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HL IB Psychology Your notes

Cognitive Processing in a Technical World

Contents
The Positive & Negative In uence of Technologies on Cognitive Processes
Two Key Studies of the positive in uence of technologies on cognitive processes:
Blacker et al. (2014); Morina et al. (2015)
Key Studies Summary Table: The In uence of Technologies on Cognitive Processes
Two Key Studies of the negative in uence of technologies on cognitive processes:
Sparrow et al. (2011); Rosen et al. (2011)

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The Positive & Negative In uence of Technologies on Cognitive

Processes Your notes

How do technologies In uence Cognitive Processes?

Note: You have learnt about cognitive processes as part of the Cognitive
Approach e.g. memory and thinking and decision-making.

How do technologies in uence cognitive processes?

Cognitive processes include functions such as memory, thinking and decision-making, attention,
perception, language and information-processing
Modern technologies include smartphones, the internet, computer games all of which involve the use
of cognitive processes, particularly working memory and attention
We live in an increasingly complex world due to the fast and technical nature of technology but we are
also able to access information in ways which would have been unimaginable even a couple of
decades ago
The concept of cognitive overload is one which revolves around the idea that too much exposure to
too much technology can overwhelm the individual and result in impaired cognitive
and social functioning
People born prior to the internet and prior to the widely-adopted use of personal computers are
known as ‘digital immigrants’ and those born after the establishment of these technologies are known
as ‘digital natives’
There is a school of thought that digital natives cannot function adequately without almost continuous
access to their technologies and that this impairs their cognitive processes
There is another school of thought that modern technologies are bene cial to cognitive processing for
both digital natives and digital immigrants alike

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Your notes

Are modern technologies equally accessible to digital natives and digital immigrants?

Arguments for the Positive In uence of Technologies

on Cognitive Processes
One argument for the positive in uence of digital technologies is the idea of ‘hyperconnectedness’
which means that an individual can be connected to multiple forms of information and communication
e.g. email, forums, blogs, chat sites, texting, social media, multiple-player computer games etc.
which gives them access to worlds and people that they would otherwise not have had access to
Using the internet and multiple simultaneous sources of information e.g scrolling through social media
whilst watching TV results in multitasking and moving quickly through personal and work-related
tasks which may result in sharper cognitive functions
Multitasking and changing swiftly between cognitive tasks is linked to System 1 thinking which could
be highly adaptive to 21st century life as these skills appear to be increasingly necessary in a range of
situations e.g. having several tabs open on a laptop and switching between each of them to ful l a
speci c task
Switching between tasks can be learned via metacognition which is in itself a discipline which may in
turn improve and enhance cognitive functioning

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Examiner Tips and Tricks

Your notes
If you are given an exam question which asks you to discuss the positive in uence of modern
technologies on cognitive processes remember to include the negative in uence of technologies
as well. You are expected to o er a balanced, discursive essay in Paper 1 Section B so make sure that
you do not o er only one side of the debate.

Arguments for the negative in uence of technologies

on cognitive processes
One argument for the negative in uence of digital technologies is the ‘Google e ect’: the idea that
information is not retained if one simply looks it up using a search engine (i.e. the information is there
for future reference so there is no point trying to rehearse the information to transfer it to long-term
memory)
The use of satellite navigation systems is also often quoted as evidence that people cannot function
without technology, often following incorrect sat-nav instructions against their better judgement
There is some concern that technology-based laziness may result in less neuroplasticity and that,
instead, neural pruning will occur in the parts of the brain that technology has taken over e.g.
the hippocampus for both memory and spatial navigation
An over-reliance on technologies may also negatively impact social interactions as some research has
shown that people who spend more time using a screen lose some ability to recognise faces in real life
as screens interfere with the ability to recognise emotion in face-to-face encounters

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Your notes

Are we too attached to our technologies?

Research which investigates the positive and negative

in uence of technologies on cognitive processes
Blacker et al. (2014): playing video games may improve visual working memory
Morina et al. (2015): virtual reality therapy may be an e ective treatment for phobias
Sparrow et al. (2011): the ‘Google e ect’ may impair retention and recall of information
Rosen et al. (2011): multi-tasking may impair learning

Worked Example
EXTENDED RESPONSE QUESTION (ERQ)
22 MARKS
The question is, ‘Discuss the in uence of digital technology on one or more cognitive processes’.
[22]

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The command term ’Discuss’ means that you have to o er a considered and balanced range of
arguments, concepts, and explanations to provide a full exploration of the topic. Here is an exemplar
paragraph of a ‘Discuss’ question: Your notes
There are arguments both for and against the idea of ‘hyperconnectedness’: on the plus side it is
thought that relying on the internet and multiple simultaneous sources of information results in
multitasking and cycling quickly through personal and work-related tasks. This is linked to System 1
intuitive thinking which lends itself to instant decisions and switching rapidly between tasks which
can be particularly useful when time is of the essence and quick decisions have to be made. One of
the downsides of technology use however, can be seen in schools: mobile phones have presented a
challenge when students mis-use them during lesson time. Mobile phones can disrupt the learning
process during class time, and interfere with the cognitive processes of memory and attention
which are crucial for learning.

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Two Key Studies of the positive in uence of technologies on

cognitive processes: Blacker et al. (2014); Morina et al. (2015) Your notes

Key Study 1: Blacker et al. (2014)

Aim: To investigate the extent to which action video games may improve visual working memory (VWM).
Participants: A volunteer sample of 34 male university students (mean age=20 years).
Procedure:
The participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions of the independent variable
Condition 1: participants were asked to play active video games e.g. Black Ops games, Call of Duty,
Modern Warfare using single-player mode i.e. they were not playing with any other players
Condition 2: participants were asked to play a non-active game (The Sims strategy game); this was the
control condition
Participants in each group were asked to train (i.e. play the game and practise the skills involved) for
over 30 hours across a continuous stretch of 30 days
Prior to the training period the participants were assessed using a self-report (0−9 rating scale) which
asked them how motivated they were to complete a visual working memory (VWM) task
After the training period was over the participants were asked to complete another self-report which
asked them about how engaged they had been in the VWM task (e.g. their level of enjoyment and
absorption in the game)
Results:
The researchers found no signi cant di erences in levels of self-reported motivation and
engagement between the two groups on either the tasks or the VWM assessments
The participants who trained using the action game demonstrated signi cant improvement on one
measure of VWM capacity (a change control task which involves switching attention quickly), a small
improvement on a colour wheel test and no improvement on a complex span task compared with
those who trained on the Sims game.
Conclusion: Action video games may directly improve the VWM, or improve it through the enhancement of
selective attention.

Evaluation of Blacker et al. (2014)

Strengths

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The study has good application as it highlights the responsivity of the VWM to training which could be
used in educational settings where improving cognitive skills is a key objective
Your notes
The procedure took place over 30 hours which means that the participants were able to immerse
themselves in whichever game they were playing across time which makes the ndings more valid than
they would be if a snapshot design had been used
Limitations
There is no way of knowing if the participants stuck strictly to the 30−day practice period: some of
them may have practised the game more and some less which would decrease the reliability of the
ndings due to a lack of consistency across conditions
The study shows what happened - the improvement in VWM on one measure - but it cannot explain why it
happened thus it lacks explanatory power
Key terms:
Visual working memory
Selective attention
Action video games

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So video games are good for you? A million teenagers are rejoicing…

Key Study 2: Morina et al. (2015) Your notes

Aim:
To assess the extent to which virtual reality exposure therapy (VRE) can be used to treat a range of
phobias which may interfere with cognitive processing for the patients who su er from them (e.g.
perception of threats in everyday life)
VRE is a type of exposure therapy which involves being gradually exposed to the phobic stimulus over
time until the patient’s distress and fear have decreased signi cantly
The patient is taught a range of strategies to help them manage their fear and the anxiety surrounding
the phobic stimulus
Procedure:
The researchers conducted a meta-analysis which used the ndings of 14 clinical trials using VRE in
the treatment of speci c phobias
14 studies were used in the study and these covered a range of phobias including fear of spiders, fear
of heights, fear of ying, fear of climbing stairs.
In a VRE therapy session the patient wears a special VR viewer (a headpiece rather like oversized lab
goggles) into which are projected interactive 3D objects and situations associated with their phobia
The phobic stimuli are modi ed and manipulated by the patient’s therapist
By experiencing the phobic stimuli safely but at the same time experiencing them at close range, the
patient is able to gradually reduce their phobia as they are able to confront phobic stimuli without
experiencing a loss of control
Results:
The ndings showed that phobic patients responded well to VRE treatment: their behavioural
responses to the phobic stimuli showed clear improvement following VRE treatment e.g. reduced
anxiety, increased self-control, increased ability to confront the phobic stimuli
Some patients were on a waiting-list for VRE treatment and it was found that they did not improve as
much as the patients who were already undergoing VRE therapy
VRE was found to be as e ective as other behavioural measures e.g. cognitive behavioural therapy in
the treatment of phobias
These ndings are supported by previous research into the use of VRE to treat phobias
Conclusion: VRE may be an e ective treatment for phobias.

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Evaluation of Morina et al. (2015)

Strengths Your notes
The ndings agree with previous meta-analyses which gives them concurrent validity
Patients may prefer VRE to other traditional forms of phobia therapy such as systematic
desensitisation as it gives them more control of the process
Limitations
The number of studies used in the meta-analysis is not large enough to provide robust quantitative
data from which to draw meaningful conclusions
VRE is expensive and time-consuming which means that it is unlikely to be available to most patients
Key terms:
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRE)
Meta-analysis
Phobic stimulus

VRET can be an e ective therapy for a range of phobias

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Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Don’t forget to focus on the type of DATA generated in a research study as part of your critical
thinking. Research such as Morina et al. (2015) which is a meta-analysis focuses only on the
quantitative results of the studies in the sample but remember that this data in the original studies
would have also consisted of qualitative data in the form of behavioural responses from the patient.
You should argue the relative merits of each type of data and also discuss what is lost when
qualitative data is transformed into quantitative data.

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Key Studies Summary Table: The In uence of Technologies on

Cognitive Processes Your notes

Key Studies Summary: The In uence of Technologies

on Cognitive Processes
SUMMARY TABLE: KEY STUDIES OF THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGIES ON COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Topic Two Key

Studies

The Positive In uence of Technologies on Cognitive Processes Blacker et al.

(2014)
Use one of these studies to answer a question on the negative in uence of
technologies too Morina et al.
(2015)
By using one of these studies for a ‘negative in uence’ question you are applying
critical thinking i.e. not all technological in uence is positive; some research shows
that it can also be negative

The Negative In uence of Technologies on Cognitive Processes Sparrow et

al. (2011)
Use one of these studies to answer a question on the positive in uence of
technologies too Rosen et al.
(2011)
By using one of these studies for a ‘positive in uence’ question you are applying
critical thinking i.e. not all technological in uence is negative; some research shows
that it can also be positive

How do I use these studies in an exam question on this topic?

HL IB students have a lot of content to cover so the purpose of this revision resource is to slim down
and streamline the number of studies you need per topic/exam question
The exam question will ask you to either ‘Evaluate’ or ‘Discuss’ either the positive or the negative
in uence of technologies on cognitive processes
You may also be asked ‘To what extent’ technology has a positive or negative e ect on cognitive
processes
For any of the above questions (evaluate, discuss, to what extent) you can use all of the studies
presented in the summary table here

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If you are asked to (for example) ‘Discuss the positive in uence of technologies on cognitive
processes’ you could use BOTH Blacker et al. (2014) and Morina et al. (2015) plus ONE of the negative
in uence studies (possibly in less depth) as a counter-argument (Sparrow et al. 2011 or Rosen et al. Your notes
2011)
Another solution to the above strategy would be to use either Blacker et al (2014) OR Morina et al.
(2015) plus ONE of the negative in uence studies in depth for a counter-argument
Whichever solution or strategy you use in the exam for a question on this topic remember to
acknowledge that technologies cannot have a purely positive or negative e ect on cognitive
processes - always bring in critical thinking and counter-arguments
Remember that the HL questions will only ever appear on Paper 1 Section B (ERQ = 22 marks), never on
Section A

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Two Key Studies of the negative in uence of technologies on

cognitive processes: Sparrow et al. (2011); Rosen et al. (2011) Your notes

Key study 1: Sparrow et al. (2011)

Aim: To investigate the relationship between memory, technology, and the ‘Google e ect’.
Participants: The original journal article does not give any details of the sample demographic.
Procedure: Participants were asked to learn some new items of trivia that they had not known before
the experiment and to enter this information into a computer. The independent variable consisted of
two conditions:
Condition 1: The participants were told that the information they had entered into the computer would
be saved and that they would be able to access it at a later date
Condition 2: The participants were told that the information they had entered into the computer would
be deleted
Half of the participants in both condition 1 and condition 2 were told that they would have to remember
the information they had learned as they would need it at some point later
Participants then completed a recognition task in which they were shown the 30 trivia statements, with half
of them altered slightly. Participants were asked to make judgements about each statement: Is this exactly
what you read earlier? Has the statement been saved or deleted? Has the statement been saved to a
folder, if so which one?
Results: In condition 1 participants who were told that they could access the information at a later date did
not recall it as well as participants who were told that the information would be deleted.
Conclusion: The ‘Google e ect’ i.e. reliance on technology to retain information may lead to ‘digital
amnesia’, the state of being overly dependent on electronic sources to store and retrieve information and
this may have a negative impact on memory.

Evaluation of Sparrow et al. (2011)

Strengths
These ndings could be used to inform intervention strategies to improve recall in educational
settings i.e. to encourage children not to rely on electronic forms of memory but instead to work on
their own memory ability
The ndings may re ect the idea that individual memory is changing to that of a ‘shared memory’ with
the internet being the receptacle for information that is accessible to many rather than just to the
individual which in turn increases the validity of the ndings
Limitations
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In real life people may work harder to remember key information, particularly if it is of personal
signi cance to them which means that this study lacks ecological validity
Your notes
It is almost impossible to generalise the results as nothing is known of the sample demographic i.e.
were they similar in age? Were they all familiar with technology?
Were they from a range of cultures or was the sample ethnocentric?
Key terms:
Google e ect
Digital amnesia
Recognition task

Key study 2: Rosen et al. (2011)

Aim: To examine the extent to which texting during a lecture may impact recall of the lesson.
Participants: 185 college students (80% female; 20% male; age range 18−66 years; mean age=25 years).
83% of the sample was born between 1980 and 1989, and so belong to what is called the ‘Net Generation’,
also known as ‘digital natives’.
Procedure:
Participants were told that they were going to view a 30−minute videotaped lecture relevant to their
course, and that during the session some of them would receive texts from the researchers, to which
they should respond as promptly as possible
Participants were informed that they would be tested on the material after the lecture
There were three conditions of the independent variable
Condition 1: The 4−text condition (4 texts were sent to participants in this condition)
Condition 2: The 8−text condition (8 texts were sent to participants in this condition)
Condition 3: The no-text condition (no texts were sent to participants in this condition)
After the lecture participants were asked to list information about the text messages, including time
received, whether a response was sent and the number of words in the response
The participants also noted any personal text messages they received during the lecture
Participants were also asked questions about their typical texting behaviours in the classroom, and
their attitudes about whether it was acceptable to text during class and whether texting during lectures
was harmful to their ability to learn the material
Results:

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75% of participants agreed that receiving and sending texts negatively impacts the ability to learn from
a lecture, but 40% agreed it was acceptable to text during a lecture
Your notes
18% stated they never responded to a text in class, and 67% stated that they would respond to a
friend’s text, and 75% would respond to a text from a family member
The no/low texting group (conditions 1 and 3) performed 10.6% (memory score) better than the high
texting group
The test score was signi cantly negatively correlated with the total number of words sent and
received i.e. the more texts sent/received the lower the score on the memory test
Those participants who chose to wait more than 4−5 minutes to respond to a text message did
substantially better in the test than those who responded more rapidly
Conclusion: Students should be taught metacognitive strategies that focus on when it is appropriate to
take a break and when it is important to focus without distractions in order to maximise their learning.

Evaluation of Rosen et al. (2011)

Strengths
83% of the sample was born between 1980 and 1989 which makes them ideal for this procedure as
participants had to be familiar with and adept at texting
The participants were in a familiar situation, doing what they would normally be doing so some
ecological validity can be claimed
Limitations
Although, as stated above, there is some ecological validity to this study the students watched a
recorded lecture and were allocated to a condition by researchers (some of whom were texted by the
researchers) which means that there are still arti cial elements to the procedure
This is a snapshot design so the results cannot point to the long-term e ects of multitasking during a
lecture i.e. texting whilst also trying to follow the lecture
Key terms:
Net Generation
Digital natives
Metacognition

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Your notes

One or two sneaky texts in a lesson won’t hurt…will they?...

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure that you don’t over-state any ndings: Rosen et al. (2011) showed some di erence in
recall based on whether or not texting was done during the lecture but this was not a huge
di erence (10.6%) so make sure that you acknowledge this in your evaluation of the study.

Worked Example
EXTENDED RESPONSE QUESTION (ERQ)
22 MARKS
The question is, ‘Discuss the positive and/or negative in uences of modern technologies on
cognitive processes’. [22]

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This command term requires you to o er a balanced range of arguments on the topic. Have a look at
these exemplar paragraphs for guidance:
Your notes
The ndings of Rosen et al. (2011) suggest that it is not technology itself which has a negative
in uence on memory but how it is used and responded to that is the crux of the problem. The study
found that delaying replying to a text message mediates any negative e ect on memory and allows
for better multitasking. These results suggest that when interruptions can be deferred users have a
strong tendency to focus on the main task until mental workload has been minimised. This
contradicts the idea that multitasking produces only undesirable e ects and impacts learning
negatively.
There is a school of thought which argues that digital technology actively and directly enhances
memory via data input/output tools and electronic storage. Data-gathering and analysis is
enhanced by computers, online databases, virtual simulations and online collaboration tools, all of
which supplement and support our limited human long-term memory. In this way it could be argued
that a shared, digital consciousness actually serves to bene t human memory.

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