III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU

2.1.1 General characters of Fishes

1. Fishes are aquatic, and cold blooded vertebrates.

2. Their body is divisible into head, trunk and tail. Neck is absent.
3. It has a spindle shaped body. It is helpful in swimming.
4. The body is covered by scales. They are placoid scales, cycloid scales, ctenoid scales, ganoid
scales etc.
5. Respiration is by gills. Gills are the extensions of the pharynx. In the elasmobranches fishes, the
gills will open separate. In bony fishes the gill slits are covered by operculum.
6. On the head a pair of nostrils are present internal nostril are absent. In Dipnoi internal nostrils
are present
7. On the head a pair of eyes is present.
8. On the lateral sides of the body Lateral line sense organs are present .They detect the pressure
changes of water.
9. The body shows paired and unpaired fins. Pelvic and pectoral fins are paired. Dorsal and ventral
fins are unpaired. They maintain balance in water. They are useful for locomotion.
10. The digestive system is well developed. In the intestine of shark scroll valve is present. The
nervous system contains brain and spinal cord. Brain is small & it will not occupy the entire cranial
cavity.
11. 10 pairs of cranial nerves are present.
12. Kidneys are mesonephric.
13. Urinary bladder is absent
14. The skeleton of some fishes is made by cartilage. They are called cartilage fishes. In some
fishes the skeleton is made by bone. They are called bony fishes.
15. In some fresh water fishes accessory respiratory organs are present. They will take up aerial
respiration.
16. Sexes are separate. In male sharks claspers are present.
17 Many fishes are oviparous. Some fishes are viviparous.
18. In the development of fishes amnion is not developed. Hence these animals are
called anamniotes.

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
2.1.2. Salient features Dipnoi

* The Dipnoi are a group of sarcopterygian fish, commonly known as the lungfish.
* Lung fishes are large, bizarre fishes, live in shallow continental waters and swamps in Africa,
South America and Australia. During the dry season, they are buried in mud entering a kind of
hibernation or lethargy.
* Lung fishes are slender fish-like or eel-like creatures, 1 to 2 meters in length.
* Body is covered by overlapping cycloid scales.
* Paired pectoral and pelvic fins are narrow lobe-like or filamentous, with a central axis of flesh
and bone.
* Dorsal, Anal and Caudal fins are fused to form a continuous, symmetrical, diphycercal tail,
supported by partly calcified fin rays.
* Snout is depressed bearing external nostrils enclosed within upper lip and two internal nostrils
open into the mouth cavity.
* Mouth is subterminal or ventral.
* Eyes are small.
* Endoskeleton is mostly cartilaginous.
* Both gill and pulmonary respiration take place in the lung-fishes. The nostrils help in aerial
respiration. Air-bladder (swim-bladder) is modified into the “lung”.
At present, the Dipnoi are represented by three genera occurring in widely separated tropical and
subtropical freshwater habitats. (Discontinuous distribution)
* They are considered as living fossils.
* There are only three genera of lungfish alive today and each is found on a single continent. The
Australian lungfish is Neoceratodus; in South America lives Leipdosiren; and Protopterus lives in
Africa.
Lungfish are believed to be the closest living relatives of the tetrapods, and share a number
of important characteristics with them.

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
2.2.1. Scoliodon: External features

Scoliodon, commonly known as the spiny dogfish, is a species of shark belonging to the
family Squalidae. It is characterized by several distinctive external features that contribute to its
survival and adaptation in its marine habitat. Let's explore these features:
1. Body Shape: Scoliodon has a fusiform (spindle-shaped) body, which is streamlined and
hydrodynamic, allowing for efficient movement through the water.
2. Dermal Denticles: The skin of Scoliodon is covered in dermal denticles, small tooth-like scales
that provide protection against abrasions and reduce friction with the surrounding water.
3. Coloration: The dorsal
surface of Scoliodon is
typically gray or grayish-
brown, providing camouflage
against the darker depths
when viewed from above. The
ventral surface is lighter in
color, which helps to
camouflage the shark from
predators looking up from
below.
4. Head and Snout: Scoliodon’s streamlined appearance and pointed head facilitate its quick
swimming motion. Take note of the prominent snout that gives this shark its common name,
spadenose shark.
5. Mouth and Teeth: Scoliodon has a large, terminal mouth located on the underside of the head.
The mouth is equipped with rows of sharp, triangular teeth, well-suited for grasping and tearing
prey.
6. Spiracles: Positioned behind the eyes, Scoliodon possesses a pair of small openings called
spiracles. These structures enable the shark to pass water over its gills while resting on the seafloor,
allowing for respiration even when the shark is stationary.
7. Fin Structure: Scoliodon possesses several distinct fins, each serving specific functions:
 Dorsal Fins: The two dorsal fins that are present are the first and second. These fins allow
for more stable swimming.
 Caudal Fin: The caudal fin, or tail fin, is forked, allowing for powerful and efficient
swimming.
 Pectoral Fins: The shark uses its pectoral fins on either side of the body to help it navigate
and maintain balance.

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
 Pelvic Fins: The shark’s stability and control are enhanced by its pelvic fins which are
situated on its ventral side.
 Anal Fin: Situated near the tail on the ventral side, the anal fin helps in mobility and
navigation.
7. Lateral Line: The shark uses its lateral line which runs the length of its body to help detect
vibrations and movement in the water.

In summary, the external features of Scoliodon are well-adapted to its marine environment,
providing it with the tools necessary for efficient swimming, hunting, and survival. From its
streamlined body shape to its specialized sensory organs, each feature contributes to the shark's
success as a predator in the ocean ecosystem.

2.2.2. Scoliodon: Digestive system

Scoliodons digestive system is a fascinating aspect of its biology, showcasing adaptations for
carnivorous feeding and efficient nutrient absorption. It follows a typical vertebrate pattern but
exhibits some modifications suited to its carnivorous diet. It consists of several organs and
structures, each playing a specific role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients.
1. Mouth and Buccal Cavity: Mouth is located ventrally and is equipped with numerous
sharp teeth for capturing and tearing prey. The
buccal cavity, the space behind the mouth, is
lined with mucous membranes and contains taste
buds that aid in locating food.
2. Pharynx and Esophagus: The pharynx
serves as a common passage for both food and
air. From the pharynx, the food enters the
esophagus, a muscular tube that transports it to
the stomach through peristaltic contractions.
3. Stomach: stomach is J-shaped, secretes
gastric juices containing hydrochloric acid and
digestive enzymes, facilitating the breakdown of
proteins and other macromolecules present in the
prey.
4. Liver: The liver is large and complex,
performing multiple functions essential for
digestion and metabolism. It produces bile,
which is stored in the gallbladder and released
into the intestine to aid in the emulsification and
digestion of fats.

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
5. Pancreas: The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the intestine, further breaking
down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the
body.
6. Intestine: The intestine is divided into two regions: the anterior small intestine and the
posterior large intestine. The small intestine is the primary site of nutrient absorption,
where villi and microvilli increase the surface area for absorption. The large intestine is
responsible for reabsorbing water and electrolytes from undigested food material.
7. Rectum and Anus: The rectum stores fecal matter temporarily before it is expelled from
the body through the anus.
8. Digestive Glands: In addition to the liver and pancreas, other digestive glands scattered
throughout its digestive tract, secreting enzymes and other substances to aid in digestion.
9. Cloaca: It is a common chamber that receives waste products from the digestive, urinary,
and reproductive systems before they are expelled from the body.
10. Adaptations: The digestive system is adapted for processing a diet consisting mainly of
fish, crustaceans, and other small marine organisms. Its sharp teeth and powerful jaws
facilitate efficient prey capture and mastication. The presence of strong digestive enzymes
enables rapid breakdown of prey tissues, ensuring effective nutrient extraction.

2.2.3 Scoliodon: Respiratory system

The respiratory system of Scoliodon is

an intricate network of organs and
tissues responsible for the exchange of
gases, primarily oxygen and carbon
dioxide, between the organism and its
environment. This system ensures the
efficient uptake of oxygen required for
cellular respiration while expelling
metabolic waste in the form of carbon
dioxide. Let's explore its structure in
detail:
1. Nasal Region: Scoliodon possesses
paired external nares, or nostrils, which
serve as the primary entry point for
respiratory gases. Inside the nasal
region, the nasal cavity is lined with
mucous membranes containing
olfactory receptors, aiding in the
detection of odors and potentially
assisting in locating food sources.

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
2. Pharynx: The nasal cavity leads posteriorly into the pharynx, a common passageway for both
the respiratory and digestive systems. The pharynx serves as a junction where the respiratory
pathway diverges towards the respiratory organs while the digestive pathway leads to the
esophagus.
3. Gills: The hallmark of aquatic respiration in Scoliodon is its gills, which are highly specialized
structures for gas exchange. Scoliodon possesses five pairs of gills located on each side of the
pharynx. Each gill consists of a series of gill arches, which support the gill filaments.
4. Gill Filaments: Extending from each gill arch are numerous gill filaments, arranged in a comb-
like fashion. These filaments greatly increase the surface area available for gas exchange. The gill
filaments are richly supplied with blood vessels, facilitating the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide across the respiratory membrane.
5. Operculum: Each gill slit is covered by a protective flap of tissue known as the operculum. The
operculum helps regulate the flow of water over the gills and protects them from damage. It opens
during inhalation, allowing water to pass over the gills, and closes during exhalation to prevent the
entry of debris.
6. Countercurrent Exchange: Blood flow through the gills of Scoliodon is arranged in a
countercurrent fashion, optimizing the efficiency of gas exchange. This means that blood flows in
the opposite direction to the water passing over the gills, maximizing the diffusion gradient for
oxygen uptake and minimizing the loss of oxygen to the environment.
7. Respiratory Pigments: Scoliodon possesses respiratory pigments, such as hemoglobin, within
its blood. These pigments bind with oxygen molecules, enhancing the capacity of the blood to
transport oxygen from the gills to the body tissues. This ensures efficient oxygen delivery to cells,
supporting metabolic processes.
8. Exhalation: After oxygen has been extracted from the water and carbon dioxide has been
released, the water exits through the gill slits. Exhalation in Scoliodon is a passive process driven
by the elastic recoil of the gill filaments and the closure of the operculum.
In summary, the respiratory system of Scoliodon is intricately adapted for efficient gas exchange
in its aquatic environment. From the entry of water through the nasal region to the countercurrent
exchange mechanism in the gills, each component plays a vital role in ensuring the oxygen supply
necessary for the organism's survival.

2.3.1 Scoliodon Structure and function of Heart

Heart:
The heart of Scoliodon lies mid-ventrally beneath the pharynx in the head region. It is
a simple dorso-ventrally bent S-shaped muscular tube. It lies in the pericardial cavity,
bounded by a two-layered membranous pericardium. It is a median triangular cavity lying
between the gills with the apex directed forwards, and is almost completely occupied by t he
heart. The heart of Scoliodon contains only the impure blood, hence, it is called venous or
branchial heart.
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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
The heart consists of four chambers:
a. The sinus venosus, b. The atrium, c. The ventricle and d. The conus arteriosus.

a. Sinus venosus: It is a highly contractile thin-walled tubular chamber. The beating of the
heart originates from this part. Two great veins, the ductus Cuveiri, open into the sinus
venosus, one on each lateral side. Two hepatic sinuses enter the sinus venosus posteriorly.
The sinus venosus opens into the auricle by sinuauricular aperture which is guarded by a
pair of valves.
b. Auricle: The auricle is a large, triangular and thin walled chamber situated dorsal to the
ventricle but in front of the sinus venosus. The auricle communicates with the ventricle
through a slit-like auriculo-ventricular aperture guarded by two lipped valves. The
receiving chambers (sinus venosus and auricle) receive the venous blood from all parts of the
body.
c. Ventricle: The ventricle has a very thick muscular wall. Its inner surface gives many
muscular strands, which gives it a spongy texture. It is an oval chamber and constitutes the
most prominent part of the heart. The conus arteriosus is a stout median muscular tube arising
from the ventricle.
d. Conus arteriosus: The lumen of the conus arteriosus is provided with two transverse rows
of semilunar valves. To keep the valves in position the free ends o f the valves are attached to
the ventricular wall by fine tendinous threads called chordae tendinae. The conus arteriosus
is continued forward as the ventral aorta.
Working of Heart: The function of the heart is to receive the deoxygenated blood from all
parts of the body and to pump it for aeration to the gills. Such a type of heart is designated as
the venous or branchial heart, because only the deoxygenated blood circulates through it.

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
2.3.2. Scoliodon Structure and functions of the Brain.

In Scoliodon the brain lies enclosed within the chondrocranium and is made of the same
three basic parts of the vertebrate brain-forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
1. Forebrain: The forebrain consists of a massive undivided cerebral hemisphere.
Cerebral hemisphere: The cerebral hemisphere is relatively larger than that of other fishes.
Olfactory lobe: From the anterior end of cerebral hemisphere arise two stout olfactory
peduncles; each terminates into a large bilobed olfactory lobe.The olfactory lobes lie close
to the olfactory capsules. Each olfactory nerve is composed of many bundles of nerve fibres.
The surface of the cerebrum is smooth and the walls are thick. A small opening called the
neuropore is present on the mid-ventral surface of the cerebrum.

Diencephalon: The posterior part of forebrain (diencephalon) is very short. The roof of the
diencephalon is thin, non-nervous and contains the anterior choroid plexus. The lateral
walls of the diencephalon form two thickened bodies called thalami. A long and slender tube,
the pineal organ or epiphysis cerebri projects from the roof of the diencephalon. The floor of
the diencephalon (or hypothalamus) is well-formed. A hollow infundibulum is given off from
the floor of the diencephalon.
The infundibulum is dilated to form two oval thick-walled bodies called lobi inferiores whose
distal ends are produced into two thin-walled glandular sacs called sacci vasculosi. The lobi
inferiores are the centres for gustation and smell.
The hypophysis is attached to the infundibulum. The optic chiasma lies in front of the
infundibulum. The optic chiasma is formed by the decussation of the nerve fibres of two optic
nerves.

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
2. Midbrain: The midbrain is large and consists of two round optic lobes. The optic lobes are
situated behind the diencephalon. The floor and the side walls are relatively thicker. The
midbrain is considered as the centre of coordination.
3. Hind indbrain: The hindbrain consists of a highly developed cerebellum and a medulla
oblongata.
Cerebellum: The dorsal surface of the cerebellum produces many irregular convolutions. The
cerebellum contains a small cavity. The cerebellum is also a centre of co-ordination. The
cerebellum is divided into three lobes by two well-marked transverse furrows.
Medulla oblongata: The medulla oblongata is triangular and the anterior end gives a pair of
hollow corpora restiformia with trace of convolutions in adults. The medulla controls
respiration. Two corpora restiformia are connected by the transverse nerve band. The roof of
the medulla oblongata is non-nervous and bears the posterior choroid plexus. The hind- brain
controls swimming movements.
Ventricles: The ventricles of the brain are moderately developed. The cerebral hemispheres
contain narrow lateral ventricle. The third ventricle is extended forward about half the length
of the cerebral hemispheres. The floor of the fourth ventricle is very much thickened. The
fourth ventricle is large and extends dorsally into the cerebellum and is continuous behind
with the cavity of the spinal cord. The iter (i.e., the communicating duct between the third
and the fourth ventricles) is wider. Although the cerebrum is undivided, there are two lateral
ventricles which are continued to the rhinocoels (cavity of the olfactory lobes).

2.4.1 Migration in Fishes

Migration is the orderly movement of animals from one place to another place in search of
food, breeding habitat and better climate. Distances can range from a few meters to thousands of
kilometers. Fish typically live in a constant habitat and restrict their movements within a specific
territory. However, several fish species migrate between freshwater and saltwater.
Causes of fish migration
 In search of food (Alimental migration)
 For reproduction or spawning (Gametic migration)
 For protection (Protective migration)
 For better climate (Climate migration)
 For Osmoregulation (Osmoregulatory migration)
Factors affecting fish migration
Physical factor: Light, Temperature, turbidity, depth of water etc.
Chemical factor: Salinity, pH value etc
Biological factor: Predators, Competitors, shortage of food, hormonal secretion etc.

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
Types of fish migrations
Based on direction Myers recognized three patterns of fish migration. They are as followed
1. Potamodromous fishes: Migration from one place to another only with in fresh water. Ex.
Carps, Catfish
2. Oceanodromous fishes: Long journey from one place to another with in sea. Ex. Herrings,
Cod, Tuna.
3. Diadromous fishes: Fish migration between fresh water and seawater. It is further classified
into the following three types.
i. Anadromous
Journey of marine fishes from sea to fresh water for spawning is called anadromous
migration. Ex. Salmon, Trout, shad and Lamprey etc.
Salmon travels thousands of kilometers in the sea and then several hundred kilometers into
the fresh water rivers to reach the spawning grounds. They migrate in pairs. In the course of the
journey, female salmon develop black spots and male salmon develop red spots. The reproductive
organs ripen and the alimentary canal shrinks. Females lay the eggs in saucer shaped nests. Then
the male releases the sperms and the eggs are fertilized. After egg laying the spent fishes returns
to their home. It takes about a year to complete this upstream and downstream journey. Salmon
attain sexual maturity in about seven years. After attaining full sexual maturity, they return to fresh
water rivers for breeding purpose.
ii. Catadromous
Fish migration from fresh water to ocean for spawning is called catadromous migration.
Ex. Fresh water eel (Anguilla sps).
European eels are yellow when they are feeding and growing. A change in color to silver
indicates the breeding phase. A male eel aged 8-10 years and a female eel aged 10-18 years prepare
for migration. Their feeding stops, digestive tract shrinks and become function less. Gonads
enlarged, the eyes become large, lips thinner and the pectoral fins becomes more pointed. They
travel 3-4 thousands kilometers. It is believed that the eel spawn at the depth of about 400-500
meters below surface at 16-170C. The parents die after spawning. Eggs hatched into a larva known
as Leptocephalus. It takes three years in reaching home.
iii. Amphidromous
Migration of fishes from sea to rivers and vice versa, but not for breeding purpose is called
amphidromous migration. This is mainly for food and change of environment. Ex. Gobies fishes.
Fish migrations based on food, spawning, climate and water current
Spawning migration: Migration from feeding to breeding place. Ex. Hilsa
Feeding migration: Migration from breeding to feeding place. Ex. Eel

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU
Climatic migration: Migration occurs in response to harsh climatic conditions. Ex. arctic and
subarctic fishes migrate in ordered to avoid ground ice, surface ice and cold water.
Contranatant migration: Movement of migratory fishes against the water current.
Detanatant migration: Movement of migrating fishes in the direction of water. Ex. Adult salmon
from sea to river.
Some other movements also fund in fishes like
Latitudinal Migration: Migration from north to south and vice versa. Ex. Sword fish
Vertical migration: Up and down migration in the water body to search food and protection. Ex.
Mackerel.
Overwintering migration: Overwintering is the inactive stage of lifecycle of fishes in which they
stop feeding less consumption of oxygen, low activities etc. to search the proper place for that
period they migrate, Ex. flatfishes
Shoreward migration: Temporary movement of fishes on land. Ex. Common eel can travel in
moist land found in between two ponds.
Advantages of fish migration
Migration has multiple advantages such as
 Fish get more food, better climatic condition and breeding place
 Fish gets better adapting in new places.
 There will be wide distribution
 Less competition.
Disadvantages of fish migration
It includes
1. Long journey is wasteful and many migrating fishes get lost while migrating.
2. Numerous migrating fishes are eaten by predators.
3. Dams construction check migration and the concerned fish species become extinct.

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III SEM U2 - Fishes BIOLOGY OF CHORDATES K HARISH BABU

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