Introduction to operating An operating system (OS) is a set of programs that control the e ‘ xecution of application programs and act as an intermediary between a user of @ computer and the computer hardware. OS is software that manages the computer hardware as well as providing an environment for application programs to run, Examples of OS are: Windows, Windows/NT, OS/2 and MacOS The objectives of OS are: (1)To make the computer system convenient and casy 10 Use for the user: (2)To use the computer hardware in an efficient way: (3)To execute user programs and make solving user problems easier. [Geass] "A computer system can be divided into four components: the hardware, the operating system, the application programs and the users, The abstract view of system components is shown in figure |. 1. Hardware: such as CPU, memory and VO devices 2. Operating system: provides the means of proper use of the hardware inthe operations ofthe computer system, itis similar to goverment 44 Application programs: solve the computing problems ofthe user, such as compilers, peoples, machine, or other compater ion database systems and web browsers, 4. Users: [Br Qasim Mohammed Hussei] aT1. Computer-System Operation ‘A modem general-purpose computer system consists of one or more CPUs and & ‘number of device controllers connected through a common bus that provides ‘access to shared memory (Figure 1.2). Each device controller is in charge of specific type of device (for example, disk drives, audio devices, and video displays), The CPU and the device controllers can execute concurrently, competing for memory eycles. To ensure orderly access to the shared memory, @ memory controller is synchronizing access to the memory. is powered up or rebooted- For a computer to start running-for instance, when 1o have an initial program to run, This initial program, or bootstrap program, tends tobe simple. Typically it stored in read-only memory (ROM) rically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM),known by it needs or elect ine general term firmware, within the computer hardware, It initializes all aspects of the system, from CPU registers to device controllers to memory contents, The bootstrap program must know how to load the operating system —_—_— Page 3 [Dr. Qasim Mohammed Hussein]and to start executing that system, To accomplish this goal, the bootstrap program must locate and load into memory the operating system Kemel, The operating system then stats executing the first proces, Such #8 “init.” and waits for some event to occur, mouse keyboard printer SS ¢ aaa E> : 5 oe] (Gea) [essen] ae jen gr Figure 2 2, Storage Structure Computer programs must be in main memory (also called RAM) to 1 only large storage area that the processor can ac Bach word has its own address, be executed. Main memory is th cess directly, It forms an array of memory words. Interaction is achieved through a sequence of load or store instructions to specifie memory addresses. The load instruction moves a word from main memory to an intemal register within the CPU, whereas the store instruction moves the content ofa register to main memory. ‘The instruction-execution eyele includes: 1) Fetches an instruction from memory and stores that instrction in the instruction register. And increment the PC register. 2) Decode the instration and may cause operand to be fetched from memory and stored in some intemal register. 3) Execute the instruction and store the result in memory. T Qasim Mohammed Hussein) [Dr. Qasim Mohamm =rThe programs and data are not resided in main memory permanently for the following two reasons: 1) Main memory is usually too small to store all needed programs and. Data permanently. 2) Main memory is a volatile storage device that loses its contents when power is tumed off or otherwise lost. Thus, most computer systems provide secondary storage as an extension of main ‘memory to hold large quantities of data permanently. ‘The wide varity of storage systems in a computer system can be organized in @ hierarchy (figure 2). The main differences among the various storage systems lie in speed, cost, size, and volatility. The higher levels are expensive, but they ae fast. + Low capacity. © Highcost. © High speed Figure 3: Storage device hierarchy "A eomputer system consists of CPUs and multiple device controllers that are connected through a common bus. The device controller is responsible for moving the data between the peripheral devices that it controls and its local {Dr Qasim Mohammed Hussein] aybuffer storage. Typically, operating systems have a device driver for each device controller. To start an VO operation, the device driver loads the appropriate registers within the device controller. The device controller examines the contents of these ler starts the transfer of data from the device to its local buffer. Once the transfer of data is complete he srrupt that it has finished registers to determine what action to take, The control device controller informs the device driver via an inte! its operation, The device driver then zetums contol tthe operating system. For mation. ) is used. After setting up device controller transfers other operations, the device driver returns status infor For moving bulk data, direct memory access (DMA) buffers, pointers, and counters for the /0 device, the an entre block of data directly to or from its own buffer storage to memory, with zo intervention by the CPU. Only one interrupt is generated per block, to tell the device driver that the operation has completed, rather than the one interrupt Per byte generated for low-speed de es. designing a computer system according to the There are different categories for number processors used. 1. Single-processor system: there is one CPU for executing instructions. 2. Multiprocessor system: It contains two or more processors that share bus, clock, physical memory and peripheral devices. The advantages of multiprocessors are: a) Increase throughput. +b) Economy scale (less cost) ©) Increase reliability Clustered system: it consists of multiple computer systems connected by a local area network, [Dr Qasim Mohammed Husseln] [Dr. 3m =Operating systems have been evolving through the years. Following table shows the history of OS. Generation Year Flectronic devices | Types ofOSand | eed devices Fist 1945-35 | Vacuum bes Plug boards Second 19551965 _| Transistors Batch system Third 1965 — 1980 | Integrated Circuit (IC) | Multiprogramming Fourth ‘Since 1980 [Large scale integration | PC ae) OS performs many functions such as: 1. Implementing user interface. 2. Sharing HW among users. 3. Allowing users to share data among themselves. 4, Preventing users from interfering with one another. 5, Scheduling resource among users. 6. Facilitating VO operations. 7. Recovering from errors. 8. Accounting for resource storage. 9, Facilitating parallel operations. 10.Organizing data for secure and rapid access, 1 .Handling network communications, Qasim Mohammed Husseln} [Dr. as =Cea ‘The main categories of modem OS may be clasified into three groups which are distinguished by the nature of interaction that takes place between the ‘computer and the user: 1, Batch system In this type of OS, users submit jobs on regular schedule (e8. daily, weekly, monthly) to a central place where the user of such system did not interact directly with computer system. To speed up the processing, jobs with similar needs were batched together and were run through the computer as @ SrOUP. with the operator. The output ‘Thus, the programmer would leave the programs rammer, The major task of this from each job would send to the appropriate progt lly from one job to the next. {ype was to transfer control automat Disadvantages of Batch System |. Turnaround time can be large from user standpoint. 2, Difficult to debug program. 2. Time-Sharing System ‘This type of OS provides on-line communication between the user and the system, the user gives his instructions directly and receives intermediate response, and therefore it called interactive system. ‘The time sharing system allows many user simultaneously share the computer system. The CPU is multiplexed rapidly among several programs, which are kept in memory and on disk. A program swapped in and out of memory to the disk, ‘Time sharing system reduces the CPU ideal time. The disadvantage is more complex. med Hussein] Tne [Dr. Qasim Mol3. Real time operating system Real Time System is characterized by supplying immediate response, It {guarantees that critical tasks complete on time. This type must have a pre- known maximum time limit for each of the functions to be performed on the computer, Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements ‘on the operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application. ‘The airline reservation system is an example ofthis tyPe. 1. Ondine and off-line operation |A special subroutine was writen for each VO device called a device controller. Some VO devices has been equipped for either on-line operation (they are connected to the processor), or off-line operations (they are run by control unit. 2, Buffering 'A buffer is an area of primary storage for holding data during 1/O transfer. (On input, the data are placed in the buffer by an VO channel, when the transfer is complete the data may be accessed the processor. The buffing may be single or double 1g (Simultaneously Peripheral Operation On-Line) 3. Spo Spooling uses the disk as a very large buffer. Spooling is useful because device access data that different rates. The buffer provides @ waiting station where data ean rest while the slower device catches up. ‘pooling allows overlapping between the computation of one job and VO of another job. Sv OO a Page 94, Multiprogramming In multiprogramming several programs are kept in main memory at the same time, and the CPU is switching between them , thus the CPU always has a program to be execute, The OS begins to execute one program from memory, if this program need wait such as an V/O operation, the OS switches to another program, Moultiprogramming increases CPU utilization, Multiprogramming system provide an environment in which the various system resources are utilized effectively, but they do not provide for user interaction with the computer system. Advantages a) High CPU utilization. b) It appears that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously. Disadvantages a) CPU scheduling is requires b) To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required. 5, Parallel system ‘There are more than on processor inthe system. These processors share the computer bus, clock, memory and I/O devices. ‘The advantage is to increase throughput (the number of programs ‘completed in time unit. asim Mohammed Hussein] [Dr. ham <=6. Distributed system among several physical processors. It involves Distribute the computation connceting 2 or more independent computer systems via communication link, So, each processor has its own 0.S. and local memory; processors communicate with one another through various communications lines, such as high-speed buses or telep! Storage & 0.8 ‘storage & O. ‘Communication Link SD {Processor @ “Advantages of distributed systems: hone lines, 4) Resources Sharing ~ You can share files and printers +) Computation speed up - A job can be partitioned so that each processor can do a portion concurrently (load sharing), «) Reliability ~ If one processor failed the rest still can function with no problem. 4) Communications — Such as elevtronie mail, ftp 7. Personal computer Personal computers ~ computer system dedicated to a single user, PC operating systems were neither multi-user nor multi-tasking, The goal of PC operating systems were to maximize user convenience and responsiveness instead of maximizing CPU and VO utilization, Examples: Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh Page 11‘An operating system provides ‘services to programs and to the users of those programs. The common services provided by the operating system are: rating system loads a program into memory 1. Program execution: Oper he program must be able to end its and executes the program. T! jormally. execution, either normally or abn e or any specific VO device. 2, VO Operation: VO means any fil Program may require any /O device while running: So operating system must provide the required /O. ‘manipulation: Program needs to Tea‘ .g system gives the permission to the id a file or write a 3. File system file. The operatin program for operation on file fa transfer between two processes is required processes are on the one computer or on ‘onnected through computer network. 4, Communication: Dat for some time. The both different computer but c Communication may be implemented by two methods: a, Shared memory b. Message passing, ror detection: error may occur in CPU, in /O devices or in the memory hardware. The operating system constantly needs to be aware of possible errors. It should take the appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing, Operating system with multiple users provides efficient system ns: operat 1. Resource allocation: For simultaneously executing job, Thr asim Mohammed Hussein} Page 12 ee2. Accounting: For account billing and usage statistics, 3. Protection: Ensure access to system resource is controlled, ca ‘Modem operating systems are interrupt ervice, and no users t0 whom to respond, an riven. If there are no processes to execute, no VO devices to s operating system will sit quietly, waiting for something to happen. Events are surrence of an interrupt oF @ trap. A trap isa almost always signaled by the occ (for example, division by software-generated interrupt caused either by a €rr0” vero or invalid raemory scces) or by a speci raquest from © UAT BOE that an operating-system service be performed. For each type of interrupt, separate segments of code inthe operating system determine what action should be taken. An interrpt service routine is provide that is responsible for dealing ‘with the interrupt Since the operating system and the resources of the computer system, we need to make sure that an eror in 8 USSr program could eause problems ony forthe one program that was running, With ly affected by a bug in one program. A ‘users share the hardware and software many processes could be adverse sharing, system must ensure that an incorrect (or properly designed operating malicious) program cannot cause other programs to execute incorrect. 'A) Dual-Mode Operation ‘We must be able to distinguish between the execution of operating,system code and user defined code. The approach i o separate the wo modes of operatio user mode and Kern ‘A bit, called the mode bit is added to the hardware of the 1 mode (also called supervisor mode, system mode, or privileged mode). computer to indicate the current mode: kemel (0) or user (1). The dual mode of operation provides us with the means for protecting the operating system fi from errant users-and errant users from one another [De Qasim Mohammed Hussetn} Page 13ns fora user program t0 ask the operating system System calls provide the meat erating system on the user program's behalf perform tasks reserved for the op B) Protection CPU ‘To ensure thatthe operating system maintains MmUSt control over the CPU. We inust prevent a user program from getting stuck in an infinite loop or not calling system services and never returning control to the operating system. To accomplish this goal, we can use a fimer- ‘A timer can be set to interrupt the fe ified fixed or variable period. “The operating system components are | SSSsccc“ 0S decides which process gets the processor In multiprogramming environment, sible for the following hen and how much time. The operating system is respons activities in regard to process management: 1) Creating and deleting both user and system processes 2) Suspending and resuming processes 3) Providing mechanisms for process synchronization 4) Providing mechanisms for process communication 5) Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling Main memory is « large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its wa address, The operating system is responsible forthe following activities in regard to memory management: 1) Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom 2) Deciding which proceses (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of out of memory [Dr qasim Mohammed Hussein] -—__ Page 14memory space as needed, 3) Allocating and deallocating ve for the following activities in regard to fle The operating system is responsibl management: 1) Creating and deleting files 2) Creating and deleting direct 3) Supporting primitives for m 4) Mapping files onto secondary storage ronvolatile) storage media cries to organize files anipulating files and directories '5) Backing up files on stable (n ith disk management: (0S provides the following activities in connection W! 1. Free-space management. 2, Storage allocation 3. Disk scheduling. System calls provide m interfer between the runing, program and the operating system. User cannot execute privileged instructions the user must ask 6 to execute them system calls. Sytem calls are implemented using taps (08 gins control through tap, switches to Kemel mode, performs service, switches back to user mode, 1 how system ealls are used from the OS to read data from one and gives control back to user. Example about files and copy them to another file, shown in figure . the programmer never see this level of details sm Mohammed Husseit] Tor gusim Moharnmed Hussein] Page 13“require input Hileman ‘Waite prompt 10 ser ‘Accept input ‘Require output lens ‘rte prompt 10 se" ‘Accept input ‘Open the input file iffile does not exis Create output fle If file exis, abort yt fle file abort Loop Read from inp Write to oP! Until read fail Close output file Write completion “Terminate normal fe basie function 10 0 for program devel message on soreen n't need to write mpilers) and ers, 50 that they 40 system program provid lopment (editors, ¢0 their own environment program execution (shells). “airol the access of programs OF USETS to the tion mechanism must: ‘mechanism that ¢ ‘The protect ized and authorized user. Protection refers tO pth system and resources. stinguish between unauthori 2. Specify the control to be imposed. 3, Provide Security measut ‘or internal attack. Thersoraing System: Questions and their answers: Process and Deadlock 1m questions with their answers SY ne) rates ee management, ‘a means of enforcement. res are responsible for defending « computer system from external 2, Operating syste ‘Virtual memory, mi ee = ——