Table of Contents

Present and Justify a Problem and Solution Requirements.......................................

Egypt grand challenges..............................................................................................

Recycle garbage and waste for economic and environmental purposes.

..............................................................................................................................

Address and reduce pollution fouling our air, water, and soil.........................

Improve uses of arid areas.............................................................................

Manage and increase the sources of clean water...........................................

Increase the industrial and agricultural bases of Egypt.................................

The problem to be solved.........................................................................................

The management of the pollution and potential health hazards caused

by agriculture drainage and domestic sewage at Rosetta Nile Branch...............

Positive consequences...................................................................................

Negative consequences..................................................................................

Research...................................................................................................................

Topics related to the problem........................................................................

Topics related to the Solution........................................................................

Other solutions already tried....................................................................................

New Cairo Water Station Project...................................................................

New Delta Irrigation Water Treatment Plant.................................................

Beach Filtration for RO Desalination in Sharm El-Sheikh...........................

Zenein Wastewater Treatment Plant..............................................................

Generating and Defending a Solution......................................................................

Solution requirements..............................................................................................
Design Requirements...............................................................................................

Selection of Solution................................................................................................

Selection of Prototype..............................................................................................
Chapter 1
Present and Justify a Problem and Solution
Requirements

Egypt grand challenges

Egypt as a developing country faces numerous challenges that hinder its
development, namely “Egypt’s
grand challenges”. These challenges
affect various aspects of life in
Egypt. There are 11 grand
challenges as shown in Figure 1.
All of Egypt’s grand challenges are
interconnected as each causes the

Figure 1 shows Egypt's Grand Challenges

other. Challenges like alternative energies, population growth, the scientific and
technological environment, climate change, and public health threaten Egypt.
The problem of alternative energies means depending on fossil fuels and thus
causes air pollution. Egypt's scientific and technological environment is not as
advanced or developed as it needs to be. Climate change is a global crisis which
essentially means the change in climate and weather. The public health in Egypt
faces many problems in Egypt due to medical complications. Population growth
is the basis of most of Egypt’s problems. Egypt’s population is 114,484,252 for
2024, significantly impacting life in Egypt, resulting in severe crises such as
overpopulation. Health is majorly affected because of overpopulation, as well as
the use of unsustainable energy resources. The lack of use of alternative
energies stems from overpopulation. The scientific and technological
environment in Egypt is in shambles, due to overpopulation. Ultimately, it
affects the type of energy used, the quality of life, and, more importantly, the
climate change crisis. Every single challenge in Egypt contributes to the global
climate change crisis, which must be dealt with as soon as possible. Climate
change causes many problems whether environmentally or societal. All these
problems have extremely degenerated Egypt’s economy, but Egypt still has the
potential.

Recycle garbage and waste for economic and

environmental purposes.
Waste mismanagement is a global challenge regarding environmental pollution,
social presence, and economic
sustainability. Awareness should be
spread in developing and transition
countries, where there is no awareness
about the unsustainable management of
waste. The amount of waste produced by Figure 2: The number of waste in the world in millions per year.
Africa is 269 million tons per year, as Zia, U. U. R., Rashid, T. U., Ali, M., & Awan, W. N.
shown in Figure (2). (2020). Techno-economic assessment of energy generation
through municipal solid waste: a case study for small/medium
The attention should be drawn to the size districts in Pakistan. Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy,
contrasts between the developing big 2(4), 337–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42768-020-00056-7
countries and rural areas, where management matters are different, where the
amount of waste is huge, and the amount of waste facilities is low because both
two areas suffer from poor economic legislation, political, technical, and
functioning boundaries.
Egypt still suffers from solid waste management despite the national and
local efforts to eliminate it, that is because of the unsuitable waste handling,
packing, gathering, treatment, and removal systems that still pose serious
environmental and public health difficulties. So, the value of the challenge has
increased because of the rapid population growth, fast-growing urbanization
rate, industrialization, and shifting of consumption rates in Egypt that led to
escalated quantities of generated waste.
Recycling activities in Egypt did not go over (20 percent) of the generated
garbage. However, the World Bank, in its report by METAP in 2008, presented
different figures about recycling activities. The data that was shown in the
report shows that recycling activities are restricted to 2 per cent, composting to
8 percent, garbage in landfill is 2 percent and 88 percent of the collected
garbage is freely dumped. Which lead to environmental pollution, loss of
possible economic profits, and absence of clean land filling sites.

Causes
 The huge generation of waste:
In 2012, Egypt produced 89.03 million tons of solid waste, including 21
million tons of municipal solid waste, 30 million tons of Agricultural waste, 6
million tons of Industrial waste, 28,300 tons of hazardous medical waste, 4
million tons of construction
demolition waste, 25 million
tons of waterway cleansing,
and 3 million tons of sludge.
Cairo is the city that produces
waste with 15,000 tons of
waste, then comes Giza with
Figure 3: Waste Composition in Egypt.
4,500 tons of waste. In 2016,
Milik, S. M. (2021). Assessment of solid waste management in
according to the Report on
Egypt during the last decade considering
Environmental Status of
Egypt, the generation of waste was around 90 million tons of waste. As shown
in Figure 3, the waste composition in percentage for each type of waste.
 Inadequate budget:
The solid waste management (SWM) financial sources are insufficient as
the allocated budget and the available resources do not cover the cost of SWM
developments and activities. The main source for funding SWM in Egypt is the
central government, with the cleansing fund and other funds like donors' funds
that help SWM, and usually, the funds are sent to non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) or NGOs in cooperation with Ministries. So, there is no
direct fund for SWM through the central government budget, but it follows the
central government supervision in other fields. As a result, the SWM has no
earnings to improve its facilities by, for example, buying modernized collections
or treatment equipment.
 The lack of awareness of people:
One of the main causes of solid waste mismanagement (SWM) is the lack
of awareness of people about SWM, especially in rural areas like Qena, Sohag,
and Minya, because of the low education level and awareness about recycling
problems and the challenges that Egypt suffers from.
Most people in rural areas do not know the importance of recycling and the
harm of not paying attention to it. In addition, many children in Egypt do this
behavior automatically because they see older people doing it. This habit is
often widespread in rural areas due to a lack of interest in education.
The generation of waste in rural areas per capita is 0.5 to 0.6 KG/day, and in
urban areas, it is around 1.0. Rural areas produce 70 – 80% organic waste with
about 2/3 of food leavings and 1/3 of animal manure; rural areas also produce
approximately 6% plastic waste, 6% diapers, that is because they like to have
many children, 4% paper and cardboard, 2& glass, and 1% metals.

Impacts

 Gases emissions of the waste:

 The generation of waste produces
greenhouse gas emissions, especially from
solid waste disposal sites, wastewater
handling, and waste incineration. As shown
in Figure 4, the amounts of emissions from
various types in the waste sector in 2000, also
in this year, the waste sector produced more
than 99% of methane, and solid waste
disposal being the prime source with the
production of 11.694 Mt CO2e that Figure 4: GHGs emissions of the waste sector in 2000
represented about 67% of the total GHG
emissions from the waste sector.
 Pollution:
Burning any kind of
waste, or open burning in
general in Egypt, increases
the PM2.5 emissions in the
air. As shown in Figure 5,
open burning, especially in Figure 5: Sources of ambient PM at six sites in Greater Cairo between 1999 and 2002
2.5

the Delta region, increases the emissions of PM 2.5 by about 35%, which leads to
many miserable diseases like ischemic heart disease (IHD) and cardiovascular
lung. Hence, the number of diseases has reached 12 thousand per year because
of this particulate matter PM2.5.

 Resource depletion:
The lack of recycling leads to the depletion and reduction of the original
resources because when new products are made, pure materials must be used.
The recycling process plays an important role in saving raw materials, for
instance, recycling 1 ton of paper can save more than 17 trees from cutting
danger, and it can save the energy that could be used in tree cutting and
transporting it to the factories.
 Address and reduce pollution fouling our air, water, and
soil
Pollution is the addition of any Harmful substance to the environment. Those
harmful substances are called Pollutants. Egypt was ranked the 9th among the
most polluted countries in the year 2022,
as shown in Figure (6). This shows how
Big the pollution problem is in Egypt. In
addition, Cairo was ranked 126th among
the most polluted cities in the year 2022.
Pollutants are harmful Substances that
affect the environment Badly. Industrial
production and Commercial service are
found to be the main solid pollutants with
41.4%. And the oil industry accounts for Figure 6: percentage of each type of pollution in Egypt
14.1% of pollutants (EEA, 2017) as
Shown in Figure (6). The health burden
associated with air pollution was
estimated at EGP47 billion in 2016-17 in
Greater Cairo alone, or 1.35% of GDP,
according to the World Bank (Larsen,
2019). The cost of the toll on health due
to air pollution resulting from the burning
of fossil fuels was estimated at more than
EGP100 billion in 2018, or 2.8% of GDP Figure 7: the immense Fertilizers consumption per year in Egypt
(Greenpeace, 2020). Not all pollution is
air pollution as Egypt also suffers from soil Pollution. Agriculture soil in Egypt
suffers from a big problem Which is represented in chemical Pesticides
consumption (EC, 2018) as shown in Figure (7).

Causes
 Waste Mismanagement:
Egypt has a lack of recycling wastes which it is in the 7th position of the
list of countries with the most mismanaged plastic wastes, Egypt has been
facing with wastes management for about two decades the private sector wastes
management industry is facing due to structural problems in the industry, and
the markets have a lack of products of recycling. According to annual report of
waste management statistics in Egypt
was reported in 2013, Egypt has
generated a total of 89.03 million tons of
solid wastes and the most serious part of
it were municipal solid wastes calculated
at 21 million tons, in addition to. 6
million tons of industrial waste, 28,300
tons of Hazardous medical waste, 30
million tons of Agricultural waste, etc.
As shown in Figure 8.
Increasing waste can cause soil and water and air pollution. Therefore, global
warming will increase burning waste in landfills and increase the emissions of
greenhouse gases which cause global warming. When the amount of waste
increases, the people, through the waste in water, so, the sources of clean water
will pollute and maybe cause desertification, drought, and several problems.
 Soil and water contamination:

Egypt is facing an annual water deficit of around 7 billion cubic meters

due to the pollution of Egypt’s water sources. Toxic substances mix easily with
water creating water pollution, making it toxic to humans and the environment.
Acid rain can increase acidity in the water which is toxic to aquatic organisms
Figure 8: Distribution of solid waste generated in Egypt
and can affect their survival. Also, oil spills in water can damage aquatic
organisms. Soil pollution is caused by hazardous chemicals or other alterations
in the natural soil environment. It is caused by industrial activity, agricultural
chemicals, and improper disposal of waste. This can affect soil fertility and
make it harder to grow crops. It can also pollute the crops, which affects the
food and can cause diseases.
 Industrial Emissions:

The industrial sector is an important user of water and a contributor to

pollution. Egypt, the most industrialized nation on the Nile, is experiencing a
significant decrease in the quality of its surface and groundwater because of an
increase in the discharge of contaminated industrial and household wastewater.
There are estimated to be some 24,000 industrial enterprises in Egypt, about 700
of which are major industrial facilities that contaminated the water. Egyptian
industry uses 638 × 106 m3 y-1 of water, of which 549 × 106 m3 y-1 is
discharged back to the river. With 40% of the nation's water used by large cities
like Cairo and Alexandria, industrial activity is focused in these areas.

The water quality in the southern region of

Upper Egypt is seriously compromised by the
sugar cane industry, while the northern region
of Upper Egypt is impacted by the
hydrogenated oil and onion-drying facilities.
More than 50% of biological oxygen demand
(BOD) is caused by the food processing sector,
while more than 60% of heavy metal
Figure 9: CO2 emissions by sectors
discharges are caused by the chemical industry.

Total CO2 emissions in Egypt are estimated at about 180 Megaton per year.
The division of CO2 emissions in sectors is shown in Figure 9. The estimate
shows that roughly 60% of CO2 emissions in Egypt are caused by the industry.

Impacts
 Health Problems:
Public health is directly threatened by pollution. With regard to illness or
disability, it reduces
Egyptians' life expectancy
by an average of two years.
19,200 people died
prematurely and over 3
billion days were lived with
illness in Egypt in 2017 Figure 10: Disease caused by inhaling PM2.5
because of ambient PM2.5
air pollution in Greater Cairo, and inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene in
all of Egypt. Air pollution caused 90,559 premature deaths in Egypt in 2019 and
over 12% of all deaths in 2017. The World Health Organization database
indicates that in Egypt in 2016, heart disease (57.9%), stroke (17.7%),
pulmonary and lower respiratory disorders, and cancer (24.4%) were the
illnesses linked to air pollution that caused early mortality. In Egypt,
noncommunicable illnesses account for 82% of deaths and 67% of premature
deaths, making them the leading cause of death.
The health problems outcomes had increased due to the presence of ambient
PM2.5 with huge amounts in Egypt air, The exposure to high amounts pf PM 2.5 is
a primary reason for many diseases like ischemic heart disease (IHD),
cerebrovascular disease (stroke) (CBV), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD), lung cancer, and diabetes Type II among adults (25+ years of age), and
acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) among children and adults (all ages)
As shown in Figure 10.
The annual deaths
because of PM2.5
exposure in Greater
Cairo accounted for
12,000 to 13,000 in
2017. About 59% of
the estimated deaths Figure 11: shows the annual deaths because of PM2.5 exposure

from ambient PM2.5

are due to ischemic heart disease (IHD), 14% due to acute lower respiratory
infections (ALRI), 13% due to stroke, and 14% due to COPD, lung cancer and
diabetes Type II, as shown in Figure 11.
About 38 million people get water that has been contaminated. Also, there
is an estimated 4.5 million tons of industrial pollutants—either untreated or
partially treated—enter the water system annually. It was noted that pollution
from Egypt's many cities—Cairo accounts for 35% of poisoning cases, Giza for
12%, and Qalyubiyah for 50%—is the reason for the country's high rates of
cases of poisoning. Egypt's water contamination causes 100,000 cancer
diagnoses annually and 15,000 kidney failure diagnoses in addition to other
illnesses.
 Environmental Degradation:
Environmental degradation is one of the most major impacts of pollution
to which ecosystems and biodiversity are subjected. Acid rain due to air
pollution modified the chemistry of the soil and interfered with the growth cycle
of plants and aquatic life. The settling pollutants on terrestrial and water
surfaces create nutrient imbalances capable of decimating the flora and fauna.
Contamination of the soil by chemicals, such as heavy metals and pesticides,
reduces its health and fertility and, as such, its competency to support crops and
native plants. This reduces agricultural yields and biodiversity; many species
suffer owing to inability to adapt in a toxic environment. Water pollution is
destroying aquatic ecosystems and encouraging harmful algal blooms that
consume most of the oxygen in an area, hence creating lifeless zones. The toxic
forms released into the water bodies interfere with food chains, thus posing a
very real threat to fish and wildlife populations. Cascading Impacts of
Environmental Degradation The loss of ecosystem services has impacts on
human livelihoods with respect to the supply of water, pollination, and
regulation of climate. This will be a help in the protection and restoration of
ecosystems, which is essential for sustaining biodiversity and natural resources
for future generations; hence, pollution control will be an important
environmental and public policy issue.
 Economic Consequences:
The economic effects of pollution are far-reaching and complex, affecting
several industries and communities. Health-related costs from pollution are
extremely high: increased visits to hospitals, lengthy treatments, and loss of
productivity due to sickness all place a great burden on healthcare systems and
public budgets. For instance, health problems originating from air pollution
could result in considerable economic losses from one generation to the next
through reduced productivity of the workforce and higher medical treatment
costs. Contaminated soil and water mean that agricultural sectors have
decreased crop yield and quality, hence affected the food supply chains, and
increased its prices. Fisheries are no better, too: the contamination of waters
means a decrease in the population of fish and unsafe catches, hence threatening
livelihoods, and food security. It is not much better for the tourism industry
because environmental pollution discourages visitors, hence affecting money
generation in local economies. Besides, the expenses related to remediation and
different measures of pollution control are high, which further strains limited
public resources. The cumulative economic effect of pollution underlines the
need for investment in cleaner technologies and sustainable practices. By being
more proactive towards pollution, communities can reap the benefits of
improved public health and environmental quality but also nurture economic
resilience and growth.

Improve uses of arid areas

Arid areas are known as deserts and cover between 40% to 45 % of Earth's
total area. Egypt has a total area of about one million km2 under arid to hyper-
arid climatic conditions, of which only a small portion, not exceeding 4% of the
total area, is agriculturally productive land.
It is a densely populated country with more
than 100 million inhabitants, mainly
concentrated on a small territory around the
Nile Valley and Delta. The obstacle is the
population of Egypt; it is going to be 100
Million people, and this immense number
lives in small areas in Egypt. These people
depend on agricultural products, which the Figure 12: the amount of the precipitation of Sina between
arid lacks. The temperature in an arid area 1920 to 2020

like the Eastern and Western deserts in Egypt is extremely high during the day,
as it reaches 45 degrees Celsius, and very cooler at night, reaching between 8 to
18 degrees Celsius in Sinai, which reaches 30 degrees Celsius. The precipitation
of Sinai is equivalent to 125mm, as shown in Figure 12. One of the reasons
that causes arid areas is lacking water, so if Egypt knows how to benefit from
the flood discharge problem, it will improve these desert lands. The solution to
flood discharge is impounding water and distributing it. Hence, most of Egypt’s
area is an arid one. The consequences of arid areas are immense and hazardous,
like desertification, land degradation, and drought. Land degradation is an
important global issue for the 21st century because of its adverse impact on
agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effect on food security and
quality of life.

Causes
 Water erosion:
Many regions in Egypt suffer from
flood problems, like the Sinai, which
submit to fluvial processes as shown in
Figure (13), which is a major source of
deforestation Erosional processes in

Figure 13: Showing the proccess of the fluvial erosion

 Sinai and the Red Sea include mass wasting like surface creep and
landslides. Water-driven fluvial process In the first process, the water
streams move swiftly on steep mountain slopes and cut deep the mountain in
a v shape, in the second process, which is called the lower –elevation, the V-
shaped marge together flows down in one path and leads to collapse the
valleys and broaden it. At the lowest elevation, the water collects across the
valley, so it transfers the sediment rocks with its path. The size of sediment
rocks depends on the velocity of the stream; therefore, it changes the fertile
land into an arid area.
 The limited access to water:
One of the most important reasons
for the arid area is the lack of
precipitation it causes many dangers,
like making lands deserts, while the
desert rains about 250 mm of rain per
year, and it is the last amount according
to the entire biomes, for example, Egypt
(Cairo), As shown in figure 14. The Figure 14: The precipitation of Cairo in months of year.
lack of precipitation has many bad
impacts because the lack of precipitation can cause a variety of problems for
local communities, including damage to crops and a shortage of drinking water.

 Anthropogenic activities:
Too many anthropogenic activities lead to increasing desertification and
deforestation in escorting to the forming and increasing arid areas such as
overgrazing. For instance, Sinai has 18 sites
distinguished by agricultural areas as there is a
botanical survey according to (Moustafa,
2001). They found that throughout the 18
localities, as shown in Figure (15), 316 plant
species were identified as growing in different
habitats. Grazing intensity is measured on a
scale from 1-6. The severe grazing has resulted
Figure 15: The distinguished 18 sites in Sinai
in the disappearance of pastoral plants, a paucity of
trees and shrubs, as well as the disappearance of many rare and endemic species
and increased arid areas in these species as the lowest percentage of endangered
species are in 6-grazing intensity as shown in Figure (16).

Impacts
 Agricultural depletion:
Land degradation is the proximate
implementation of arid areas in Egypt.
When a specific region is subjected to
deforestation, cutting down trees,
desertification, or grazing, it turns out to be
an arid area. By passing the time, it comes
Figure 16: the relation between grazing intensity and
to pass a desert. In the desert areas and the .engendered species
desert valley fringes, the active dunes and
sand encroachment phenomenon is widespread, causing around 16% of Egypt’s
total areas to be covered with Aeolian windblown sands and dunes, which lead
to the movement of dunes and sand sediments on productive agricultural lands.
The total agricultural area affected by such a phenomenon is estimated at
around 1.8 million feddan of the total agricultural land in Egypt. The economic
losses are estimated at around 25% of average productivity. According to (Arab
Republic of Egypt Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation Desert
Research Center, n.d.)

 Water availability:
In the future is threatened by deforestation, which is caused by arid areas, the
water share per capita has been going
down Figure (17) in an inverse relation
with the population growth; it went
down from around 3000m³ in 1947
with a population of around 15,000,000
people to 500m³ in 2010 with a

Figure 17: the relation between population and water share per capita
population of around 82,000,000 people, and this will result in high water bills
and reduction in agriculture production and a general decrease in quality of life.
According to Figure (x), Water share in Egypt per capita/m3 (1897-2010)

 Dehydration of land:

Dehydration occurs when the area doesn't have a source of water, but lack
of a source of water isn't the only reason for dehydration. There are other
reasons, such as hot weather. There are a lot of
areas in Egypt that suffer from dehydration,
like Sinai, Eastern Desert, and Western Desert.
It takes 95% of Egypt's area, which estimated
at 680,650 km2 In these areas, people don't
concentrate, so it causes urban Congestion,
people concentrate on the Nile River, which is
considered 6,650 km, and this area is equal to
5% of Egypt's area, as shown in Figure (18).

Figure (18): Egypt’s area classification

Manage and increase the sources of clean water

Clean or pure water is defined as water free from any form of contaminants,
which are defined as any biological, chemical, physical, or radiological matter
in water; many kinds of substances can pollute water. Most of these pollutants
fall into two categories: organic and non-organic.
Organic: sewage, livestock, waste, and pathogenic (disease-causing)
microorganisms. non-organic: nutrients in fertilizers (mainly nitrates and
phosphates) industrial and commercial chemicals road salts agricultural
pesticides acidic mining wastes waste heat radioactive waste.
These contaminants reduce the validity
of water to drink or use in the household as a
result of that; The water sources have been
rapidly decreasing as the population growth
increases leading to increasing water use. As
shown in figure 19. The side effects of
polluted water In Egypt are dangers to Figure 19: The relation between population growth and
water sources
Egyptians’ life: more than 38 million Egyptians drink from sewage-polluted
waters and farmlands are irrigated by sewage-polluted water as well, leading to
the spread of many diseases such as cholera, typhoid, schistosome, and
hepatitis. There are different sources of water in Egypt, some of them are Water
pollution sources and others are clean water. Primary Sources of Clean Water:
The Nile River: Groundwater: Desalination Sources of Water Pollution:
Industrial Wastewater, Agricultural Runoff, Oil Pollution. Egypt relies heavily -
About 55.5 %- on the Nile River. As shown in Figure 20 for its water needs
(which illustrates why Egypt has long been called “ gift of the Nile”)but faces
significant challenges due to rapid population growth, climate change, and
upstream developments like the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD).
These factors contribute to water scarcity, with the country experiencing an
annual water deficit of around seven billion cubic meters. Additionally,
mismanagement and pollution further strain the limited water resources.
Addressing these issues is crucial for Egypt's future water security to guarantee
future clean water resources.

Causes
 Overreliance on the Nile River:
Relying on something that is not sufficiently secure can cause many
problems, as it is not guaranteed that the Nile River will always remain
renewed, increasing and full of water, especially after the problems that occur to
it, such as climate change.)the Nile delta becomes the second most susceptible
place on earth to climate change impacts in terms of sea level rise," says Karim
Elgendy, an associate fellow at the Chatham Institute think tank.) This heavy
dependence makes the country vulnerable to any changes in the river's flow
especially with upstream developments like the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance
Dam (GERD)., Filling the GERD during drought periods could significantly
reduce Egypt's Nile water allocation.
The oscillation of statues of (GERD)
would have a big risk and almost
guaranteed the Disturbance of water. As
shown in figure 21, This shows that the
water supply from the Nile River has
Figure 21: relation between the average annual water loss with filling
become non-guaranteed. Egypt fears the of GERD

catastrophic consequences of
unilaterally filling the dam in a short span of time before reaching a legally
binding agreement that would safeguard the water rights of everyone. The
country is already suffering from severe water scarcity and an annual water
deficit of 7 billion cubic meters.

 Climate change
Warmer temperatures enhance evaporation from water bodies, soil, and
vegetation, reducing surface water levels and soil moisture. This process
diminishes water supplies for drinking, agriculture, and industry. Climate
change-induced sea level rise forces saltwater to penetrate freshwater aquifers,
especially around the coast. The inflow of seawater harms agricultural lands and
contaminates supplies of water for human consumption, Warming change-
driven spikes in temperature significantly enhance the need for water in many
different sectors, making
Egypt's already serious water
shortage problems severe. As
temperatures rise, less
precipitation occurs. As shown
in figure 22, from soil and
water surfaces, requiring more
irrigation to maintain crop
yields in agriculture, which
consumes around 80% of
Egypt's freshwater Figure 22: shows the decreasing of precipitation related with increasing temperature
resources. For example,
Egypt's food security depends on essential crops like rice and wheat, needing
more water during extended heat waves, placing an extra strain on the Nile's
limited water supply. Also, high temperatures in the industrial sector heighten
the requirement for water-intensive cooling techniques in manufacturing
facilities and power plants. To avoid excessive heat, thermal power plants, for
instance, would require more water, which would further reduce the resources
already available. Personal water use grows as well during hotter times due to
individuals consuming more water to stay hydrated and use more water for
cooling activities like running air conditioning systems, which frequently use
water-based cooling technology.
 Inefficient water use
Egypt's difficulties concerning lack of water are mainly made harder by
wasteful water use. The significant water loss in the drinking water distribution
systems is one of the main issues. Such inconsistencies result in the loss of
nearly 29.7% of the total quantity of drinking water produced, or 9.3 billion
cubic meters per year. This is according to 2016 research by the Drinking Water
and Sanitation Statistics organization. The decline not only lowers the amount
of water that is available, but it also risks efforts to efficiently manage the
nation's limited water supplies.

 Backfilling Water ways

The Nile River, Egypt's primary water source, faces significant challenges
due to backfilling of its extensive network of waterways and increasing
encroachments along its banks. These issues threaten the river's health and the
country's water security. Backfilling describes a way of depositing materials
into the paths of a river, resulting in decreased navigability and water flow.
Environmental sedimentation or caused by human actions like building and
poor garbage disposal could lead to this process. The accumulation of sediment
and rubbish reduces the river's ability to keep up with industry, agriculture, and
everyday human needs by narrowing streams and hindering water flow.
Backfilling has the potential to change a river's trajectory over time, damage
aquatic ecosystems, and raise the possibility of flooding during times of heavy.
Impacts
 Closer ratio of consumed and produced water

The number of Egyptians has been growing significantly over the last few
decades, which has resulted in a sharp decline in the amount of water available
per person. The population increased from 27 million to over 100 million
between 1960 and 2020, leading to a
reduction in the per capita water supply to
a quarter of its pre-inflation level. The demand for water has increased due to
this demographic rise in a number of areas, such as industry, agriculture, and
individual consumption. The whole country is under more water stress as a
result of the growing water needs for irrigation and household use to meet rising
food demands. Egypt now receives less than 500 cubic meters of clean water
each citizen year, placing the country in the water poverty stage as the ratio
between water consumption and water production is imbalanced and tends to be
a fraction of less a bit than 1, As shown in figure 23.
 food security

Egypt's food security is in danger by the country's decreasing per-capita

water supply. Egypt, commonly referred to as the "breadbasket" of the Roman
Empire, was historically an essential agricultural center. However, the nation
imports over 40% of its food consumption in financial terms, making it one of
the most food-dependent countries in the world. Staple products like wheat and
corn, which are both widely grown and brought in, are most affected by this
major reliance on imports. Egypt finds it challenging to satisfy its basic food
demands locally, even with serious attempts at domestic production. The
majority of agricultural land is used for the production of cereals, with a
relatively smaller percentage utilized for fruit production, Egypt is vulnerable of
shifts in world prices because of its dependence on imports. Egypt experiences
severe scarcity and sharp rises in food prices when global prices for main crops
soar. The issue is made harsher by the continuous drop in agricultural output per
capita, which increases the effect of global price fluctuations on the country's
food.

Increase the industrial and agricultural bases of Egypt

Egypt is currently facing a
partial economic crisis due to the
constant depletion of its economic
output. As of 2023, the inflation rate
has reached a high of 26.8%. Despite
having vast economic potential, the
country's industrial infrastructure is
deteriorating each year. As shown in
Figure 24: Industrial Production in Egypt 2017-2020
Figure 24, Industrial production has
plummeted to a devastating level of 3.9% as of 2020, which has negatively
impacted Egypt's nominal GDP ranking. Strengthening the industrial sector can
help boost the country's GDP, especially since Egypt has strong trade ties with
countries that have higher GDPs.
On the other hand, agriculture is
the primary industry in Egypt. The
country has rich soils and clean water,
which makes it an ideal location for a
thriving agricultural system.
Unfortunately, as shown in Figure 25,
Egypt's GDP share in agriculture is only
10.7% as of 2022, and this percentage
Figure 25: Egypt’s GDP share in agriculture
has been decreasing constantly.
Increasing the GDP share is not the only solution to this problem. Providing
effective infrastructure to aid and enhance the current agricultural funding can
also prove to be a successful method.
Improving these economic fields can have a significant impact on Egypt’s
financial stability. Thus decreasing unemployment rates, providing a more
stable environment for scientific and technological advancements, and
increasing the minimum wage.

Causes
 Arid areas
Arid areas are one of the main causes for agricultural inactivity,
furthermore, research shows that only 4% of Egypt’s land is occupied by the
population, while the remaining land is deserted. Arid areas hurt the nearby soil,
reducing its ability. They are also responsible for great differences in weather
between night and day cycles, which affects all of the populated regions, the
industrial regions, and the agricultural fields.

 High Unemployment rates

For decades, unemployment has
remained a pressing issue in Egypt,
posing significant challenges to the
country’s economic growth and
development. According to global
Figure 26: Percentage of Youth unemployment rate
rankings, Egypt is currently placed at 68th out of 176 countries in terms of
unemployment rates. This is particularly concerning when considering the high
percentage of youth unemployment, as shown in Figure 26. To address this
issue, it is crucial to create more job opportunities in both industrial and
agricultural sectors. A thriving economy requires a robust workforce, and
providing employment opportunities to the youth population can help bolster
the country's economic infrastructure. On the other hand, by investing in job
creation, Egypt can take meaningful steps towards reducing unemployment
rates and achieving sustainable development.
 Poverty
One of the most significant
obstacles to the development of industrial
and agricultural infrastructure is poverty.
Unfortunately, many poor countries lack
the resources to invest in infrastructure Figure 27: Annual inflation and Pound exchange as of 2021-2022
development. In fact, as shown in Figure
27, the Pound exchange rate reached an unfortunate amount of 50 pounds per
dollar in December 2024, exacerbating the financial crisis and hindering the
country's progress in industrial and agricultural sectors. As a result, both
domestic and foreign investment is currently decreasing. Economic
uncertainties, exchange rate fluctuations, and financial instability may cause
investors to become hesitant to invest in infrastructure development, resulting in
a lack of funds available for progress.

Impacts
 Limited market opportunities
Poverty can have a profound impact on market demand by limiting
consumers' purchasing power, which can lead to a restricted domestic market
demand. Additionally, farmers may be discouraged from adopting modern
techniques and investing in agricultural productivity enhancements. In essence,
poverty constrains market opportunities by limiting the purchasing power of
consumers, which can lead to low demand for products from industrial
enterprises, ultimately hindering the development of the industrial sector.

 Increased Ecological footprint

 As industrial and agricultural enterprises
decline, many causes for an increase in ecological
footprint arise. First, soil degradation and erosion
would be a common problem, as a result of not
properly using these gifts. Second, funding
alternate energy production wouldn’t be of much
interest, as the financial state of Egypt would
certainly drop, thus leading to a higher state of
pollution and a major cause for increasing the Figure 28: Egypt’s Economical Footprint and biocapacity
ecological footprint, As is shown in Figure 28, per capita over time

Funding the prohibition of pollution causes ( such

as factories, residential emissions, and car exhausts) would also be lower than
required.

 Deforestation and Habitat loss

Insufficient expansion of the industrial
and agricultural sectors may lead to a rise in
demand for land. If this demand is not met
with proper planning and sustainable
practices, it can result in deforestation and
habitat loss. As shown in Figure 29, Egypt’s
forest area has been decreasing since 2010,
due to the decreased focus on agricultural Figure 29: Egypt’s forest area per land area
infrastructure. Clearing land for agricultural
or industrial activities can disrupt ecosystems, degrade biodiversity, and
contribute to the loss of valuable habitats for various plant and animal species.
Even though forest trees are not commonly seen in Egypt, they are a major
contributor to the public’s sanity and the climate of this region.
 The problem to be solved
The management of the pollution and potential health hazards
caused by agriculture drainage and domestic sewage at Rosetta
Nile Branch
One of the hazards Egypt confronts nowadays is water pollution,
especially caused by domestic sewage and agriculture drainage as 67 drains
endure in The Nile River from Aswan to Delta Barrage drains their wastes in the
Nile River. As a result, These agricultural drainages are proximate factors for
many water pollutants like heavy
metals HMs and Vibrio cholera,
which cause cholera. HMs are Figure 30: the concentration of HMs ( μg/l ) in Nile River,
Egypt
metallic elements with relatively Gohar, M. E., Ali, M. H., & El-Sayed, S. M. (2019). Heavy
metals contents in Nasser Lake and the Nile River, Egypt: An
high atomic weight and density at overview. The Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research, 45(4),
least 5 times greater than water's. 301–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2019.12.002

Heavy Metals reached above the normal

threshold, as shown in Figure 30 in the water, and this
concentration is relatively high respecting WHO as
shown in Figure 31. While the concentration of heavy Figure 31: the baseline of HMs (mg/l )
according to WHO
metals in Rosetta Nile Branch, as shown in Figure 32 CONCENTRATION OF HEAVY METALS

Due to the high amount of HMs, they trigger hazardous diseases in Egyptians,
such as liver and kidney damage,
skin disorders, cognitive
Figure 32: the HMs at Rosetta Nile Branch in different sites
impairment, and even cancer. In Gohar, M. E., Ali, M. H., & El-Sayed, S. M. (2019). Heavy metals contents in Nasser Lake and the
Nile River, Egypt: An overview. The Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research, 45(4), 301–312.
Egypt, the incidence attained about https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2019.12.002

37.5% of total cancer cases among

Egyptian females due to Heavy metals and HMs are considered the fourth
cause of death according to El-Atta (2011). As well as agricultural drains and
domestic sewage can also contain microorganisms carried by sewage, such as
Vibrio Cholerae. Hence, these are health hazards. Many illnesses, such as
cholera and typhoid, are caused by contact with sewage. Not only human is
affected by microorganisms but also living organisms, as some commercial fish
farms in Kafr El-Sheikh governorate Egypt showed signs of disease and
exhibited heavy mortality due to the prevalence of 18 vibrio cholera. Figure 33
shows the distribution of vibrio cholera in
Egypt.
Another pollutants in Egypt’s water is
the total dissolved solids (TDSs). The
attentiveness of TDS in Egypt, especially at
Rosetta Nile Branch, exists 720 mg/L. the
water having TDS percentage between 600
and 900 mg/ liter is considered poor
according to Who (1987)
Finally, due to this immense concentration of pollutants in the water
100,000 people are diagnosed with cancer every year, and 15,000 people get
kidney failure along with other diseases due to the water pollution in Egypt.

Positive consequences
 Improving water equality
The water condition at Rosetta Nile Branch is considered poor, not potable
for drinking, and unhealthy. It causes many diseases such as Women's cancer as
the incidence attained about 37.5% of total cancer cases among Egyptian
females due to Heavy metals. If water improves and removes all pollutants like
HMs, TDS, and Microorganisms that cause hazardous diseases, the water will
be potable. Hence, the people in El-Rahawy, Tala, and Kafr El-Zayat will find
rich-condition water for drinking, and the pollutants won’t affect the
inhabitants’ lives.
 Depletion of the number of patients

Due to the wastewater coming from domestic sewage and agriculture

Figure 33:The occurrence of vibrio cholerae at specific temperature
drainage, about 100,000 people are diagnosedIsmail, with cancer every in Egypt year, and
E. M., Kadry, M., Elshafiee, E. A., Ragab, E., Morsy, E. A., Rizk, O.,
15,000 people get kidney failure along with& cholerae
other amongdiseases dueNiches:
Different Environmental to Anwater
Zaki, M. M. (2021). Ecoepidemiology and Potential Transmission of Vibrio
Upcoming Threat in
Egypt. Pathogens, 10(2), 190. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020190
pollution in Egypt. Controlling the concentration of pollutants within the water
would reduce the chances of instant death due to cancers and gastrointestinal
diseases. Thus, more people would live longer and healthier lives. One would be
able to do more in their respective professional fields, spend quality time with
families, and be more involved with society due to the increased life spans.
 Enhancing the agricultural products

The lower Egypt, Delta, is considered a good condition place for agriculture.
Especially at the Rosetta Nile Branch. However, the production of agricultural
products has depleted due to using wastewater that contains pollutants
decreasing its fertility and eroding its products. If the water has been treated in
the Rosetta Nile Branch, El-Rahawy, Tala, and Kafr El-Zayat, the agricultural
products will be enhanced.

Negative consequences
 Economic Costs:

drainage infrastructure to raise production and lower the cost of

production. Yet, such investments are a public expenditure burden and can add
to the cost burden on consumers, particularly in regions with poor economic
resources. Also, the expense of improving the sewage treatment works is sky-
high. Thames Water in the UK has been afflicted with under-ability at the
sewage works. Half or more of its 351 sewer treatment plants do not treat the
waste suitably, and untreated effluent is released into rivers. Replacing these
shortfalls is expensive enough, and the utility has proposed an average rate rise
of a third to pay for the upgrades. The expenses highlight the cost pressure
placed on consumers and the utility to achieve environmental legislation.
Further, economic impacts extend beyond physical infrastructure costs.
 Potential Disruption of Ecosystems:
Domestic refuse and agricultural drainage can cause severe
environmental issues if not properly cleaned. Over-drainage will cause the
entry of salt and other impurities into water bodies and, therefore,
salinization and pollution. In addition, construction of drainage will confuse
natural wetlands, therefore causing loss of habitats and increased
sedimentation of downstream water bodies. Similarly, untreated, or
inadequately treated domestic sewage can be a pollutant to water bodies,
enhancing eutrophication—a situation were excess levels of nutrients
 Research

Topics related to the problem

 The formation of salt in water causes salinity
Salinity is a measure of the content of salts in soil or water. Salts are
highly soluble in surface and groundwater and can be transported with water
movement. And there are some common ions that dissolve in water repeatedly
causing salinity in higher amounts of dissolving such as sodium (Na ⁺), chloride
(Cl⁻), sulfate (SO₄²⁻), calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg² ⁺), and potassium
(K⁺). The occurrence of these salts can result from various chemical reactions
and processes, both natural and human caused. Here are some reactions
Hydrolysis and Dissolution: Minerals in rocks react with water and carbon
dioxide, releasing soluble ions. For example:
Feldspar Weathering:
2KAlSi₃O₈ + 11H₂O + 2CO₂ → Al₂Si₂O₅(OH)₄ + 4SiO₂ + 2K⁺ + 2HCO₃⁻
This reaction releases potassium (K⁺) and bicarbonate (HCO₃ ⁻) ions into the
soil solution which increases the salinity.

 Evaporation and Capillary Action

Salt Accumulation In arid regions, high evaporation rates move water

above the surface through
capillary action. As water
evaporates, it leaves behind
dissolved salts, increasing surface
salinity.
As shown in figure 34, it can
be noticed that the higher
percentage of salts at the surface

Figure 34: the salts that are left behind in the surface
 and as we go down in depth the salinity decreased, and that’s because at first,
all layers are equally likely to have the same percentage of salinity, but once
the evaporation process starts occurring the only pure water flowing above
such as volatile and but before the water goes above to sky its dissolved salts
become less lifted on the surface of solid satisfying this equation 1: H₂O
(liquid) → H₂O (vapor) + dissolved salts (residue)
but the salts are not constant or even stable, so some of these gradually
infiltrate deeply into the soil and as the surface was the salt resourced. so, for
that reason, it is the saltiest layer, and then goes down it decreases in salinity.
This process, known as salinization, which creates salts could be seen on the
above crusts on the soil surface, which makes the soil less fertile and, in
severe cases, unsuitable for agriculture and then lack agricultural products.

 Ion exchanges

The reversible shift of ions between the solid phase of soil and the soil
solution is known as ion exchange. Positively charged ions (cations) like
calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), potassium (K⁺), and sodium (Na ⁺) get
attracted to and kept by negative charge locations found in soil particles,
mainly clay minerals and organic matter. For soil fertility and structure, these
cations' content and balance are essential.
Through cation exchange reactions, sodium can substitute other required
cations in soils exposed to high concentrations of sodium ions, which often
happens by salinity irrigation water or seawater intrusion like
2Na⁺ + Ca²⁺ (soil) → 2Na⁺ (soil) + Ca²⁺
One calcium ion adsorbed on the soil particle is replaced in this reaction by
two sodium ions in the soil solution. Since calcium is essential for
maintaining soil particle grouping, this displacement results in a decline of
 the soil's structure. Too much sodium distributes soil particles, decreasing
permeability and porosity, which limits root growth and water infiltration.

 Seawater intrusion

Over-extraction of groundwater in coastal areas (dipping a lot of

wells) causes the water table to drop, which lowers the hydraulic pressure
that keeps seawater within range. Seawater intrusion is the process by which
seawater enters freshwater aquifers as a result of this imbalance. The water
supply becomes more salinized when seawater and groundwater are mixed.

 Heavy metals
Heavy metals are naturally occurring metals, and the reason is called Heavy
mainly latent on its size which is usually 5 times greater than water in weight
and density. They are not fully advantageous, but they have a dangerous
negative impact on the environment, Heavy metal contamination in aquatic
systems is a major problem because of its toxicity, bioaccumulation, and
persistence. the following resources of Heavy metals tell us the different types:
Wastewater containing metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic is
released into water bodies by industries like extraction, melting, electroplating,
and manufacturing. Surface waters are exposed to high levels of heavy metals
as a result of these activities.

Agricultural Runoff: Metal-containing agricultural chemicals and pesticides

can cause runoff that transfers these pollutants into lakes, rivers, and
groundwater. Continuous use of these agricultural chemicals can cause metals
like cadmium and arsenic to collect up in water.
 Municipal Wastewater: Heavy metals from rainwater runoff, pipes, and
everyday items be present in urban sewage. Metals like copper and zinc escape
into waterways as a result of poor treatment of municipal wastewater.
Heavy Metals' Impact on Ecosystems and Water Quality:
Toxicity to Aquatic Life: Fish, insects, and other aquatic animals will be killed
by heavy metals, even at low quantities. They can raise rates of death, change
behavior and physiology, and decrease the success of reproduction. Mercury, for
example, can damage fish's nervous systems, making it more difficult for them
to hunt and avoid enemies.

Topics related to the Solution

 Adsorption

is a physical process by which removes many harmful contaminates not only in

water but in so many applications, the concept Adsorption is the general process
of accumulating stuck and dissolved materials which are called in this process
“Adsorbed material” and the subject of this process and which lets the adsorbed
to get into its depth and fill out its outer spaces is “Adsorbent” in other words
the Adsorption is the adhesion or sticking together of
molecules of a gas, liquid, dissolved solid, to the
surface of the solid or in some uncommon cases
liquid. As shown in Figure 35, it has many
applications to figure out such as: Eliminating a
certain color that we do not present on the water by Figure 35: the Adsorbed molecules stick
on the surface of the the adsorbent
using a common Adsorbent in the Adsorption process which is a solid pellet of
carbon and dropping it into the vessel containing the undesirable color that we
want to get rid of. After a certain time the Red color gets emitted from the
Bessel and almost disappears and the investigation of this is the Red color
particles have been
stuck in the pores of

Figure 36: The adsorption steps

pellets of carbon As
shown Figure 36 This
is considered liquid
Adsorption, but there are
many other applications
of air and solid
Adsorption like
deodorizing air in a refrigerator decolorizing sugar
solutions and controlling excessive Acidity, and also acidity-activated charcoal
in a gas mask to attract toxic gas molecules allowing the person wearing the
mask to breath fresh air. We can conclude that the adsorption can take place in
the air such as in a Refrigerator and in terms of Solids such as the adsorption in
sugar solutions and in terms of liquids like Relieves the acidity of water. When
it comes to water treatment; Adsorption is used as a tool to get rid of
contaminates of water by sticking it in such a material which is commonly “
Activated carbon “. the activated carbon absorbs and binds oil vapor to
activated carbon and reduce therefore the oil vapor content within the
compressed air, but if the oil adsorption capacity is exhausted, the activated
carbon must be replaced, if it does not, the efficiency will be gradually and
severely lower than the normal activated carbon, in terms of air, if the air was
very humid then, there will be low capacity and space available for oil. To get
rid of many other pollutants such as VOCs, PCPs, TBT and PAHs, Adsorption
led by Activated Carbon was used to treat water for such harmful
contamination. An example of a process of removal of methylene-blue solution
can be shown in figure 37

The activated carbon gets compressed in such a layer and covered in a

button and at the top by filter paper, when water is dropped in this layer,

Figure 37-A: The Figure 37-B: the Figure 37-C: The Figure 37-D: The
carbon has been settled Methylene-blue contaminated water final version of
out as a layer right solution is putted in interacting with purified water after
down. burette activated carbon and bypassing activated
bypassing it. carbon
activated carbon reacts with what makes the water Blue and gets it to stick in its
pores leaving the water mostly purified, As shown in figure 37-D.

 coagulation and flocculation

Coagulation and flocculation are essential components of both
drinking and waste water treatment. They provide a reliable process for
treating water turbidity (the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid typically
invisible to the naked eye), which is a key test of water quality.

In wastewater treatment, they enable up to 90% reduction in suspended

solids and organic loads. All waters contain suspended particles. The
smallest particles (colloids) are stabilized by the action of physical forces
(static electricity) on the particles themselves and,
because they all have a negative charge when suspended in water, they repel
each other. This causes them to remain suspended rather than clumping
together and settling out of the water. They might take days or even centuries
to settle out.
coagulation and flocculation are two separate processes, used in succession,
to overcome the forces stabilizing the suspended particles. While coagulation
neutralizes the charges on the particles, flocculation enables them to bind
together, making them bigger, so that they can be more easily separated from
the liquid. The bigger the particle, the easier it is to separate from the liquid.

Other solutions already tried

New Cairo Water Station Project

The New Cairo water station project is one of the biggest filtration projects,
as shown in Figure x, responsible for filtering
the water and passing it over 40 kilometers in
Cairo provinces. The construction process
started in March 2010 and ran for 26 months
until May 2012. Hence, it has an immense

Figure 38: shows the four lines responsible for the filtration
capacity reaching 500,000 m3 water/day, but a few years after its implantation
and construction, it updated to have a capacity of 2 Million m3 water/day
according to (New Cairo Operation and Maintenance of the Raw Water
Intake, Boosters, Transmission Lines and Water Purification Plant – ICAT,
n.d.). The implementation cost for the New Cairo water station project is 40
Million dollars. It can supply the water for the whole of New Cairo City and the
Administrative New Capital City, having a population of 5 million inhabitants.
The plant uses four traditional lines for water and sediment treatment. Each
integrated process is part of the water treatment line and will always include
four lines or more, as shown in Figure 38.
Each pipe has a diameter equal to 2.2 meters, and its length reaches 30 km. As a
result, it can meet drainage needs; precise combing and sterilization tools will
be carried out in the final process. Sediment treatment will be done through the
organic conversion process. Consequently, it provides an environmentally
friendly and affordable water purification plant for New Cairo and its provinces
to cover the current and future population growth.

Mechanism
The New Cairo Water Station Project relies mainly on the biological and
mechanical filtration process as it is
classified into stages, which are
Pretreatment, primary (mechanical),
secondary (biological), and The third
Sludge treatment. Firstly, the
pretreatment works on a screening
system, a regretting and degreasing unit,
and a flowmeter, as shown in Figure
39. After the pretreatment, the water is
Figure 39: shows the pretreatment process.
examined to know which pollutants it
has. Then, The primary (mechanical) treatment with decanters is designed to
remove gross, suspended, and floating solids from raw sewage. The so-called
sedimentation process is based on density differences. Secondary (biological)
treatment is designed to remove the dissolved organic matter that escapes
primary treatment. This is achieved by microbes consuming organic matter as
food and converting it to carbon dioxide, water, and energy for their growth and
reproduction. The third treatment uses a microscreening process initially and
later chloride treatment for disinfection. Sludge treatment consists of a gravity
thickener and a flotation thickener tank, together with a high-load anaerobic
digester and a low-load digester. Finally, The biogas line has a gasholder and a
torch. There is an auxiliary emergency fuel-generator system to cover electricity
demand in case of operational or source problems. The most important features
of the New Cairo WWTP are the following: Water line including fine solids
screening (four automatic screens, 1.50 m wide and with a pass of 6 mm),
primary clarifiers (four units, 50 m in diameter and 3.60 m high), biological
reactor (six units each with a volume of 14,580 m³), secondary settling tank (six
units, 55 m in diameter and 5 m high), micro screen (10 textile mesh filters
1,374.37m³/h) and disinfection by chlorine (two chambers with a volume of
1,395 m³). • Sludge line with primary sludge screening (2 + 1 rotary screens,
each with a capacity of 110 m³ per hour), thickening of primary sludge (three
gravity units, 16 m in diameter and 4.80 m high), thickening of excess sludge
(three flotation thickeners, 15 m in diameter and 3 m high), anaerobic digestion
(four units, each with a volume of 12,076 m³).

Points of Strengths
 The high quality of water:

The New Cario Water Station helps in getting rid of many pollutants
deposited into the river, leads to human public health improvement as the
agriculture drains and domestic sewage, especially in Delta and Cairo, produce
too many pollutants like heavy metals HMs with high concentrations reaching
the above baseline of these pollutants according to WHO, which causes too
many diseases to the inhibitors in Cairo and Delta, but after implantation of the
project, this percentage of HMs is decreased slightly as the project success in
filtering the water and producing about 2,000,000 m 3 potable water/ day. As a
consequence, the number of deaths is also reduced.
 Agricultural:

Besides the filtration of water and supply of friendly and sustainable

water for more than 5 million inhabitants, The New Cairo water stations have
another feature that improves agricultural productivity because, after the
filtration of the water, the sludge in the remaining wastewater is used for
agricultural activities as fertilizer according to (“THE NEW CAIRO WASTEWATER
TREATMENT PLANT (EGYPT),” n.d.). Hence, it reduces the usage of artificial fertilizer that

causes hazardous issues like decreasing Oxygen Content CO in the water.

 Employment:

The New Cario Water Station helps in reducing unemployment in Egypt. It

helped to get a permanent job as the plant provided regular jobs for 63
permanent skilled workers directly, 60 of them local Egyptians, besides its
filtration of water, reduction of the pollution entering the Nile River, rising
agriculture productivity, and enhancing human health. In addition, during the
construction period, the company hired 1,500 workers and created 150 indirect
jobs.

Points of weaknesses
 Economic conditions

Although the new Cairo water station had significant strength in the filtration
of water from containments like sediment and Heavy metals HMs, the cost of its
construction is too much effort as it wouldn’t be built due to its immense cost.
Firstly, 40 Million dollars was paid to the institutions of the public and private
sectors in Egypt responsible for the construction. However, during the
development of the project and improving it, it cost 100 million dollars
additionally. Hence, This financial framework limited the pressure on public
finances during the construction years, according to (“THE NEW CAIRO WASTEWATER
TREATMENT PLANT (EGYPT)” n.d.).

 Land & space assignments (Mitigation)

Since the project was implemented in New Cairo as there are some
inhabitants in the location were forced to leave their houses to build the project,
which led to a revolution that ended with some undesirable political conditions
like President Hosni Mubarak’s ousting after almost 30 years in power. On June
30th, 2012, Mohamed Morsi, the leader of the Freedom and Justice Party, was
elected president of Egypt, a position he held until July 3rd, 2013, when he was
succeeded by General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi according to (“THE NEW CAIRO
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT (EGYPT),” n.d.).

 construction of the two-kilometer pipe

The problem related to the construction process derived from the

construction of the two-kilometer pipe. The issue started when, during the
Commissioning Period, the New Urban Communities Authority NUCA did not
accept the New Cairo wastewater treatment plant WWTP offloading partially or
untreated water, despite this being a regular practice during the startup period.
NUCA required Orasqualia to construct a pipe 1300mm in diameter and 2km
long to the closest water treatment plant (Hassan Allam WWTP) at its own cost. The
problem was solved through an amicable agreement on November 24th, 2013.
In the end, the construction process had cost overruns of only 10% of the initial
cost related to the building costs.

New Delta Irrigation Water Treatment Plant

Egypt's enormous capital project,
the New Delta Irrigation Water
Treatment Plant, was built to improve
agricultural production and alleviate the
country's water shortage. It is the most
important plant and station for treatment
in the Delta and in the whole of Egypt
as there are many water plants in Egypt,
but the most impactful is this plant. As
shown in figure 40. This is not just any
Figure 40: shows the treatment plants through Delta
water plant; it is a center of clean water
tech that is grabbing attention worldwide.
With a daily treatment capacity of 7.5 million cubic meters of agricultural
drainage water and 2.19 billion cubic meters per year, the plant is recognized by
Guinness World Records as the largest water treatment station in the world.
About 1.2 million acres (500,000 hectares) of land in the western Delta region
can be recovered and irrigated due to this ability. The facility, which covers
more than 320,000 square meters, is located in the El Hammam area on Egypt's
north coast. Its main goal is to treat agricultural drainage water from the
northern Nile Delta. Keeping people supplied with clean water and boosting
agriculture in dry land. A 120-kilometer flow carries the water to the plant. To
support Egypt's sustainable development goals and food security, the treated
water is then used to irrigate the recovered land. In short, the New Delta
Irrigation Water Treatment Plant is not just a water facility; it is a game-changer
for Egypt’s water security, agriculture, and environment. And it is setting the
standard for what water treatment plants can achieve worldwide, preserving the
country’s precious land and water resources.
 Mechanism
The New Delta Irrigation Water Treatment Plant in Egypt employs a
multi-stage treatment process to recycle agricultural drainage water, making it
suitable for reuse in irrigation. The following processes were considered:
Collecting Water from Agricultural Drainage is the first stage. This
water, which is usually runoff from areas that have been irrigated and have had
rainfall, can contain a variety of contaminants, including fertilizer salts, soil
erosion sediments, plant organic matter, and chemical residues from fertilizers
and pesticides. Physical Treatment (Pre-Treatment) To get rid of big waste like
leaves, twigs, plastic, and other solid things, the water passes past large physical
filters during this step. This stage guarantees that the next phase of treatment
systems won't become blocked by these big particles. Typically made from
plastic or metal, the filters have gaps that let small particles pass while trapping
bigger waste. The process of sedimentation Following pre-treatment, the water
enters settle basins or sedimentation tanks. Because the water slows down here,
larger particles like clay, silt, and sand can gravitationally sink to the bottom. To
avoid turbidity (cloudiness) and suspended particles from interacting with the
efficiency of biological and advanced treatment phases, this procedure is
essential. Usually, between 50 and 70 percent of suspended particles are
removed via sedimentation. Biological Treatment Water goes to bioreactors or
aeration tanks in this step, where organic contaminants are broken down by
microorganisms like bacteria. By consuming and breaking down organic
materials, such as plants, that decompose, these organisms decrease the
chemical and biological oxygen needs (COD and BOD, respectively). The
quantity of oxygen needed to decompose the organic compounds in water is
shown by these two measurements. Cleaner water is indicated by lower BOD
and COD levels. Additionally, the biological treatment helps in the removal of
phosphorus and nitrogen, two typical contaminants found in agricultural runoff.
Advanced Filtration of Sand is used to filter the water after biological treatment.
These filters are composed of sand layers that collect smaller particles that
weren't removed during sedimentation, such as organic material and fine
sediments. Clean water can flow through these sand layers because the particles
stay in the gaps between the grains when the water passes through. Filtration by
the membranes for microfiltration (MF) is utilized for finer filtration. Very tiny
pores in these membranes filter from even small particles, including viruses,
bacteria, and other organisms. Membrane filtration can guarantee that the water
is nearly free of pathogens while helping in the removal of organic waste.
Desalination (Salt Elimination) Because too much salt levels lead to soil
salinization and decrease crop yields, agricultural drainage water is usually high
in salts, making it unsuitable for irrigation. Thus, desalination is essential. The
main method used is: In reverse osmosis (RO), salts, minerals, and other
impurities stay behind as water passes through a semi-permeable membrane that
only allows water molecules to flow through. Since RO is so good at removing
dissolved salts, the water can be used for irrigation without destroying the soil.

Points of strengths
 Effective Reuse of Water
By purifying agricultural drainage water and reusing it for irrigation, the
plant makes significant contributions to water conservation. This reduces the
scarcity of water, which is particularly important in arid areas like the New
Delta.
 Reduction of Salinity
By using reverse osmosis, the desalination process guarantees that the salt
content of the water decreases to acceptable levels, avoiding soil salinization,
which is common in many irrigated areas.

 Improved water quality

The water quality is greatly improved by the New Delta plant's use of
several treatment steps. This contains advanced ways to filter as well as
biological and physical methods. Big objects and suspended particles are
removed by physical treatment methods, including screening and sedimentation.
In biological treatment, organic pollutants are broken down by microorganisms,
reducing both the chemical and biological oxygen needs (COD and BOD).
These are important markers of water quality that help in identifying the
concentration of contaminants. Advanced filtration methods such as UV
disinfection and membrane filtration (microfiltration and ultrafiltration)
guarantee the removal or neutralization of germs, bacteria, viruses, and fine
particles. The above set of procedures guarantees that the water is safe, clear of
harmful bacteria, pathogens, and chemical contaminants, and suitable for use in
agriculture. Compared to untreated drainage water, it is much cleaner. Offers an
outline for upcoming water treatment plants that make use of modern, effective,
and environmentally friendly technologies. Minimizes the use of chemicals in
water treatment, hence reducing its environmental impact. Ensures cleaner
water by improving the treatment process's overall efficacy.
 Support for sustainable agriculture
By offering a dependable and secure supply of water for irrigation, the
plant's treated water helps sustainable agriculture. It can be challenging for
farmers to maintain constant crop production in several regions due to varying
water availability, especially in dry locations like the New Delta. The plant
guarantees that farmers have a consistent supply of water all year round by
reusing treated drainage water. For areas like the New Delta, where freshwater
resources are few and dependence on rainfall is unanticipated, this is especially
important. Farmers can maintain food security and production of crops without
misuse of natural water resources if they have dependable irrigation.

Points of weaknesses
 High Operational Costs
These procedures require regular upkeep, specific substances for
membrane cleaning, and an enormous energy input. In addition, pumps with
high pressure are needed for the procedure to push water through semi-
permeable membranes, which can require energy. The cost of maintaining these
systems is increased by the requirement for skilled workers and specialized
tools. In addition, if operating costs increase over time as a result of changes in
energy prices or the requirement for expensive replacement devices, the plant
could face difficulties. In the absence of government subsidies, grants, or
additional funding sources for covering these costs, this may make it more
difficult for the plant to continue operating profitably.
 Energy Intensive
Significant amounts of energy are used by the plant's operations, especially
reverse osmosis. Water must be forced through RO membranes using high-
pressure systems, which require a constant and dependable energy source. A
large environmental impact and greenhouse gas emissions could hurt the
environment if the energy originates from fossil fuels. Because the system is
power-intensive, if the energy used to operate the plant does not come from
renewable sources like solar or wind, the environmental benefits of the plant
can be offset. The treatment plant's overall sustainability may be at risk in
regions like the New Delta, where electricity may be limited or costly unless
improvements in energy efficiency or cleaner energy sources are integrated into
the design. Excessive energy use results in more operating costs and The
treatment plant's overall environmental advantages are limited by its
environmental impact.
Dependency on non-renewable energy sources eventually makes the system
unsustainable.

 Complex Maintenance
The implementation of modern equipment in the treatment plant, including
membrane filtration, the process of reverse osmosis, and electrodialysis,
requires extremely skilled operation and maintenance. Due to their sensitivity,
these systems require constant upkeep, cleaning, and repair. For instance, RO
membranes can be expensive to repair and require routine cleaning to avoid
fouling. Over time, devices used in complex systems for filtering need complex
maintenance due to damage from use. To run and maintain these technologies,
the station also needs skilled workers. It may be challenging to find and keep
skilled workers in remote locations, which could cause shortages and delays in
important maintenance. The factory may experience inefficiencies, higher
operating costs, or even system breakdowns if the necessary knowledge is not
easily available. Greater costs as a result of bringing in and instructing more
expert personnel. Potential operating problems that impact irrigation and water
treatment plans if skilled workers are unavailable. Problems with sustainability
during time if maintenance is not properly managed.

 Dependency on Quality of Input Water

The quality of the input of agricultural drainage water has an important
effect on how well the treatment process works. It is challenging and costly to
treat drainage water that contains complex contaminants, such as non-
biodegradable pollutants, a large amount of organic matter, or toxic compounds
(such as pesticides or heavy metals). Very polluted water is difficult for the
plant to treat efficiently, which results in ineffective water purification or even
system failure if the pollutants are more than the plant can handle. For instance,
some chemicals can stay in the water and damage its quality if they are not
removed by traditional treatment methods.
 Beach Filtration for RO Desalination in Sharm El-
Sheikh
Beach filtration is a natural seawater treatment process that enhances the
quality of seawater before desalination. Beach filtration entails forcing seawater
through coastal sand deposits to allow natural filtration to eliminate suspended
solids, organic matter, and microbial impurities. The filtered water, thus,
contains reduced turbidity and reduced Silt Density Index (SDI), which protects
reverse osmosis (RO) membranes from fouling and increases their longevity. It
is located in Sharm El-Sheikh, a coastal city in South Sinai, Egypt, on the Sinai
Peninsula. Beach filtration is a more economical and sustainable choice for
desalination than other conventional open seawater intake schemes. It curtails
operational expenditures and the footprint of desalination plants due to the drop
in the use of chemical pre-treatment by demand. It also protects the stability of
the RO system by enhancing efficiency, reducing maintenance needed, and
offering better performance over the system’s lifetime. Beach filtration also
protects the environment by reducing the disposal of chemical residues into the
sea. However, its effectiveness depends on site-specific traits like aquifer
connectivity, aquifer material type, and coastal hydrogeology. In some areas, its
performance may be lowered by low sediment permeability or high salinization
of groundwater. A drawback could be continuous brine injection leading to
long-term salinity buildup within the aquifer, which affects water quality over
time. Moreover, the initial investment in beach well systems may be too
expensive, requiring proper planning and maintenance in the long run.
Nonetheless, beach filtration remains a viable option for improving desalination
efficiency along coastlines. It is a natural, low-energy pre-filter that can help
minimize environmental degradation and introduce sustainability into
freshwater production in water-scarce or arid regions.

Mechanism
Beach filtration is a natural pre-treatment process that improves seawater
quality for desalination by utilizing the natural permeability of coastal
sediments to exclude suspended solids, organic pollutants, and microorganisms
with minimal chemical pre-treatment, thus maximizing the efficiency of the RO
system. The process begins with the installation of vertical beach wells along
the shoreline at specific points engineered to take advantage of natural
percolation. Seawater percolates through sand and gravel beds before entering
the wells. As the water moves through these sediments, it undergoes multiple
filtration processes:
Mechanical Filtration: Suspended solids and sediments are physically
filtered out by permeable layers, reducing turbidity and lowering the Silt
Density Index (SDI) from about 4.4 in open seawater intake systems to less than
1. This prevents membrane clogging and reduces maintenance expenses.
Chemical Filtration: As the water contacts minerals in the sediment,
dissolved organic matter, impurities, and heavy metals are absorbed, stabilizing
the water composition before entering the desalination plant.
Biological Filtration: Microbial activity within the sediment layers
breaks down organic contaminants and kills bacterial pathogens, naturally
disinfecting the water and reducing biofouling potential within RO membranes,
thereby extending their lifespan. These filtration processes significantly enhance
feedwater quality, reducing the need for chemicals, lowering operational
expenses, and ensuring more effective and stable RO desalination operations.
However, beach filtration has site-specific limitations related to sediment
characteristics, permeability, and variations in aquifer connectivity, which can
impact overall system performance. Another major issue is the progressive rise
in coastal aquifer salinity due to continuous pumping.
Over 20 years, the total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration can rise
from 34,000–35,000 mg/L to 45,000 mg/L, reducing desalination efficiency and
necessitating additional treatment. To mitigate these risks, sustainable
management practices must be implemented, including continuous water quality
assessment, well maintenance, sediment flushing, and optimization of extraction
rates. Additionally, the upfront infrastructure cost for installing beach wells,
including drilling and maintenance, can be high, requiring careful planning and
investment. Despite these challenges, the long-term benefits of beach filtration
—such as reduced chemical dependency, enhanced environmental protection,
and greater desalination efficiency—justify the initial investment. Compared to
conventional open seawater intake systems, which are more prone to fouling,
require extensive chemical treatment, and have a larger environmental footprint,
beach filtration is a more sustainable and cost-effective alternative for coastal
desalination facilities. By selecting optimal sites, planning infrastructure
efficiently, and conducting regular maintenance, beach filtration can maximize
desalination efficiency, reduce operational costs, and promote long-term
freshwater production with minimal environmental impact.

Points of Strengths
 Improved Water Quality and Reduced Fouling
Seawater filtration significantly enhances feedwater quality by removing
suspended solids, organic fouling agents, and microbial contaminants. The Silt
Density Index (SDI) is reduced from around 4.4 in conventional open seawater
intake systems to below 1. Lower SDI results in fewer particulates passing
through RO membranes, reducing the risk of fouling, scaling, and biofilm
formation. This minimizes membrane cleaning frequency, extends membrane
lifespan, and reduces maintenance costs while improving desalination
efficiency.
 Lower Operational and Maintenance Costs
Beach filtration naturally pre-treats seawater before it enters desalination
plants, reducing the need for sophisticated mechanical and chemical pre-
treatment. Since the process provides cleaner feedwater with a lower SDI,
membrane fouling is minimized, resulting in fewer cleanings, lower
maintenance costs, and prolonged membrane life. Beach wells and infiltration
galleries are less sensitive to algal blooms and seasonal water quality
fluctuations, improving system stability and freshwater production efficiency.
Over time, reduced energy consumption, chemical usage, and maintenance
requirements make beach filtration a more cost-effective and sustainable
desalination method, especially in high-water-demand regions.
 Reduced Chemical Usage and Environmental Impact
Beach filtration eliminates the need for many chemical pre-treatments,
such as coagulants, disinfectants, and anticalins, which are typically used in
conventional seawater intake systems. Lower chemical usage results in lower
operating costs and minimizes the risk of chemical pollution in marine
environments.
The process reduces toxic brine discharge, lessening its impact on marine
life and helping preserve coastal biodiversity by avoiding excessive chlorine,
biocides, and other harmful substances. By creating a cleaner and more
environmentally friendly water treatment process, beach filtration improves the
sustainability of desalination systems.
 Points of Weakness
 Geological Limitations and Performance Variability
The efficiency of beach filtration depends on the coastal area’s geological
characteristics, including sediment permeability, grain size, and stability. If
sediments are too fine or clay-rich, infiltration rates can be low, limiting natural
filtration efficiency. If sediments are too coarse, dissolved organic matter and
fine particulates may pass through without adequate removal, reducing filtration
effectiveness. Poor well positioning or over-extraction may cause saltwater
intrusion, leading to aquifer contamination and long-term system sustainability
issues.
 Risk of Salinity Buildup and Aquifer Contamination
Continuous seawater infiltration can gradually increase the total dissolved
solids (TDS) concentration in coastal aquifers, potentially reducing pre-treated
water quality. In prolonged use, TDS concentrations can rise from 34,000–
35,000 mg/L to above 45,000 mg/L, requiring additional treatment to remain
effective for desalination. Industrial and urban pollution near coastlines can
introduce hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and other contaminants into aquifers,
necessitating further monitoring and pre-treatment.
 High Initial Infrastructure and Maintenance Costs
Constructing beach wells requires extensive site surveys, geological
assessments, and engineering expertise. Drilling, building filtration plants, and
installing monitoring devices can be costly compared to traditional open
seawater intake systems. Maintenance is necessary to prevent sediment
clogging, biofouling, and reduced infiltration efficiency, requiring regular
sediment flushing and cleaning. Coastal erosion and seasonal variations in
sediment movement may also affect system performance, necessitating
additional engineering controls. Despite these challenges, beach filtration
remains a viable and sustainable solution for improving desalination efficiency
while minimizing environmental impact.

Zenein Wastewater Treatment Plant

This project is located at the Zenein Wastewater
Treatment Plant, located in Cairo, Egypt. It illustrates a
spiral-wound membrane module used in filtration processes like reverse
osmosis. The feed solution enters the system and flows through a semi-
permeable membrane, which allows purified water (permeate) to pass while
rejecting impurities. Impermeable sheets provide structural support, directing
the permeate flux toward a central collection tube. The filtered water exits as
permeate, while the remaining concentrated solution, containing rejected
contaminants, is discharged. This design is widely used in water purification,
desalination, and wastewater treatment due to its efficiency in separating
contaminants from liquids, as shown in Figure 41.
Membrane filtration works by transferring water through a thin membrane,
which filters out toxic material such as viruses and bacteria. This process is very
efficient in the sense that it removes even the smallest impurities that may be
turned away by standard methods. This technology has been employed in
treating wastewater in Egypt to make it fit for purpose in agriculture and other
uses. One significant advantage of membrane technology is that it provides
continuously clean water without chemical additives. It also provides high-
quality effluent, which is essential in water reuse. MBRs also combine
biological treatment and membrane filtration, which enables efficient
wastewater treatment. Technology improves the removal of organic matter and
microorganisms, and it enables treated water to be utilized for reuse in industry
and irrigation. Even though it is beneficial, membrane filtration technology
comes with some challenges. Its operation and energy costs are high, thus
making it expensive to maintain. Membrane foul and, as such, become
ineffective over time, and there is a need for constant maintenance and cleaning.
The second issue is the capital needed to establish the systems, which is too
expensive and can be out of reach, especially in rural communities.

Mechanism
Membrane filtration to pure water is one of the most effective methods of
removing impurities from water. It is achieved by passing water through a semi-
permeable membrane, which removes impurities and allows pure water to pass
through. It is used widely in Egypt for wastewater treatment and providing
clean drinking water. The principle of selective permeability regulates the
membrane filtration process. Small pores in the membrane will allow water
molecules to pass through and block other larger particles, bacteria, and viruses.
It is based on the membrane type used where different filtration processes can
be carried out. These include microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and
reverse osmosis. Microfiltration and ultrafiltration entail the application of
larger pore membranes, typically between 0.1 and 0.01 microns. Microfiltration
and ultrafiltration can remove suspended solids, bacteria, and some viruses.
Ultrafiltration can also remove small impurities, such as proteins and colloids.
The process is mainly applied at the initial stages before more complicated
stages of purification are used. Reverse osmosis and nanofiltration employ still
smaller pore-sized membranes, typically less than 0.001 microns in size.
Nanofiltration removes small organic compounds, dissolved salts, and hardness
constituents and is thus best suited for softening of water and desalination of
water. The most advanced method of membrane filtration, reverse osmosis,
removes all dissolved salts, heavy metals, and poisonous contaminants,
producing highly purified water. Pressure filtration pushes water through the
membrane and forces out impurities. The forced-out impurities are expelled by
forcing them out, thus preventing clogging and increasing membrane efficiency.
Fouling of the membrane by particle deposition in the long term can degrade
performance. Cleaning by regular cleaning, for instance, washing in sodium
hypochlorite solutions, preserves membrane life and efficiency. Energy
consumption is yet another parameter of membrane filtration. Microfiltration
and ultrafiltration involve quite low pressures, but nanofiltration and reverse
osmosis require high pressures, and hence energy is more expensive.
Development in membrane technology is aimed at reducing energy
consumption and increasing the membrane's life so that the process is
economical. Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) combine membrane filtration and
biological treatment to enhance wastewater treatment.
Microorganisms in MBR break down organic pollutants before membrane
filtration, which removes the remaining impurities. The integrated process
yields high-quality effluent that can be utilized for irrigation and industry.
Membrane filtration in Egypt has proved to be a successful way of managing
water scarcity and pollution. It is a sustainable technology for wastewater
treatment and drinking water quality improvement. The technology is, however,
prone to operational challenges such as membrane fouling and excessive cost,
but research has not stopped identifying ways to improve efficiency and cost-
effectiveness.
Overall, membrane filtration is a critical water purification technology,
utilizing selective permeability to strain out impurities. Depending on different
filtration procedures, the process offers clean and safe water for various
applications.

Points of strengths
 High-quality Effluent production:

MBR systems are renowned for producing effluent of extremely high

quality and meeting stringent discharge standards. The coupling of biological
treatment and membrane filtration ensures the effective removal of suspended
solids, pathogens, and organic pollutants. The superior quality of treatment
makes the reclaimed water suitable for numerous non-potable applications, such
as agricultural irrigation and industrial processes, thereby contributing to the
promotion of water conservation in water-scarce nations such as Egypt. The
better effluent quality also minimizes the environmental effect of wastewater
discharge, safeguarding aquatic life and public
 Compact System Design:

MBR technology combines membrane filtration and biological treatment

within a single, one-piece piece of equipment. This combination eliminates
separate units for each process and thus reduces the physical space taken by the
treatment plant in contrast to conventional systems with individual units for
each process. The use of space-saving is convenient for use in towns or where
available space is not much, enabling easy use of the available space. Further,
the modular design of MBR systems offers flexibility in extension and
integration into established plants, and hence, it is flexible in accepting future
wastewater treatment requirements.
 Operational Flexibility and Efficiency:

Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) technology boasts an added advantage in

its compact system design, a feature best suited for space-limited places. Since
membrane filtration and biological treatment are integrated in a single unit in
MBR systems, the systems effectively reduce the physical space required for
wastewater treatment. Compactness is an outcome of the fact that secondary
clarifiers and tertiary filtration processes are avoided because solid-liquid
separation and high effluent quality are provided by the membrane itself. The
smaller footprint not only conserves space but also accommodates the
placement of treatment plants within urban or limited spaces where land is
scarce. The small footprint also usually means that construction and
infrastructure expenditure can be minimized, thus rendering MBR systems an
economical wastewater management system. This fact is especially useful for
countries such as Egypt, where population growth and urbanization require
efficient yet space-saving wastewater treatments. The ability to treat at high
performance in a smaller area emphasizes the flexibility and applicability of
MBR technology in different environments.

Points of weaknesses
 High Capital and Operational Costs

The investment for MBR is high, as it is related to the high cost of special
machines and their associated equipment. The operation cost is also relatively
low because most of it comes from energy-demanding operations to sustain
transmembrane pressure and periodic membrane cleaning procedures. This cost
may pose a great limitation for the large-scale application of MBR systems in
low-resource countries, such as some regions of Egypt. The practice still
endeavors to reduce costs by upgrading technology and economies of scale,
although it is a key consideration.
 Membrane Fouling and Maintenance Challenges:

One of the significant drawbacks of Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)

technology is its high operational and maintenance cost, primarily due to
membrane fouling. Fouling refers to the accumulation of particles, colloids, and
microorganisms on the membrane surface or within its pores, which lowers the
filtration efficiency and raises transmembrane pressure. This necessitates
regular cleaning operations, which are performed using chemicals and result in
operational downtime. Over time, even with regular maintenance, membranes
are worn out, lose efficiency, and need to be replaced. Labor, cleaning
chemicals, and membrane replacement all contribute to the overall cost of
operation of MBR systems. Chemical waste created during the cleaning process
is also an environmental hazard and needs to be disposed of appropriately.
Therefore, while MBR technology offers high-quality effluent and a compact
footprint, the economic burden of membrane fouling and maintenance is a
major challenge to its widespread application.

 Energy Consumption Concerns:

 One of the greatest limitations of Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)
technology is its relatively high capital investment, particularly concerning
membrane modules. The amount of money that must be invested in the
procurement and installation of these tailored membranes can be enormous,
particularly if compared with conventional wastewater treatment facilities. Such
cost can become an effective bar against industries and municipalities, most
importantly in developing nations like Egypt, where funding restrictions are
standard practice. High capital costs are explained by the sophisticated materials
and processing methods used in the fabrication of membranes with sufficient
durability and performance. Additionally, the need for specialized equipment
for installing the membranes into in-place treatment systems further increases
the capital costs. Although MBR technology is appealing in the sense that it
offers a smaller footprint and improved effluent quality, the expense of
membrane modules upfront is a major obstacle to the widespread adoption of
MBR. Decision-makers must weigh these upfront costs against long-term
operational cost savings and environmental benefits in making decisions
regarding the adoption of MBR technology in their contexts.
Chapter 2
Generating and Defending a Solution
 Solution requirements
 Affordability

The selected design should be as minimal as possible with few parts, as

this will lower the cost of constructing the desired solution. The preferred
material should also be locally grown wasted materials and available in the
country of Egypt, this makes the solution implementation costs low and ensures
it can be replicated by others or implanted on a greater scale.

 Functionality and Efficiency

The selected solution should have the maximum efficiency possible. This
can be done by focusing on maximizing the filtration of containment acquired
from water Heavy metals (HMs), Total Dissolved Solids (TDSs), and
Microorganisms like Vibrio Cholera The selected prototype must also be easy to
be scaled up in size by a definite number. This allows for an increase in water
filtration if the solution is implemented in real life.

 User experience

First, the solution design should follow the safety rules for the user. This
can feature using non-toxic materials or well-isolating the hazardous substance
that sifts the containment of water. The design of the prototype should be also
easy to use by the targeted audience, which can be done by minimal design and
providing clear instructions for using the prototype.
 Design Requirements
The prototype should eliminate the containment in the water, Heavy
metals HMs, Total Dissolved Solids TDS, and microorganisms, at least (90)%,
as the threshold value of salinity becomes less than 500 Part Per Million PPM,
in the water sample (5) to (6) liters within (10) Minutes. In addition, The
materials should function at least at (80)% of their original efficiency after
being exposed to polluted water for 5 cycles to ensure that the solution can
preserve its performance over time and for a long period of use besides that the
materials should be from the nature or wasted-driven materials to deplete the
cost of the prototype. The system should also work automatically without any
human interlapping as the system should be controlled by two water gates to get
the water out or in according to its threshold level.

Selection of Solution
The solution for the management of the pollution and potential health
hazards caused by agriculture drainage and domestic sewage at Rosetta Nile
Branch is electrocoagulation, membrane filter, and disinfection. Firstly, the
water containing all pollutants, HMs, TDS, and microorganisms passed through
a chamber that contains two electrodes made from Iron Fe connected to a DC
source, so these electrodes undergo to electrolysis process. At the anode, the
iron is oxidized and forms iron ions as shown in Equation (x)
+2 −¿ ¿
Fe Oxidation Fe + 2 e
→

While at the cathode, it undergoes reduction where the water is electrolysis

as shown in Equation (x)
−1
−¿ Reduction H 2g +2 OH ¿
2 H 2 O+2 e →

The ferrous ion reacts with hydroxide and forms Iron. Π hydroxide as shown
in Equation (x)
 +2 −1
Fe +2 OH → Fe (OH )2

Iron Π Hydroxide acts as an efficient coagulant for ions (heavy metals) and
colloids (organic and inorganic) are primarily held in solutions by electrical
charges according to Alena Tetreault and EC Pacific Pty Ltd (2003). As it is
destabilized by the addition of ions of the charge opposite that of containments.
As a result of this reaction, immense sludges are formed at the bottom of the
chamber where the reaction occurred. To get rid of these sludges, a membrane
filter having small particles and pores, which the sludges can’t permit through
it, is used. Then the water undergoes some rays, ultraviolet rays, for disinfection
to ensure the elimination of the pathogens that are responsible for waterborne
diseases.

The main materials of the solution are 20 electrodes, 10 for anodes and 10
for cathodes, which are positioned vertically with equal gaping between them to
cover the total area, and these electrodes are connected to a power supply equal
having 50 volts and 100 amperes. After treatment of the raw water from its
containments like HMs, TDS, microorganisms, and colloids (organic and
inorganic), the water is moved to another chamber by using a water pump
circulation passing through a membrane filter to drain the water from the
formed sludges, and to ensure the water is dissolved, the sand and gravel dunes
are used. Finally, the water moves forward some ultraviolet rays for the
disinfection process.

Selection of Prototype
the plastic box represents the main pollution of agricultural drains and
domestic sewage, and then the water is transported to another plastic box
through PVC tubes to another plastic box where the first stage of filtration
occurs electrocoagulation. Here, two electrodes with (10) cm Height (5) cm and
made from Iron Fe are connected to a DC source. Hence, the water undergoes to
electrolysis process in which the iron is oxidized into a Ferrous II Fe +2 at the
anode. While at the cathode, the water is electrolyzed into Hydrogen gas H 2 and
Hydroxide Ion OH-. The Ferrous II Fe+2 reacts with Hydroxide Ion OH- and
forms Fe(OH)2. Iron(II) hydroxide is an effective coagulant for Heavy Metals
(HMs), TDS, and microorganisms. Then the water is transmitted into another
plastic box by using an electronic pump automatically. The water passes
through two filter membranes: filter paper and gravel membrane to ensure
removing the water from the sludge formed from electrocoagulation. Finally,
the water will pass through the third plastic box. In the third plastic box, the
water is filtered from pathogenic microorganisms by disinfection using
ultraviolet rays from an LED lamp. The water is transmitted to check the plastic
box to find the threshold value of pollutants. If it is above the baseline 500
PPM, the water will undergo to same filtration process again until reaching to
the baseline