units

veda
ritha

I
-
1 2) SI UnitS
.
SIDerived Quantities &

((2) m2
·

Area =

Volume ((3) m3 =

Mass (kg)
Density ( * ) kgm-
=

Velocity (E) ms-

=

Physical Quantity Reasonable Estimate timesA) Acceleration ( * ) ms-2 =

mass of 3 (330me) coke cans 1k9 Momentum (mxv) kgms =

temperature (K) Derived units

mass of medium sized car 1000kg
Length of a football field 100m
prefixesForces pa)
- Reaction time of a
young man 0 25

·
.

(M) X 10
Mega Power (E) kgm2s-3 (W) =

kilo (k) X103

Frequency (E) S" (Hz) =

Charge =As kgmsA(v)

I
Centi(c) X10-2

Systematic errors by faulty instruments or flaws in method Micro(u) X 10-6

caused Homogenity
:
.
: Combined units must be same
X10-9 on both sides . Eg : S Ut + at
errors affect Nano (n)
accuracy of reading and can be reduced by recalibration
=

Random errors : caused

by fluctuations in instrument reading due to
uncontrollabe factors. Affects Precision of measurement and to reduce
1. 4) Scalars And Vectors
you can take

Zero
repeat measurements
instrument
and calculate an
average.
when the
.
T
error
gives non-zero reading
:

Scalar quantities that have only magnitude

:

true reading is zero. Reading must be I the error when recorded .

(size) and no direction Eg Distance Speed Time Temp.

.
:
, , ,

Precision : How close measured values are to each other if ,

Vector :
quantities that have both magnitude and also

repeated several times and values Similiar/same it's Precise .

,
direction . Eg Displacement Velocity
:
, ,
Force , Acceleration .

Accuracy : How close measured values are to true value , increased

Adding And Subtracting Coplanar Vectors

finding
.

by repeating measurements and a mean average .

1234 more accurate than 0 123 because more Significant figures 0 123 is
6
.

,
.

Coplanar vectors are

more precise because the last Significant figure is in the thousandths place . rectors that lie in the

Calculating Uncertainty . same plane .

Absolute Uncertainty fixed quantity of

uncertainty (10 15)
: .

Fractional fraction of measurement Representing a Vector as two perpendicular Components

Uncertainty Uncertainty :
given as
be broken down into two perpendicular
Percentage Uncertainty Uncertainty :

given as
Percentage of measurement any vector can compo
X-axis 8 one Y-axis
(or error) should be recorded to 1s f and the
hents , one along along
Uncertainty
.

. .

R is the magnitude of vector, O is

number of decimal points for calculated value is determined by the
Uncertainty. angle made with horizontal axis .

S
Equations of Motion
.

v u + at where

I
=

S :
displacement

U: initial velocity
Speed Distance travelled
:
Per unit time vz = u + 29S t time taken
:

Acceleration rate of velocity .

change of
:

Graph concepts .

Displacement Area under velocity-time graph

:

Velocity Gradient of Displacement-time graph

:

Acceleration Gradient of
:
Velocity
-

time graph
*I
Representation Experimental
Graphic Complex Motions Methods .
*

velocity time
graph.
Experiment todeterminefreefallaccelerationSee
Motion in two directions :

it

takes to fall.

useocculatewhere is heightantities
direction creates projectile motion.
Acceleration time graph This results in a parabolic trajectory
-

horizontal with vertical

combining velocity
acceleration due to gravity.

d -

+ V -

t a t
-

↑
T

Chapter 3 Dynamics.3 1) Momentum And Newton's Laws of Motion

:
.

Mass is a measure of an object's inertia , or it's Linear momentum .

Newton's Laws of Motion .

Cits tendancy to MXV where P momentum m mass

vi velocityFirsthawawofInertiaconstant
resistance to changes in motion .
remain at p
=
,
:
,
:
,

rest or more at constant velocity unless acted upon by a force) . Momentum is a vector quantity it is ,

The more mass an force is required to conserved in isolated force

object has ,
the more an
system when no velocity unless an external acts on it.

change its motion. external forces are acting .

#SecondLaw F =My
e ⑫ to the net force
proportional

acting on it inversely to mass

,
.

# 3 : Third Law (Action and Reaction

F =
Ma where F Force , M : mass A acceleration.
: :
Force (F) can also be defined as the rate
For every action there is an
, ,

equal

theaccerationofanobjectsdirectlyproportionato of changeot momentum. Fifthe

mass
and opposite reactionit

Both the acceleration and resultant force are

mini
always in the same direction.

E weight varies according to

m :
mass (kg)
fil
g
gravitationala
:

Min
-
I

.3) Linear Momentum 8

.
3 Its

two forces in contact .

Types of Friction Static (Prevent
:
motion between
Conservation
Surfaces) and Kinetic friction (opposes motion when objects already moving). conservation of Momentum .

fluid The total momentum of closed

Viscous/Drag Forces :
oppose motion of objects moving through a
a
system remains constant unless acted

force
Cair or
liquid) .
Air resistance is a type of drag force . Upon by an external

Momentum is the product of mass and

velocity (P mv)
=

As the speed of an object increases the

drag forces acting on it also increase , Providing
greater resistance to faster-moving objects . Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
↑
↑

·j
Elastic Collisions Momentum and Kinetic energy
:
are both conserved.

Inelastic Collisions Momentum :

is conserved IE ,
is not
fully conserved (some
lost to heat sound ,
etc. ).
where
1
KE of Object
i
:

Moti on in Gravitational Field with Air resistance

·
·

:
KE of Object 2

objects falling in a uniform gravitational field (eg :

on earth) are influenced To total KE of system
:

Relative Speed in Elastic Collisions .

the rate of acceleration .

U. -

Uz = Vz -

V u.
"

approaching
U2 E Separating
v

while momentum is
always conserved , the Kinetic energy of a

At Terminal Velocity the net force on the

object is zero because the downward
,
system may change during collisions , especially in inelastic collisions

force (gravity) is balanced by the upward force (Air resistance) . where energy is transformed into other forms .

Example :

PS :
Kinetic Energy gmv2 =

AKE =

IMV-IMV,
=
[M(V -

V, )

Chapter 4 :
Forces , Density and
Pressure
4 2) Equilibrium

J
4 1).

Turning Effect of forces .

of forces
=
.

Centre of
Principle of Moments.
gravity : The point where the entire weight of an
the sum of all clockwise moments will be
For an object in
equilibrium equal
.

Can be Considered to act upon ,

object .

to the sum of all anticlockwise moments .

Weight gravitational field strength.

Examples
~ ww massx

Moment of a force :

Turning effect of a force about a pivot

Conditions for Equilibrium .
Moment Force x distance from pivot [unit Nm]
= =

#1 :
No resultant forces on objects
#2 No resultant
:
torque (force that cause object to ROTATE) ·

Vector
triangle ·

Couple :
A pair of equal and opposite forces acting on object to A Vector triangle can be used to represent three Coplanar forces in

Produce rotation without translation.

equilibrium .

Torque of Couple = Force x

Perpendicular distance between forces .
equilibrium
⑳

if objects are in ,
>
-
1
Te COSO W

i
-

, COSO
T

=
+
find force and
its PERPENDICULAR distance. TsinO-TisinO =
0-2
~

. 3) Density
4
and Pressure.
Hydrostatic Pressure. Upthrust (Buoyancy !

Density .
Pressure in fluid increases with depth due to the weight of the upward force exerted by fluid on a
submerged
mass per unit volume [p = where : P is
density the fluid above.
Pisfluiddensity
object due to difference in hydrostatic Pree ssur.
m is mass Formula AP =
pgAh where :

Archimedes' Principle
unit :
kgm3 v is volume
[Unit Pascals]
:
g is gravity acceleration .

Pressure. Ah is depth Upthrust F =

PgV
[Unit N]
[P = J P is pressure :

Force Per Unit Area where :

F is force where P is density of fluid

Unit :
Nm- A is Area
g is gravity acceleration
(Pascals) v is volume of fluid displaced
i:
·
·
work
&

.
.

Gravitationa I 30
I I

S is displacement in direction of force

Conservation of Energy .
whe rem
:

"

t
from one form to another .

[Unit Joule]
:

Efficiency
Ah is height/change in height
· Kinetic Energy .
X 100 %

Power
kE =
[ Mr where :
m is mass of object
v is velocity
of doing
Rate work or rate of energy transfer . AKE =
[M(V2-V ) , V2 is final velocity
p
=

W or
p
=
Fr where :
PisPower Wis ,
work done Vis initial velocity
tis time taken F is force ,
[unit Joule]
,

[unit Watt/W] :
v is velocity .
:

Chapter 6 Deformation of Solids :

T
6 1) Stress and strain 6 2) Elastic and Plastic Behavior.
-

Deformation :
Caused by tensile forces (Stretching) or compressive
Elastic Deformation :
material returns to original shape when load removed .

L applied to an object Plastic Deformation material does not:

return to its original shape after load removed
length of an object under tensile load Elastic Limit :
maximum load that can be applied without causing permanent
The reduction in length of object under compressive load deformation .
ompressi n
·

Hookes
Limit ofProportionality Point beyond which material doesn't follow Work done Area under Force work done .
Extension graph represents
: law .
: -

Hooke's Law F Kx where F is force , His extension , Kis spring constant Elastic Potential Energy Ep zFx Ep 12 for material within limit of proportionality
:
or
= = =
:
,
.

Stress O :

=. Force per unit Area Pascals or N/M2

Strain : G = Extension per original length no unit

Young Modulus :
ratio of stress to strain E =
O Pascals or N/M2 >
-
Shaded is
-work done
LKElOSt
workdoneeching
,
when during streching
contracting
Experiment to determine Young Modulus (of metal in wire form]
measure extension of a wire under various loads , then use formula to
calculate the stress and strain to calculate the Young Modulus .

I
7
-
i

sound source moves relative to

Wave motion :
movement of energy through
Vibrations as seen in , ropes springs
, ,
and ripple tanks.
key terms .
Displacement :
distance from equilibrium position . (
Amplitude:maxdisplacementfrom equilibriumpositionsere
Period (1) Time for :
one complete wave cycle .
Frequency (f) Number of
:
wave cycles ser sec (H2) .
A
Vs -
· S peed of source

k > constant my
-
 7
T
7 . 2) Transverse Longitudinal Waves 7. 4) Electromagnetic . 5) Polarisation
7
L
I

Transverse Waves
.
Spectrum *
Polarisation : A
property of transverse waves

Particles more wave direction where vibrations occur in one

perpendicular to the Electromagnetic [EM] waves :
All EM waves plane
water waves , Seismic-s
Eg light : waves , waves .
are transverse and travel at Speed C(Speed of Eg :

X wave direction
light in vacuum) .

Land
3 &
-

insedS
crest
glasses lens

Wavelength Range .
red

Radio : 100m X ,
300kHzf , Longest X
Malus's Law
Microwaves 10-2X , 30MH27 : &

describes how the intensity of light Changes

-

trough Infrared 1000-10-4X:

3GHz &
Longitudinal Wave ,

when it passes
through filter . It
Visible light 10-7x 300GH2f :
a
polarizing
Particles vibrate perpendicular to wave's direction ,

3 x10" Hzf applies to plane polarized light where the light waves
ultraviolet 10-8X
,
:

Eg Sound waves
: Seismic-P waves .
,

single plane
,
vibrate in a
X-rays 10-10X :
3 x 18 " Hef .

,
- note
:
as O increases less light

To
,

* # =
cost O passes thru and intensity
Gamma Rays : 10-X , 3x10 Hef , longest f decreases .
where I is
Intensity of transmitted light
faction Compression Visible light & is Initial of light before polarization
.

Intensity
↑dismore
placemen
Sa
.

Particle ticle wavelengths between 400 700nm -

are visible
Lat equilibrium O is direction of light 8 axis of filter
right.
to the human eyes.
angle between .

-Roto
L displacement
a
negativea ove left
[C] compression veda
ritha
note When
:

O is O all light passes through so I =

Io

⑮
,

[R] varefaction
when O is 90 ; no light passes through 30 I = 0

Chapter 8 :
Superposition . Inference
Interference .
pattern of
occurs when two waves overlap resulting

J
:
,
in a

Stationary Waves Constructive and destructive Inference

.

Constructive :
If waves are in phase they make a strong combined wave
When two waves meet the , resulting displacement at any
If waves of phase
,

the destructive :
are out they cancel each other out.
point is sum of the displacements of the Individual ,

waves at that Point. Coherence : Two sources are coherent if they have a constant phase
difference and the same frequency .
Example :e +, Two sources of water , sound , light or microwaves create an

stationary waves
.
Inference pattern Areas of .
constructive Inference are bright or loud
spots and
microwaves :
stationary waves form by reflecting microwaves
[Nodes] A + i Nodes]
[n destructive Inference is seen in dark or dim spots.
from surface resulting
a in points of no vibration s max vibration
,
For a two source Inferencee. Sources must be coherent , meaning they stay in
Stretched
Strings
A :

string fixed at both ends can show stationary

Sync with each other and have similiar , amplitudes .

by vibrating at specific frequencies Charmonics) .

waves

Air Columns Stationary waves in air columns Clike

For a light passing through two slits , use X =
a
:
in pipes) form when
where X is wavelength of light
air vibrates at certain frequencies ,
with nodes and antinodes in pressure change
a is distance between slits
These are points 2 stretched se open end

Example : resulting

gapsing
on a
string
fringe
stationary wave .

harmonics X is spacing on screen

Mistaubwe depends
- on
I
D is distance from slits to screen
the frequenis
a

Diffraction .

Diffraction occurs when waves bend around the edges of

an obstacle or pass through a gap and spread out.

Water waves
passing through a narrow gap show diffraction

somonas the
where
the waves .

O is angle of diffraction
M is order of maximum

X is
wavelength of light
B
Chapter 9 Electricity
:
9 2) Potential difference
.

T
and power Resistance :

T
&

Resistance is a measure of how

Electric Current :
The potential difference (v) across a

Electric Current is the flow Charge

of Carriers Cusually component is the energy transferred flow of . It is measured in
current

electrons) through a conductor . It is measured in amperes

(A) ,
And it flows from higher potential to lower potential .
Quantisation of charge . conductor .

The charge on charge carriers is quantised , meaning

that each charge Carrier has discrete amount of charge .

The unit of W energy (J) diff directly

:

charge on an electron is the smallest across a conductor is

Charge approximately 1 6x1019C . Q :

charge (C) Proportional to the current through it ,
Power
.

Provided the temperature remains const.

Power is the
energy is rate at which
:Current/AmerT
V = IR where V :
Potential diff (v)
transferred . The formulas for Power
:CurrentSohms)
where I
Current (A) is :
P IV
I Anvq CWArtSS
:
= =
where P :
Power I-v characteristics
A Cross Sectional
:
Area of Conductor (M2) Potential diff (V)

:numberdensityofchargecarriersa P =
I2R V Current (A)
(C) P VC/R R : resistance (ohms) linearly with the potential difference at a
: Charge of each carrier =

constant temperature.
T

Resistor (LDR) Semiconductor Diode A Semi-

Light Dependant
:

Temperature and Resistance of a Filament

-

Lamp. LDR is resistance decreases conductor diode has a non-linear

An a as
light
Increases. In relationship between current and
As CurrentIncreases through a Filament lamp intensity bright light ,
the
its rises , and so does its resistance. resistance is low , and in darkness the
potential difference. The current
temperature ,

Increases rapidly after a certain

This is due to Increased vibrations of atoms resistance is high .
in the filament which
threshold voltage is reached and
, impede the flow of ,

electrons more as the temperature increases. Thermistor . the 1-Vgraph is

exponential .
Formula for Resistivity. A thermistor is a type of resistor whose Filament Lamp :
The resistance of
Resistance of a uniform conductor can be resistance decreases as temperature increases filament lamp increases with
a

calculated Thermistors have a negative temperature

by :

R : resistance Cohms)
temperature as current flows through
(NTC) meaning their resistance
Coefficient . This results in a non-linear I-V

P
, it
R =
where P resistivity : of material cometers)
decreases as the temperature rises . where the currentIncreases less
graph
: lengthofconductors(metes
,

or sharply as the voltage Increases .

(M2)

~
.

enomum
T

·
=>

10 1) Practical Circuits
.

Circuit Symbols .

cell 1 :
electric bell : capacitor :

.m
e f us Potential difference (P d ) :

(11 : /1 11-1
. . .
.

buzzer
battery or :
:

Power supply :
microphone :

Per unit
charge .

Loudspeaker :
rops in that

loop. This is a
consequence of the

lamp :
generator :
conservation of energy . [e m f . . .
=
[P d
. .

Fixed Resistor :
ammeter : A
ResistorsIn series
1 Involves energy used by the charge. Rn
Variable Resistor :
Voltmeter : v
For resistors Ri ,
R2 , ...
in series , the
Internal Resistance :

thermistor :
galvanometer : ↑ Combined Resistance is :

↓ The Internal resistance of a source reduces the terminal

Rtotal R, R2 Rn
V

light-dependant Resistor :
Potentiometer :
= + +... +

Potential difference (Vt) . The relationship is :

heater :
diode :
V = e M . .
f -
Ir where : W is Internal resistance (e) Derived from Kirchoff's Second Law .

a
I is current (A)
Switch :

Light-emitting diode :
Resistors in parallel .

For parallel,
earth :
Oscilloscope : resistors in R , R ...
Rn in
10 3) Potential Dividers.
.
a null point (Zero current) .
It allows precise Thermistors &LDRs in Potential Dividers. the combined Resistance is :

↑
Principle of Potential Divider. measurement of P d between 2 points . Thermistors As temperature , :
4
=

R, Ra
+ +...
Rn
+

Riotal
. .

A potential divider uses two or more resistors the resistance of a thermistor ↓ ,

Derived from Kirchoff's first Law.
Galvanometer in hull methods
.

in series to produce a desired fraction of the causing the output P .

d to.

change
A galvanometer detects current in null
extra notes
zero
total The output with :
voltage . voltage Vout is :
temperature .
methods . When it shows no deflection , the circuit
R2
Vout =
Vin X LDRs :
As light Intensity ↑ resistance
Ri + Ra ,

is balanced , indicating the P d .

.
is equal to
Potentiometer of LDRt altering
,
P d based
.
. on the
reference value .
A potentiometer is a variable resistor used to conditions.
light

·
compare P d .
.

by adjusting resistance to achieve

11 .
1) Atoms nuclei and radiation , , .

c- Particle up(u) + 2/3

#1 Scattering Experiment
· :
: :

In Rutherford's experiment ,
most -particles passed through gold foil , but some
·
down (d) -113 :

were deflected at large angles .

This concludes that Atoms have a small , dense , rely
·
Strange (s) -1/3 :

Charm (c) 213

·
: +
charged nucleus where most of the mass is concentrated.

213
#2 :
Model of the nuclear Atom :
·
top (t) : +

Atoms consist of a nucleus (protons & neutrons) surrounded by electrons in orbitals

· bottom (b) : -

1/3

# 3 : Nucleon and Proton numbers :

·
Proton number (2) Number of:
Protons in the nucleus (defines the element
·
Nucleon number (A) Total number of Protons :
neutrons in the nucleus

#4 :
Isotopes :

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same proton number but
composed of Quarks

different number of neutrons (eg :

Carbon-12 ,
Carbon-14)
#5 : Nuclide Notation :
Mesons Made of :
one quarks one antiquark.
Represented as AzX where A is nucleon number, I is proton number & X is #4 :
B-decay and Quarks .

down quark transforms

the chemical Symbol .
In B-decay : a into an up quark,
#6 :
Conservation in nuclear Processes :

emitting a B- particle (electron) and an antineutrino .

Nucleon number and charge are conserved during nuclear reactions .
In Bt decay an up quark transforms into a down quark,
:

emitting a B particle [Position) and a neutrino .

+
#7 :
Properties of C, B , and Y radiation :

-particle Composed of 2
charge # 5 Leptons
proton 2 neutrons relatively massive.
:
+2
:
, , .

(B- charge- 1) or positions (B" charge + 1) small mass

particles
of

Fundamental that
a rentmade
B-particle Electrons :
, ,
us a

X-rays High-energy electromagnetic radiation no mass no charge

:
.

, ,

#8 :
Antiparticles :

Antiparticles have the same mass but opposite charge as their extra notes
corresponding particles (eg
:
Position is antiparticle of electron
#9 :
AntiCNeutrinos) in B-decay :

B-- decay :
Produces an electron an antineutrino

B"-decay : Produces a
position and a neutrino

# 10 :
Discrete and Continuous Energies :

-particle :
Discrete energy levels
B- particle Continuous energy due to the emission of:
(anti) neutrinos sharing
the energy .
# 11 :
Radioactive Decay Equations :

Example d-decay
·
of :

4338 ,
THE C
·

Example of B-decay :

CsN = + e + Ve

# 12 :
Unified Atomic Mass Unit (U) :

1n =
1 mass of Carbon-12 atom 1u 1 66 x10-27 kg
T
· · =
. .