly exacerbated by unsustainable
practices or internal societal stresses, leading to the gradual abandonment of the
great cities and a shift towards smaller, more rural settlements in the Late
Harappan period.
Punjab's Role in IVC
The Punjab region was not peripheral but central to the Indus Valley Civilization.
* Harappa: The very first site discovered, giving the civilization its common
name, is located in Punjab (Pakistan).
* Indian Punjab Sites: Significant sites like Ropar and Sanghol demonstrate the
civilization's presence in present-day Indian Punjab.
* Continuity: Sites like Ropar show continuous occupation from Harappan times
through later historical periods, highlighting the region's enduring importance.
This establishes Punjab as a core area of India's first urbanization, predating the
later Vedic period often associated with the region (Sapta Sindhu).
II. The Vedic Age (Approx. 1500 BCE - 600 BCE)
Introduction & The Aryan Question
The Vedic Age marks the period following the decline of the Indus Valley
Civilization, characterized by the composition of the Vedas and the emergence of a
distinct culture associated with Indo-Aryan speaking groups. The origins and
arrival of these groups remain a subject of debate.
* Aryan Migration Theory: The traditional scholarly view posits that Indo-Aryan
speakers migrated into the Indian subcontinent, likely from Central Asia, around
1500 BCE. This theory is primarily based on linguistic evidence connecting Sanskrit
to the Indo-European language family and references within the Vedic texts. Early
versions proposed a forceful invasion that destroyed the IVC , but this is now
largely rejected by archaeologists due to lack of evidence. Current models favor
gradual migration, interaction, and cultural assimilation over centuries.
* Indigenous Aryanism / Out of India Theory (OIT): This alternative perspective
argues that the Indo-Aryans were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, that the
IVC was essentially Vedic, and that the Vedas date back much earlier, possibly to
the 3rd millennium BCE or before. This view often challenges linguistic
methodologies and emphasizes cultural continuity, identifying the Ghaggar-Hakra
river with the Vedic Sarasvati. It is often associated with nationalist viewpoints
and lacks broad acceptance in mainstream academia.
* Current Understanding: Most scholars accept the linguistic link to Indo-European
languages but reject the simplistic invasion model. The term "Aryan" is primarily
understood as a linguistic and cultural identifier, not a racial one. The process
is seen as complex, involving movements of people, cultural exchange, and
adaptation over a long period, leading to the formation of Vedic culture in the
Sapta Sindhu region. Archaeological evidence for large-scale migration remains
limited, and some genetic studies suggest population continuity.
Sources for the Vedic Age
Our understanding of the Vedic Age relies on two main types of sources:
* Vedic Literature: This constitutes the primary source. Composed in Vedic
Sanskrit , these texts were transmitted orally for many centuries before being
written down. Vedic literature is broadly divided into:
* Shruti ("that which is heard"): Considered divinely revealed, sacred, and
eternal. Includes the four Veda Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.
* Smriti ("that which is remembered"): Based on human memory and tradition,
considered secondary in authority to Shruti. Includes Vedangas (limbs of Veda -
ancillary sciences like phonetics, grammar, etymology, meter, ritual, astronomy),
Sutras (aphoristic texts on ritual, law, philosophy), the Epics (Ramayana,
Mahabharata), Puranas (mythology, history, cosmology), and Dharmashastras (law
books like Manusmriti).
* Archaeology: Provides material context.
* Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture: Often associated with the Later Vedic period
(c. 1200-600 BCE) and the geographical area of Aryan expansion in the Gangetic
plains.
* Iron Artifacts: The introduction and spread of iron technology is a key marker
of the Later Vedic period, facilitating agricultural expansion.
Vedic Literature Breakdown
The vast corpus of Vedic literature can be summarized as follows:
| Text Type | Key Texts/Examples | Core Content/Focus | Associated Veda (if
applicable) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vedas (Samhitas) | Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda | Core
collections of hymns, chants, sacrificial formulas, spells | N/A |
| Rig Veda | 10 Mandalas, 1028 Hymns | Oldest text; hymns praising deities (Indra,
Agni, Varuna); cosmology; Gayatri Mantra; Purusha Sukta | N/A |
| Sama Veda | | Melodies and chants for rituals, derived mainly from Rig Veda;
origins of Indian music | N/A |
| Yajur Veda | Krishna (Black) & Shukla (White) recensions | Ritual formulas and
procedures for sacrifices; prose passages | N/A |
| Atharva Veda | | Spells, charms, magic, folk beliefs, medicine, daily life
concerns | N/A |
| Brahmanas | Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Shatapatha, Gopatha etc. | Prose explanations
of hymns and rituals; detail sacrificial meanings and procedures | Each Veda |
| Aranyakas | Brihadaranyaka, Taittiriya etc. | "Forest Books"; mystical and
symbolic interpretations of rituals; bridge Brahmanas and Upanishads | Attached to
Brahmanas |
| Upanishads | Chandogya, Katha, Brihadaranyaka, Mundaka etc. | Philosophical core
(Vedanta); explore Atman, Brahman, karma, moksha; emphasize knowledge over ritual
| Conclude the Aranyakas |
Early Vedic (Rigvedic) Period (c. 1500 - 1000 BCE)
This period corresponds to the composition of the Rig Veda and reflects the life of
the early Indo-Aryan settlers in the Sapta Sindhu region.
* Geography: The Rigvedic people were primarily settled in the Sapta Sindhu
region, the land of seven rivers: Sindhu (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni
(Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipash (Beas), Shutudri (Sutlej), and the Sarasvati.
This area largely corresponds to modern-day Punjab (both India and Pakistan) and
parts of Afghanistan. They had limited knowledge of the sea and regions south of
Punjab.
* Society:
* Structure: Primarily tribal and semi-nomadic. The basic social unit was the
patriarchal family (Kula), headed by the Kulapa. Multiple families formed a Grama
(village), led by a Gramani. Groups of villages formed a Vis (clan), and multiple
clans constituted a Jana (tribe), the largest socio-political unit.
* Varna System: Society was largely egalitarian. While distinctions based on
occupation existed (priests, warriors, commoners), the Varna system was not rigid
or hereditary. The term 'Varna' might have initially referred to color/complexion
(Arya vs. Dasa).
* Position of Women: Women held a respectable position. They could participate
in assemblies like the Sabha , receive education, and even compose hymns (e.g.,
Lopamudra, Ghosha, Apala). Monogamy was the norm, though polygamy existed among
nobles. There was no evidence of Sati or child marriage.
* Lifestyle: Diet included milk, ghee, barley, vegetables, and meat (including
cattle). Soma and Sura were popular drinks. Clothing was made of cotton, wool, and
animal hides. Amusements included chariot racing, dicing, music, and dancing.
* Polity:
* Tribal Chiefdoms: The Jana was headed by a chief called Rajan. His position
was often based on ability and consent, sometimes elective, rather than strictly
hereditary. The Rajan was primarily a protector of the tribe and its cattle (often
called Gopati).
* Assemblies: Several tribal assemblies existed, checking the Rajan's power. Key
assemblies were the Sabha (likely an assembly of elders or elites), Samiti (a
larger folk assembly, possibly involved in electing the Rajan), Vidatha (perhaps
the earliest assembly with diverse functions), and Gana. Women participated in
Sabha and Vidatha.
* Officials: The Rajan was assisted by officials like the Purohita (chief priest
and advisor, e.g., Vasishta, Vishwamitra) , Senani (leader of the army in times of
war) , and Gramani (village headman or leader of fighting units). Vrajapati oversaw
pasture lands. Spies (Spasas) were employed.
* Warfare: Wars (Gavishti - literally 'search for cows') were frequent, fought
mainly over cattle rather than territory. The Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna),
fought on the banks of the Parushni (Ravi), is a significant conflict mentioned in
the Rig Veda, where King Sudas of the Bharata tribe defeated a confederacy of ten
tribes.
* Revenue: No system of regular taxation existed. People made voluntary
offerings (Bali) to the Rajan. There was no standing army; tribal militias
mobilized during wartime.
* Economy:
* Pastoralism: The economy was predominantly pastoral and semi-nomadic. Cattle
were the primary measure of wealth (Godhana) and a medium of exchange. Horses were
vital for chariots and warfare.
* Agriculture: Agriculture was a secondary occupation. Barley (Yava) was the
main crop cultivated. Knowledge of other crops was limited. Simple wooden ploughs
were used. Land was likely held communally.
* Crafts: Included carpentry (making chariots, ploughs), metalworking (Ayas,
referring to copper or bronze, not iron) , weaving (cotton, wool), pottery, and
tanning.
* Trade: Trade was limited, primarily based on the barter system. Cows served as
a standard unit of value. Nishka, a gold ornament, might have been used as a form
of currency later in the period. Transport involved chariots, wagons, and boats.
* Religion:
* Nature Worship: Rigvedic Aryans worshipped natural forces personified as
deities. Their religion is often described as Henotheism or Kathenotheism –
worshipping one god at a time as supreme.
* Deities: Major gods included Indra (god of war, thunder, rain; most hymns
dedicated to him; also called Purandara) , Agni (god of fire; intermediary between
gods and humans; second most important) , Varuna (god of cosmic and moral order,
Rita; later associated with water) , Soma (god of the sacred intoxicating
plant/drink) , Surya (Sun), Vayu (Wind), Prithvi (Earth), Usha (Dawn), Aditi
(Mother Goddess), Yama (God of Death). Female deities were fewer and less prominent
compared to male gods.
* Worship: Primarily involved prayers and offering sacrifices (Yajnas) of items
like milk, ghee, grain, and occasionally animals. Rituals were relatively simple
and performed outdoors or at home; no evidence of temples or idol worship. The main
aim of worship was to seek material benefits like cattle, sons, health, and victory
in war. There was a belief in life after death, but concepts like transmigration
were not yet fully developed.
Later Vedic Period (c. 1000 - 600 BCE)
This period witnessed significant changes as Aryan culture spread eastward into the
Gangetic plains and society became more complex and settled.
* Geography: The focus shifted eastward to the Ganga-Yamuna doab, encompassing the
Kuru-Panchala region, and further east to Kosala (eastern UP) and Videha (north
Bihar). Knowledge of the sea and the Vindhya mountains developed. The use of iron
(known as Krishna Ayas or Shyama Ayas) played a crucial role in clearing dense
forests for agriculture and settlement.
* Society:
* Structure: Marked by a transition to a settled agricultural life. The Varna
system became rigid, hierarchical, and hereditary, dividing society into four
distinct classes: Brahmins (priests, scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors, rulers),
Vaishyas (farmers, merchants, artisans), and Shudras (servers of the upper three
varnas). Brahmins and Kshatriyas occupied the top positions, often competing for
status. The Shudras faced increasing disabilities. The concept of untouchability
began to emerge towards the end of this period.
* Position of Women: Significantly declined compared to the Rigvedic period.
They were generally excluded from political assemblies like the Sabha and
Upanayana ceremony. Practices like child marriage started appearing, and polygamy
became more common.
* Gotra: The institution of Gotra emerged, signifying descent from a common
ancestor. Marriage within the same gotra was prohibited (Gotra exogamy).
* Ashramas: The system of four Ashramas (stages of life for upper-caste males:
Brahmacharya - student, Grihastha - householder, Vanaprastha - hermit, Sanyasa -
ascetic) was formulated, though likely more theoretical than practical for most.
* Lifestyle: Agriculture provided the mainstay. Rice (Vrihi) became a staple
alongside barley and wheat.
* Polity:
* Rise of Territorial States: Tribal polities (Janas) gave way to larger
territorial kingdoms known as Janapadas and Mahajanapadas towards the end of the
period. The term Rashtra (territory/state) first appeared.
* Kingship: Became more powerful and hereditary. The king's authority increased
significantly. Elaborate coronation rituals like Rajasuya (consecration),
Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice to assert imperial sovereignty), and Vajapeya (chariot
race) were performed to legitimize and enhance royal power.
* Assemblies: The influence of popular assemblies like Sabha and Samiti declined
as royal power grew.
* Administration: A rudimentary administrative machinery developed to assist the
king in managing larger territories. Collection of taxes (Bhaga - king's share of
produce, typically 1/6th or 1/12th) and tributes became more systematic and
compulsory (Bali evolved from voluntary offering to mandatory tax). Officials like
Sangrahitri (treasurer) and Bhagadugha (tax collector) are mentioned.
* Economy:
* Agriculture: Became the primary economic activity. The widespread use of iron
tools, including the iron ploughshare, significantly boosted agricultural
production, allowing for the cultivation of heavier soils in the Gangetic plains. A
wider variety of crops were grown, including wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet,
and sugarcane. The concept of private land ownership began to emerge.
* Crafts: Diversification and specialization in crafts increased. Metalwork
expanded with the use of iron, alongside copper, bronze, gold, and silver. Pottery
styles evolved, with Painted Grey Ware (PGW) being characteristic of this period.
Weaving, carpentry, leatherwork, and jewelry making continued.
* Trade and Urbanization: Trade and commerce expanded, facilitated by
agricultural surplus and improved crafts. Early urban centers (Nagara) began to
appear towards the end of the period. Merchant and artisan guilds (Shreni or Gana)
started forming. While barter likely continued, mentions of coins like Nishka,
Satamana, and Krishnala suggest the beginnings of metallic currency. Evidence
suggests maritime trade (knowledge of the sea).
 * Religion:
* Ritualism: Rituals and sacrifices became increasingly complex, elaborate, and
central to religious life, with Brahmins playing a dominant role. The correct
performance of sacrifices was deemed crucial.
* Deities: The importance of early Rigvedic gods like Indra and Agni diminished.
New deities gained prominence: Prajapati (The Creator) became supreme, while Vishnu
(The Preserver) and Rudra (The Destroyer, increasingly identified with Shiva)
formed the nascent Trimurti. Pushan came to be regarded as the god of the Shudras.
* Priesthood: Became more professionalized and hereditary.
* Folk Beliefs: Magic, spells, and superstitions, as reflected in the Atharva
Veda, gained more prominence.
* Philosophical Developments: Towards the end of the period, the Upanishads
emerged, marking a shift towards philosophical speculation. They questioned the
efficacy of rituals and sacrifices, emphasizing Jnana (knowledge) as the path to
liberation (Moksha). Central concepts like Atman (individual soul) and Brahman
(Ultimate Reality), karma, and rebirth were elaborated.
* Reaction: The growing complexity, cost, and exclusivity of Vedic rituals,
along with the rigid social hierarchy, created dissatisfaction and paved the way
for the rise of alternative religious movements like Jainism and Buddhism in the
6th century BCE.
The shift from the Early to the Later Vedic period signifies a profound
transformation in North Indian society. The adoption of iron technology was a key
driver, enabling agricultural expansion into the dense forests of the Gangetic
plains. This agricultural surplus fueled population growth, the development of
settled life, the emergence of territorial states (Janapadas), and increasing
social stratification marked by the rigid Varna system. Concurrently, religious
practices became more complex and ritualistic, dominated by the Brahmin priesthood.
This very complexity and social rigidity, however, spurred critical reflection,
evident in the Upanishads, and created fertile ground for the rise of heterodox
movements like Jainism and Buddhism that challenged the established Vedic order.
The archaeological signature of this era is often associated with the Painted Grey
Ware culture.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture
* Association: Archaeologically associated with the Later Vedic period (c. 1200-
600 BCE) and the Iron Age in North India.
* Geography: Found primarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley and the Upper Gangetic
plains, including regions of Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
* Characteristics:
* Pottery: Distinctive fine, wheel-made grey pottery painted with geometric
patterns (lines, dots, spirals, circles) in black or dark brown. Common shapes
include bowls and dishes. Often constitutes only a small percentage (3-10%) of the
total ceramic assemblage at a site, suggesting it might have been a deluxe or
ritual ware. Found alongside other wares like Plain Grey Ware and Black and Red
Ware.
* Settlements: Associated with village and town settlements, indicating a more
settled lifestyle than the Early Vedic period. Some larger sites show evidence of
fortifications. Houses were made of mud-brick or wattle-and-daub.
* Economy: Associated with agriculture (rice, wheat, barley) and animal
husbandry (cattle, sheep, pigs, horses).
* Technology: Critically linked with the advent and spread of iron metallurgy.
Iron tools (ploughs, sickles, axes) and weapons found at PGW sites. Other crafts
include ivory-working, bead making, and terracotta figurines.
* Historical Correlation: Often correlated with the Kuru-Panchala kingdom
mentioned in Later Vedic texts and the Mahabharata epic. Key Mahabharata sites like
Hastinapur and Kurukshetra are prominent PGW sites.
* Succession: PGW culture is succeeded by the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
culture, associated with the rise of Mahajanapadas and early historical
urbanization.
Punjab in the Vedic Age
The Punjab region, known in the Rig Veda as Sapta Sindhu (Land of Seven Rivers),
was the geographical heartland of the Early Vedic period. The Rig Veda itself was
largely composed in this region. Key events like the Battle of Ten Kings took place
on the river Ravi (Parushni) in Punjab. During the Later Vedic period, as the
center of culture shifted eastward towards the Gangetic plains, Punjab remained an
important region, featuring in later texts and associated with archaeological
cultures like PGW. The continuity from the Harappan period through the Vedic age
underscores Punjab's long and foundational role in ancient Indian history.
Comparison: Early Vedic vs. Later Vedic Period
| Aspect | Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic) (c. 1500-1000 BCE) | Later Vedic Period
(c. 1000-600 BCE) |
|---|---|---|
| Geography | Sapta Sindhu (Punjab region) | Expansion into Ganga-Yamuna Doab,
Eastern UP, North Bihar |
| Society | Semi-nomadic, pastoral, tribal, largely egalitarian. Varna flexible,
based on occupation. Women had high status. | Settled agricultural life. Varna
system rigid, hereditary. Caste hierarchy prominent. Women's status declined. Gotra
& Ashrama systems emerged. |
| Polity | Tribal chiefdoms (Jana). Rajan (chief) often elective, limited power.
Assemblies (Sabha, Samiti) important. | Territorial kingdoms (Janapadas, Rashtra).
Kingship hereditary, more powerful. Assemblies declined. Elaborate royal rituals
(Ashvamedha). |
| Economy | Primarily pastoral, cattle main wealth. Agriculture secondary (Barley).
Barter system. Copper/Bronze used. | Primarily agricultural. Iron tools widespread.
Rice, Wheat important. Private land ownership emerged. Trade grew, early
urbanization, guilds, coinage begins. |
| Religion | Nature worship (Indra, Agni, Varuna). Simple rituals/sacrifices. No
temples/idols. Focus on material gains. | Complex rituals/sacrifices dominant.
Prajapati, Vishnu, Rudra prominent. Priestly class powerful. Upanishadic philosophy
emerges (Jnana, Atman-Brahman). |
| Archaeology | Limited distinct archaeological culture identified. | Associated
with Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture and Iron Age. |
III. Rise of Jainism and Buddhism (6th Century BCE onwards)
Context of Origin
The 6th century BCE was a period of significant intellectual and religious ferment
in the Gangetic plains of India. This era witnessed the emergence of numerous new
religious and philosophical sects, including Jainism and Buddhism, largely as a
reaction against the prevailing socio-religious conditions of the Later Vedic
period.
* Reaction against Vedic Ritualism: The complex, expensive, and often animal-
sacrificing rituals of the Later Vedic period, dominated by the Brahmin priestly
class, became increasingly unacceptable to many sections of society. Both Jainism
and Buddhism offered simpler, more ethical, and accessible paths to salvation,
rejecting the efficacy of elaborate sacrifices.
* Challenge to Brahmanical Dominance: The rigid Varna system, which placed
Brahmins at the apex, led to social tensions. The Kshatriya class, to which both
Mahavira and Buddha belonged, reacted against the social and ritualistic supremacy
claimed by the Brahmins.
* Appeal to Lower Varnas and Merchants: The Varna system imposed restrictions and
inequalities, particularly on Vaishyas (traders, farmers) and Shudras. The
Vaishyas, despite growing economic power due to agricultural surplus and trade
expansion, held a lower social rank. Jainism and Buddhism, with their emphasis on
equality, non-violence (which appealed to traders wary of Vedic sacrifices harming
cattle), and rejection of birth-based hierarchy, attracted these groups.
* Use of Vernacular Languages: Unlike Vedic texts composed in Sanskrit (the
language of the elite), Mahavira and Buddha taught in Prakrit and Pali, the
languages of the common people, making their doctrines widely accessible.
* Influence of Upanishadic Thought: While rejecting Vedic authority, both
movements drew upon Upanishadic ideas like karma, rebirth (samsara), and liberation
(moksha/nirvana), but offered distinct interpretations and paths.
Jainism
Jainism is one of the ancient Indian religions, emphasizing non-violence,
asceticism, and self-control as the means to liberation.
* Tirthankaras: Jains believe their faith is eternal, revealed through successive
Tirthankaras ('ford-makers' or spiritual teachers) in different eras. There are 24
Tirthankaras in the current time cycle.
* Rishabhanatha (or Adinatha): The first Tirthankara. Symbol: Bull.
* Parshvanatha: The 23rd Tirthankara. Believed to have lived around the 9th-7th
century BCE. Advocated the first four great vows (Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya,
Aparigraha). Symbol: Serpent.
* Vardhamana Mahavira: The 24th and last Tirthankara, considered the historical
propagator of Jainism in the 6th century BCE. Symbol: Lion.
* Life of Mahavira:
* Birth: Born as Vardhamana around 599 BCE (Svetambara tradition) or 540 BCE
(traditional date) in Kundagrama near Vaishali, Bihar.
* Family: Belonged to the Jnatrika clan (Kshatriya). Father was Siddhartha,
mother was Trishala (a Lichchhavi princess). Sects differ on whether he married
Yashoda and had a daughter, Priyadarshana (Svetambara view) or remained celibate
(Digambara view).
* Renunciation: Left home at the age of 30 to seek spiritual awakening.
* Enlightenment: Practiced intense asceticism for 12.5 years. Attained Kaivalya
(omniscience, supreme knowledge) at the age of 42 under a Sal tree near
Jrimbhikagrama on the banks of the river Rijupalika. Became Mahavira (Great Hero)
and Jina (Conqueror).
* Teaching: Preached for 30 years, primarily in Magadha and Anga. Used Prakrit
language.
* Death (Nirvana): Attained liberation (Moksha/Nirvana) at the age of 72 (around
527 BCE or 468 BCE) at Pavapuri, near modern Rajgir in Bihar.
* Core Teachings and Philosophy:
* Ahimsa (Non-violence): The cornerstone of Jain ethics. Strict adherence to not
harming any living being (Jiva), including animals, insects, and plants, and even
minute organisms in air and water. This led to practices like vegetarianism,
filtering water, and avoiding agriculture for monks.
* Anekantavada (Doctrine of Manifold Aspects): Reality is complex and has
multiple facets; truth is relative to one's viewpoint. Promotes tolerance for
different views. Illustrated by the parable of the blind men and the elephant.
* Syadvada (Doctrine of Conditional Predication): All judgments are conditional,
holding good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses. Expressed
through the prefix 'Syat' (maybe).
* Nayavada (Theory of Partial Standpoints): Related to Anekantavada, it refers
to understanding truth from different partial standpoints.
* Triratna (Three Jewels): The path to liberation consists of: 1. Samyak
Darshana (Right Faith/View), 2. Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge), 3. Samyak Charitra
(Right Conduct). These three must coexist.
* Pancha Mahavrata (Five Great Vows): Strict vows for monks and nuns :
* Ahimsa (Non-violence)
* Satya (Truthfulness)
* Asteya (Non-stealing)
* Aparigraha (Non-possession/Non-attachment)
* Brahmacharya (Celibacy/Chastity) - This fifth vow was added by Mahavira to
the four taught by Parshvanatha. Lay followers observe less stringent vows called
Anuvratas.
* Karma Doctrine: Karma is viewed as subtle material particles that adhere to
the soul (Jiva) due to passions and actions, obscuring its innate purity and
causing bondage in the cycle of birth and rebirth (Samsara). Liberation (Moksha) is
achieved by stopping the influx of new karma (Samvara) and shedding existing karma
(Nirjara) through self-discipline, austerities (Tapas), meditation, and adherence
to the Triratna and Mahavratas. Sallekhana or Santhara (ritual fasting unto death)
is considered a way to purify karma at the end of life.
* Metaphysics: Jainism posits a dualistic reality consisting of Jiva (living
souls, conscious entities, infinite in number, present in humans, animals, plants,
and even elements like earth, water, air, fire) and Ajiva (non-living matter,
including space, time, motion, rest, and Pudgala - matter). The soul's true nature
is consciousness, bliss, and energy.
* Rejection of Creator God: Jainism does not believe in a creator God who
controls the universe. The universe is eternal and operates according to natural
laws and the process of karma. Gods exist but are also Jivas subject to karma and
rebirth, though living in heavenly realms due to good karma. They are not creators
or controllers and cannot grant liberation.
* Social Equality: Jainism strongly rejected the Vedic Varna system and preached
the equality of all souls.
* Jain Councils: These assemblies were convened to codify and preserve the sacred
teachings.
| Council | Time | Venue | Chairman | Patron | Key Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | c. 300 BCE | Pataliputra | Sthulabhadra | Chandragupta Maurya? |
Compilation of 12 Angas (replacing 14 Purvas); Beginning of Svetambara-Digambara
split |
| Second | c. 512 CE | Vallabhi | Devardhi Kshamasramana | - | Final compilation
and written documentation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas |
* Sects: The main division occurred around 300 BCE, primarily due to differing
practices during a famine in Magadha.
* Digambara ("Sky-clad"): Led south by Bhadrabahu. Adhere to stricter
asceticism, including nudity for monks. Believe women cannot attain Moksha in a
female body. Hold that original Agamas were lost. Depict Tirthankara idols as
unadorned with downcast eyes. Believe Mahavira was unmarried.
* Svetambara ("White-clad"): Remained in Magadha under Sthulabhadra. Monks and
nuns wear simple white robes. Believe women can attain Moksha. Claim to possess the
authentic Agamas compiled at the councils. Depict Tirthankara idols adorned, with
prominent eyes. Believe Mahavira was married.
* Jain Scriptures: The canonical texts are collectively known as Agamas or Agama
Sutras. Composed primarily in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. The Svetambara canon includes
12 Angas (limbs/main texts) and 12 Upangas (subsidiary texts), along with other
categories. Digambaras recognize parts of the early teachings but believe the
original Angas were lost. Important texts include the Acharanga Sutra (code of
conduct) and Bhagavati Sutra (doctrines).
* Spread and Patronage: Jainism spread from Bihar to other parts of India, notably
South India (Karnataka) and West India (Gujarat, Rajasthan). Royal patrons
included:
* Haryanka Dynasty: Possibly Bimbisara, Ajatashatru.
* Nandas: Mentioned in context of Bhadrabahu.
* Mauryas: Chandragupta Maurya famously became a Jain ascetic and migrated south
with Bhadrabahu. Samprati (Ashoka's grandson) was also a patron.
* Kalinga: King Kharavela (1st century BCE) was a major patron.
* Southern Dynasties: Ganga, Kadamba, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas (esp.
Amoghavarsha) patronized Jainism in the Deccan.
* Western India: Chalukyas (Solankis) of Gujarat (Siddharaja Jayasimha,
Kumarapala).
* Jainism appealed strongly to the trading community due to its emphasis on non-
violence (avoiding agriculture) and honesty.
Buddhism
Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), Buddhism offered a 'Middle Path' to
enlightenment, focusing on ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom.
* Founder: Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha ("the Awakened One").
* Life of the Buddha:
* Birth: Born c. 563 BCE as Siddhartha Gautama, a prince of the Shakya clan, in
Lumbini (near Kapilavastu, present-day Nepal). Father Suddhodana, Mother Maya (died
7 days after birth, raised by stepmother Mahaprajapati Gautami).
* Early Life: Raised in luxury, shielded from suffering. Married Yashodhara, had
a son Rahula.
* Four Sights: Encountered an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a peaceful
ascetic, which exposed him to the reality of suffering and inspired his quest.
* Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana): Left his palace and family at age 29
to seek enlightenment.
* Asceticism: Practiced extreme austerities for six years but found them
fruitless.
* Enlightenment (Nirvana/Bodhi): Achieved enlightenment at age 35 while
meditating under the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya (Bihar). Understood the nature of
suffering and its cessation.
* First Sermon (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta): Delivered his first sermon at the
Deer Park in Sarnath, near Varanasi, to his five former ascetic companions. Set in
motion the 'Wheel of Dharma', outlining the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold
Path.
* Teaching Career: Traveled and taught throughout the Gangetic plains for 45
years. Established the Sangha (monastic community of monks and nuns). Taught in
Pali/Prakrit.
* Death (Mahaparinirvana): Died at age 80 (c. 483 BCE) in Kushinagar (UP).
* Core Teachings and Philosophy:
* Four Noble Truths: The foundation of Buddha's teaching :
* The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Life inherently involves suffering,
dissatisfaction, impermanence.
* The Truth of the Origin of Suffering (Samudāya): Suffering arises from
craving (Tanha), attachment, and ignorance (Avidya).
* The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering (Nirodha): Suffering can cease by
eliminating craving and ignorance. This cessation is Nirvana.
* The Truth of the Path to the Cessation of Suffering (Magga): The way to end
suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path.
* Noble Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga): The practical guide to achieving
Nirvana, grouped into three categories :
* Wisdom (Prajna): Right Understanding/View, Right Thought/Intention.
* Ethical Conduct (Sila): Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood.
* Mental Discipline (Samadhi): Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right
Concentration.
* Middle Path (Madhyama Pratipad): Avoids the extremes of severe asceticism and
excessive sensual indulgence.
* Nirvana: The ultimate goal – cessation of suffering, extinction of desire,
hatred, delusion; liberation from the cycle of rebirth (Samsara).
* Pratītyasamutpāda (Dependent Origination): Core concept explaining the
interconnectedness and conditionality of all phenomena. Everything arises and
ceases due to specific causes and conditions; nothing exists independently.
Explains the cycle of suffering through the Twelve Links (starting with ignorance).
* Anatta/Anatman (No-Self): Rejection of a permanent, unchanging soul or self.
What we perceive as 'self' is an aggregate of constantly changing physical and
mental components (Skandhas).
* Anicca (Impermanence): All conditioned things are in a constant state of flux.
* Karma and Rebirth: Actions (Karma) driven by intention lead to consequences in
this life and future rebirths within Samsara. Liberation breaks this cycle.
* Rejection of Vedic Authority and Rituals: Buddha rejected the authority of the
Vedas, complex rituals, animal sacrifices, and the caste system. Emphasized ethical
conduct, compassion (Karuna), loving-kindness (Metta), and self-effort.
* Agnosticism on God: Buddha discouraged speculation about metaphysical
questions like the existence of a creator God, focusing instead on the practical
path to end suffering.
* Buddhist Councils (Sangitis): Held to codify doctrines and monastic rules
(Vinaya).
| Council | Time | Venue | Chairman | Patron | Key Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | c. 483 BCE | Sattapani Cave, Rajgriha | Mahakasyapa | Ajatashatru |
Compilation of Sutta Pitaka (Buddha's teachings, recited by Ananda) and Vinaya
Pitaka (monastic rules, recited by Upali) |
| Second | c. 383 BCE | Vaishali | Sabakami | Kalasoka | Addressed disputes over
Vinaya rules (Ten Points); led to the first major schism between Sthaviravadins
(Elders) and Mahasanghikas (Great Community) |
| Third | c. 250 BCE | Pataliputra | Moggaliputta Tissa | Ashoka | Purified Sangha;
compiled Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical analysis); dispatched missionaries to
various regions |
| Fourth | c. 72 CE | Kundalavana, Kashmir | Vasumitra | Kanishka | Addressed
doctrinal disputes; compilation of Mahavibhasa commentary; formal split between
Hinayana and Mahayana schools often associated with this council |
| Fifth | 1871 CE | Mandalay, Burma | | King Mindon | Recitation and inscription
of Pali Canon onto 729 marble slabs |
| Sixth | 1954 CE | Kaba Aye, Yangon (Burma) | | Burmese Govt. | Commemorated 2500
years of Buddhism; recitation and editing of Pali Canon |
* Buddhist Sects: Major divisions arose over interpretations of doctrine and
practice.
* Theravada ("Way of the Elders"): Claims to adhere closely to the original
teachings of the Buddha and the Pali Canon. Emphasizes individual liberation
through self-effort, wisdom, and meditation, aiming for the state of Arhat.
Predominant in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar.
* Mahayana ("Great Vehicle"): Emerged later (around 1st century BCE - 1st
century CE). Introduced new scriptures (Mahayana Sutras). Emphasizes compassion
(Karuna) and the Bodhisattva ideal – achieving enlightenment not just for oneself
but for the liberation of all beings. Developed concepts like Shunyata (emptiness)
and Trikaya (three bodies of Buddha). Predominant in East Asia (China, Japan,
Korea, Vietnam) and parts of Tibet.
* Vajrayana ("Diamond Vehicle"): Often considered a branch of Mahayana,
prominent in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, parts of Japan. Utilizes complex rituals,
mantras, mandalas, and tantric practices as skillful means (Upaya) to accelerate
the path to enlightenment. Emphasizes guru-disciple relationship.
* Buddhist Scriptures: The vast body of scriptures is generally categorized into
Canons.
* Pali Canon (Tripitaka/Tipitaka - "Three Baskets"): The primary scripture of
Theravada Buddhism, considered the earliest collection. Written in Pali. Consists
of:
* Vinaya Pitaka: Rules and regulations for the monastic community (Sangha).
* Sutta Pitaka: Discourses and sermons attributed to the Buddha and his close
disciples (includes Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara
Nikaya, Khuddaka Nikaya - which contains Dhammapada, Sutta Nipata, Jataka Tales,
Theragatha, Therigatha etc.).
* Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical and psychological analysis of doctrine.
* Mahayana Sutras: Additional texts revered in Mahayana Buddhism, composed later
(mostly in Sanskrit). Include Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra, Diamond Sutra, Lankavatara
Sutra, etc.. These are collected in the Chinese Buddhist Canon (e.g., Taishō
Tripiṭaka) and the Tibetan Buddhist Canon (Kangyur).
* Vajrayana Texts: Include Tantras, classified into different categories (Kriya,
Charya, Yoga, Anuttarayoga). Found in the Tibetan Canon (Kangyur and Tengyur). The
Tibetan Book of the Dead (Bardo Thodol) is a famous Vajrayana text.
* Spread and Patronage: Buddhism spread rapidly within India and later across
Asia.
* Royal Patrons: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru (Magadha rulers, contemporaries of
Buddha) , Ashoka (Maurya Emperor - crucial for spreading Buddhism across India and
abroad through missions) , Kanishka (Kushan Emperor - patronized Fourth Council,
Mahayana Buddhism) , Harsha (Vardhana Emperor).
* Mechanisms: Teachings in common languages, emphasis on equality, organization
of the Sangha, royal patronage, missionary activities.
Impact of Jainism and Buddhism on Indian Society and Culture
Both movements had a profound and lasting impact:
* Challenge to Caste System: Both religions rejected birth-based hierarchy and
preached equality, providing opportunities for lower castes and women. This
challenged Brahmanical dominance and contributed to social reform movements.
* Promotion of Non-Violence (Ahimsa): Especially central to Jainism, the principle
of Ahimsa deeply influenced Indian thought and ethics, including later movements
led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi. It also impacted agriculture and dietary habits
(vegetarianism).
* Development of Vernacular Languages and Literature: Teaching and composing
scriptures in Pali and Prakrit (and later regional languages) boosted the status
and development of these languages.
* Art and Architecture: Inspired magnificent artistic and architectural
traditions.
* Buddhist: Stupas (relic mounds, e.g., Sanchi ), Chaityas (prayer halls, often
rock-cut), Viharas (monasteries, often rock-cut, e.g., Ajanta, Ellora ), Pillars
(e.g., Ashokan pillars ), Sculpture (Buddha and Bodhisattva images - Gandhara,
Mathura, Sarnath schools ), Paintings (e.g., Ajanta frescoes ).
* Jain: Temples (Jainalayas, e.g., Dilwara temples at Mt. Abu, Girnar,
Palitana ), Caves (Gumphas, e.g., Udayagiri-Khandagiri ), elaborate statues (e.g.,
Gomateshwara at Shravanabelagola ), manuscript painting.
* Education: Monasteries (Viharas) like Nalanda, Vikramshila, Taxila (though pre-
Buddhist origins, flourished as Buddhist center ) became renowned centers of
learning.
* Ethics and Morality: Emphasized ethical conduct, compassion, non-attachment,
self-control, and rationality.
Jainism and Buddhism in Punjab
While the Gangetic plains were the epicenter, Punjab also witnessed the influence
of these religions.
* Buddhism: Ancient Punjab, including the Gandhara region (Taxila), was a
significant center for Buddhism, particularly Mahayana. Buddha himself is said to
have visited and preached in the Kuru region (part of greater Punjab). Ashoka
erected pillars and stupas in the region. The Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Hiuen
Tsang) noted flourishing Buddhist centers in Punjab, like Jalandhar, in the 7th
century CE. The Kushan ruler Kanishka, a great patron of Buddhism, held the Fourth
Council possibly in Kashmir or near Jalandhar. The archaeological site of Sanghol
in Punjab has yielded significant Buddhist remains (stupa, monastery) from the
Kushan period.
* Jainism: While less prominent than Buddhism historically in Punjab, Jain
communities existed. Jain influence might have been present, especially given the
region's trade connections.
IV. The Maurya and Gupta Periods
The Mauryan Empire (c. 322 BCE - 185 BCE)
The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya, was the first major empire to
unify large parts of the Indian subcontinent under a centralized administration.
* Establishment:
* Founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 322/321 BCE.
* Overthrew the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha with the guidance of his mentor
Chanakya (also known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta). Chanakya's strategies are
detailed in the later Sanskrit play Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta.
* Capital: Pataliputra (near modern Patna).
* Chandragupta consolidated control over the Gangetic plains and expanded
westward, taking advantage of the vacuum left by Alexander the Great's departure.
* Conflict with Seleucus Nicator: Defeated Seleucus I Nicator (Alexander's
general who controlled the eastern Hellenistic territories) around 305 BCE.
Chandragupta gained territories including Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, and Baluchistan.
A marriage alliance was also formed. Seleucus sent Megasthenes as an ambassador to
Chandragupta's court.
* Extent: The empire under Chandragupta extended across North India, into the
Deccan (as far south as Karnataka), and included parts of modern Afghanistan and
Pakistan. He conquered Malwa, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. The Junagadh inscription of
Rudradaman confirms Mauryan control over Saurashtra.
* Sources:
* Literary:
* Arthashastra: Attributed to Kautilya/Chanakya. A treatise on statecraft,
economic policy, and military strategy, providing detailed information on Mauryan
administration. However, its dating and authorship are debated, with some scholars
suggesting it's a later compilation, possibly reflecting post-Mauryan conditions.
* Indica: Written by Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador. The original work is
lost, but fragments survive in the writings of later Greek and Roman authors (like
Strabo, Arrian, Pliny). Provides valuable accounts of Mauryan administration
(especially Pataliputra), society, and economy.
* Puranas: Contain genealogies and lists of Mauryan kings.
* Buddhist Texts: Jatakas, Digha Nikaya, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa provide
information, especially on Ashoka.
* Jain Texts: Kalpasutra (by Bhadrabahu), Parishishtaparvan (by Hemachandra)
describe Chandragupta's conversion to Jainism.
* Mudrarakshasa: A later Sanskrit play by Vishakhadatta (Gupta period)
describing Chanakya's schemes against the Nandas.
* Archaeological:
* Ashokan Edicts: Inscriptions on pillars and rocks, providing direct evidence
of Ashoka's reign, policies (Dhamma), and administration. Deciphered by James
Prinsep in 1837-38.
* Material Remains: Punch-marked coins, Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
pottery, remains of the wooden palace at Pataliputra, pillars, stupas, caves.
* Rulers:
* Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322-298 BCE): Founder. Unified North India, defeated
Seleucus. According to Jain tradition, abdicated the throne, converted to Jainism,
and went south to Sravanabelagola (Karnataka) with Bhadrabahu, where he died by
Sallekhana (slow starvation).
* Bindusara (c. 298-272 BCE): Son of Chandragupta. Maintained the empire, had
contacts with Greek rulers (Antiochus I of Syria sent Deimachos as ambassador).
Conquered land between Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Favored the Ajivika sect.
Suppressed a revolt in Taxila, possibly sending Ashoka.
* Ashoka (c. 268-232 BCE): Son of Bindusara. Considered the greatest Mauryan
ruler.
* Kalinga War (261 BCE): Conquered Kalinga (modern Odisha). The immense
bloodshed and suffering in the war caused deep remorse. This event marked a turning
point in his life and policies. Described in Major Rock Edict XIII.
* Adoption of Buddhism: Embraced Buddhism after the Kalinga War. Became a
patron of the faith, supported the Sangha, sent missionaries to spread Buddhism
within India and abroad (Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, possibly even Greece). Convened
the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra.
* Policy of Dhamma (Dharma): Propagated a policy of Dhamma – an ethical code
of conduct based on tolerance, non-violence, respect for elders and all sects,
humane treatment of servants and animals, truthfulness, and social welfare. It was
not a specific religion but a moral law aimed at social responsibility and harmony.
Replaced Bherighosha (war drum) with Dhammaghosha (sound of peace). Appointed
Dhamma Mahamattas (officers of Dhamma) to propagate and supervise the policy.
* Edicts: Issued numerous edicts inscribed on rocks and pillars across the
empire to communicate his policies and Dhamma.
* Content: Prohibited animal sacrifice, promoted social welfare (medical
care, roads, wells), tolerance, respect for elders/teachers, humane treatment,
outlined Dhamma policy, described Kalinga war remorse. Mentioned southern kingdoms
like Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras, Satyaputras. Referred to himself as Devanampiya
(Beloved of the Gods) and Piyadasi (He who looks on with kindness). His name
"Ashoka" appears only in a few Minor Rock Edicts (Maski, Gujarra, Nittur,
Udegolam).
 * Locations: Major Rock Edicts found at sites like Girnar, Kalsi, Mansehra,
Shahbazgarhi, Dhauli, Jaugada, Sopara, Yerragudi. Minor Rock Edicts at Maski,
Brahmagiri, Bairat, Sasaram etc.. Pillar Edicts at Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Meerut,
Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva, Prayag (Allahabad). Separate Kalinga
Edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada declare "All men are my children". Barabar cave
inscriptions record donations to Ajivikas.
* Languages/Scripts: Primarily Prakrit language. Script varied by region:
Brahmi in most of India (deciphered by James Prinsep) [, S