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A-LEVEL Sills
MATHEMATICS Egg
COURSE COMPANION

Duncan Graham BSc, BSc(Hons), MSc

Lecturer in Mathematics, Rolle College, Exmouth

Christine Graham, BEd(Hons)

Allan Whitcombe BSc(Hons), MSc

Mathematics Adviser
London Borough of Barking and Dagenham

Charles Letts & Co Ltd

London, Edinburgh & New York
First published 1984
by Charles Letts & Co Ltd
Diary House, Borough Road, London SE1 1DW
Reprinted 1986
2nd edition 1988
Illustrations: Tek-Art

© J. Duncan Graham, Christine Graham and Allan Whitcombe 1984, 1988

© Illustrations: Charles Letts & Co Ltd

All our Rights Reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of Charles Letts Publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Graham, Duncan
A-level mathematics: course companion. —
2nd ed. — (Letts study aids).
1. Mathematics — Examinations, questions, etc.
I. Title II. Graham, Christine
III. Whitcombe, Allan
510’ .76 QA43_

ISBN 0 85097 825 4

Printed and bound by

Charles Letts (Scotland) Ltd
Preface

The key aim of this book is to assist students in their study and This course companion has been produced after analysing
revision of A-level, AS-level and Scottish Higher mathematics the most recent appropriate mathematics syllabuses of all the
and AS-level statisticsormechanics, and it has been written for Exam Boards in England, Wales and Scotland. Most of the
students who are studying their mathematics at school, mathematics required by these syllabuses has been divided
college, evening class or at home. into 86 Study Units, and Table I (p. xii) clearly shows which of
Most students of A-level mathematics study single-subject these topics are included in each syllabus. Table II (p. xiv)
mathematics leading to one A-level. Typical combinations are: analyses the methods of examination.
The largest section of the book is Part II, the Study Units.
pure mathematics + mechanics;
Each Study Unit contains essential information, worked
pure mathematics + statistics;
examples and question practice from recent examination
or pure mathematics + mechanics + statistics.
papers relating to that unit. The essential information omits
If you are one of these students this book has been designed proofs and other similar material which may be found in most
with you specifically in mind. standard texts. The material has been presented in a clear and
If you are one of the smaller number of students studying concise fashion which should be easily accessible to the
double-subject mathematics leading to two A-levels this book student.
will cover at least a half of the work you have to do. Subject As well as the Study Units there is Part I, entitled “Working
combinations are as above but with wider coverage and greater for A-level’, which includes a complete guide on how to use the
depth. book, together with hints on study, revision and examination
This book should act as a course companion from the techniques.
beginning and throughout any A-level mathematics course (or The majority of Study Aids/Revision Guides claim to offer
its equivalent) and could be used as a study-aid, work-book a complete coverage of A-level syllabuses, but seem to have |
and revision aid. It is not intended to provide a complete guide few, if any, advantages over a traditional textbook. In this
to the subject since the book is designed to complement a Letts Course Companion the authors have made a genuine
textbook rather than duplicate it. attempt to break the mould of the standard presentation of
Students preparing for an AS-level examination in pure such material with their fresh, unique presentation. They are
mathematics, mechanics or statistics will also find that this convinced that all students, including those who feel
book is an invaluable aid to their study. Most, if not all, of the unsuccessful with conventional texts, will gain substantial
requirements of their chosen syllabus will be found to be assistance with their study of A-level mathematics and its
fully covered in the appropriate study units. examination from the use of this book.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the following people for their help in for permission to use questions from their recent examination
producing this book: Rod Parsons for constructive advice and papers: the Associated Examining Board, the University of
criticism on the entire manuscript; Chris Aylott and Dave Cambridge, the Joint Matriculation Board, the University of
Crocker for extensive assistance in solutions to past London, the University of Oxford, Oxford and Cambridge,
examination questions; Michael Salvage for revision of the Southern Universities Joint Board, the Welsh Joint
preliminary material and examination analysis; Norma Education Committee and the Scottish Examinations Board.
Whitcombe for general help and encouragement, and other None of the above boards can accept responsibility for the
members of our families whose patience and understanding answers to examination questions. In particular, the Univer-
have been appreciated; and the staff of Charles Letts and Co. sity of London University Entrance and School Examinations
Ltd. Council accepts no responsibility whatsoever for the accuracy
We are most grateful to the following Examination Boards or method of working in the answers given.

eee
ill
 21 Plane Triangles 42
Contents Page
22 3-D Figures 44
46
23 Vectors
Preface iii 24 Vectors and Geometry 48
Acknowledgements iii 25 Complex Numbers 50
26 Complex Numbers and Graphs 52
PART I WORKING FOR A LEVEL 27 Differentiation 54
Differences between GCSE and A-Level Study 28 Methods of Differentiation 56
29 Applications of Differentiation 58
Mathematics is different
Different context 30 Changes 60
Different study skills 31 Special Points 62
Motivation ae!
el
mh
Sal 32 Curve Sketching 64
Guide to Using This Book 33 Integration 66
34 Methods ofIntegration 68
How this book can help you
35 Applications of Integration 70
Identifying your course
Your study units 36 Differential Equations 72
How the study units are presented 37 Numerical Solution of Equations 74
Ways of using this book 38 Numerical Integration 76
Study Skills 39 Functions 78
40 Matrices 80
Your study plan
41 Force Diagrams 82
When to study
Where to study 42 1-D Kinematics 84
Your study periods 43 Graphsin Kinematics 86
Making notes 44 Relative Motion 88
Problem solving 45 1-D Particle Dynamics 90
Learning 46 Connected Particles 92
Revision Strategy 47 Work and Energy 94
Regular reviews 48 Power 96
Final revision programme 49 Impulse and Momentum 98
Examination practice 50 Impact 100
Examination Technique 51 Projectiles 102
52 Motion ina Horizontal Circle 104
Before the day
53 Motion ina Vertical Circle 106
On the day
Before the examination 54 Variable Forces 108
Just before the start 55 Simple Harmonic Motion 110
Reading the instructions 56 Vectorsin Dynamics 112
Planning your time 57 Coplanar Concurrent Forces 114
Choosing the questions 58 Moments and Couples 116
Answering the questions 59 Equilibrium 118
Examination discipline
60 Three Force Problems 120
At the end
61 Friction 122
62 Bodiesin Contact 124
Book List 63 Equivalent Systems of Forces 126
Addresses and Codes for the Examination Boards 64 Centre of Mass 128
Layout of a Study Unit 65 Suspending and Toppling 130
66 Pictorial Representation 132
Table I—Analysis of Examination Syllabuses 67 Frequency Distributions 134
Table II—Analysis of the Methods of Examination 68 Mode and Means 136
Glossary of Symbols 69 Median and Quantiles 138
70 Measures of Dispersion 140
71 Index Numbers and Moving Averages 142
PART IT THE STUDY UNITS 72 Probability 144
1 Polynomials 73 Discrete Probability Distributions 146
2 Rational Functions 74 Continuous Probability Distributions 148
3 Quadratics 75 The Binomial Distribution 150
4 Sequences and Series 76 The Poisson Distribution 152
5 Summation ofSeries 77 The Normal Distribution 154
6 Permutations and Combinations 78 Uses of the Normal Distribution 156
7 Binomial Theorem 79 Sampling 158
8 Inequations 80 Estimation 160
9 Indices and Logarithms 81 Hypothesis Testing 162
10 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 82 Linear Regression 164
11 Coordinates and Graphs 83 Correlation 166
12 The Straight Line 84 168
13 The Circle 85 Contingency Tables 170
14 Conic Sections 86 Special Graph Papers 172
15 Loci
16 Polar Coordinates PART II ANSWERS
17 Experimental Laws
Guided Examples 176
18 Trigonometrical Functions
19 Trigonometrical Graphs Examination Questions 177
20 Trigonometrical Identities Index 187
Part I 3 general, about its history, its great scholars, its applications, its
relationships with other subjects. You can do this by reading

Working for A Level around the subject (a selection of general interest books is
given in the booklist on page ix) and looking out for
‘mathematical’ features in television and radio programmes,
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GCSE AND etc. Besides acquiring a more extensive knowledge of
A-LEVEL STUDY mathematical ideas and methods, your mathematical maturity
At the beginning of your A-level course you may be anxious to will increase and you will begin to appreciate the beauty and
know how it will differ from the GCSE course you have immense power of mathematics. The abilities which you will
probably just completed. This anxiety may have arisen acquire, enabling you to analyse information and organise
because you have heard about other students failing or structures, will be found useful in many aspects of life.
under-achieving because they have not successfully adjusted to
their more advanced course and its demands. GUIDE TO USING THIS BOOK
How this book can help you
Mathematics is different
The main aim of this book is to help you throughout your study
In many other subjects studied at this level, students find it
of a mathematics course at A level (or its equivalent). It can
disconcerting that it is possible to be asked almost the same
help you because it:
question at GCSE and A level but that different answers are
required. Obviously the difference must be in the standard @ is based on a detailed analysis of the most recent
expected and students often have difficulty in assessing the appropriate mathematics syllabuses of all the Examination
correct level for their work. Mathematics is different: this same Boards in England, Wales and Scotland;
question/different answer situation cannot arise in an A-level ® gives you detailed information about the course you are
mathematics course. following and the examination you will be taking;
@ identifies which topics you need to study for your syllabus;
Different context
@ provides quick and easy access to material on these topics in
In mathematics a few of the topics studied at GCSE will be
separate Study Units;
reconsidered at A level to a greater level of understanding but, in
general, you will be studying mostly new topics and a much @ summarises concisely, but comprehensively, the subject
wider syllabus. Most of the mathematics you studied at GCSE content of each topic;
is ‘Pure Mathematics’ but the majority of students at A level ® reminds you of correct notation and units;
follow a course which includes both ‘Pure Mathematics’ and @ identifies key terms and their meanings;
‘Applied Mathematics’; the ‘Applied Mathematics’ is usually
mechanics and/or statistics. It will be assumed that you are able e@ demonstrates techniques in problem solving in worked
to use the mathematical background and expertise developed examples;
during a GCSE course as a working part of mathematical © guides you through solutions to problems;
knowledge. You will be expected to work hard on your own to ® gives you a selection of past examination questions for you
acquire the new basic concepts to which you will be introduced to work through to check your progress and practise your
and to develop a thorough understanding of the fundamental skills;
principles so that you can apply them in a variety of situations.
@ provides answers for checking;
Much more than for GCSE, you will need to be able to prove
standard results underlying principles used. There is not ® advises you about study skills, revision strategy and
always a single ‘correct’ method to solve a problem but you will examination technique.
learn to appreciate also that there is often an ‘elegant’ solution
Identifying your course
which may be preferred.
To use this book most effectively as a course companion you
Different study skills need to identify the course you are studying. The answers to
the following questions will help you to do so:
The major difficulty that most students experience is in
adjusting to the transition from the more formal, probably What is the name of your Examination Board?
highly structured pattern of most GCSE teaching to the more What type of examination are you taking?
independent approach usually encountered at A level. For What is the reference number of your syllabus?
GCSE you probably relied on your teacher to organisé your Which of the following sections are you studying: Pure
work and on your class notes, and perhaps a single textbook, to Mathematics, Mechanics, Statistics?
provide your information. At A level you will be expected to Which options (if any) are you taking?
organise your own work to a much greater extent, to use a
wider range of sources of information to supplement your Your study units
course notes, to maintain the necessary self-discipline to work Most of the mathematics required by the syllabuses analysed in
industriously throughout your course and to have the essential this book has been divided into 86 Study Units which have
motivation and determination to succeed. been grouped into three sections: Pure Mathematics,
Mechanics, and Statistics. For ease of reference, Table I, the
Motivation analysis of the examination syllabuses, on pages xii-xiii is
presented in these three sections and it clearly shows which of
It is important to appreciate that, at this level, you have the topics are included in each syllabus. To find out which
deliberately chosen to follow this course and to be aware of Study Units are of interest to you in each section you are
your own reasons for doing so. You may have chosen to study studying simply look along the top of the table to find your
A-level mathematics because mathematics is your ‘best’ Examination Board, then look down the column for your
subject, your most ‘interesting’ subject, needed for another syllabus. (You may find this easier if you place a ruler
course you wish to follow, a requirement for the job you want alongside your column.) Each box in the column relates to a
to do ... but, whatever the reason for your choice, it must be Study Unit in this book. If a box:
strong enough to sustain your motivation to study. Good
motivation is usually associated with an interest in a subject e is blank L] — ignore that Unit because you do not need it;
and you will find that you will be able to increase your own e has a dot [¢]— study that Unit because it is on your syllabus;
motivation if you can broaden your mathematical interests. e has a letter {1]— look for the letter(s) in the table footnotes
One way to do this is to try to learn more about mathematics in to find out what to do about that Unit.
Vv
If the syllabus you are studying does not appear in Table I, you Although your own weekly plan must suit your particular
should either ask your teacher or write to your Examination needs and pattern of study, it is important to be realistic about
Board (address on page ix) for the details. You can then enter deciding how much time you have to spend onit. It is better to
your syllabus in the blank end column of the appropriate part spread your working time as evenly as possible throughout
of the table. your week, organising a study period for each of five or six days
Although Table I has been prepared very carefully from during the week rather than concentrating it all on one or two
the most recent syllabuses, syllabuses sometimes change days. To be most productive your study periods should be from
slightly from year to year. If in doubt, ask your teacher to one to three hours long with planned short breaks of 5-10
check the column for your syllabus or you can check the minutes duration every hour to help you to maintain
syllabus yourself. concentration. These breaks will be most effective if you can
do something different, such as leaving your work room,
How the study units are presented making a drink, etc., rather than just sitting at your desk. Each
study period should be followed by a longer break for
Each Study Unit is presented on a double-page spread in Part
recreation and relaxation and these are as much a part of your
II of this book. On the left-hand page you will find all the notes
on the topic, together with simple examples called Illustra- study plan as the study periods.
tions. On the right-hand page, you will find relevant Worked
and Guided Examples and questions from past examination When to study
papers (answers to which are given at the end of the book). When you study is a matter of personal preference and the time
The diagram on pages x and xi summarises all the you have available. Some students are ‘early birds’, doing their
significant features of the layout of a Study Unit. Look best studying in the morning, some are ‘late birds’, studying
carefully at these two pages to understand how the best at night. You should find out, if you do not know already,
information, examples and questions in a typical Study Unit when you do your ‘best work’ and, if it is possible, fit this into
are arranged. your study plan.

Ways of using this book Where to study

The authors anticipate that students will use this course You will find studying easier if you have a room, or part of a
companion in three ways: as a study aid, as a workbook and as room, which you can identify as your own study place. Not
a revision aid. only will this have a positive psychological effect on you, since
If you use it as a study aid, you can use the Study Units to you will associate the place with study and find it easier to settle
reinforce, or teach yourself, the essential features of each topic down to work, but also on your family and friends, since they
introduced in your course and the section on ‘Study Skills’ to will associate it with your study and, hopefully, not disturb you
improve your approach to study itself. unnecessarily. It is important that you find it comfortable and
If you use it as a workbook, you can use the carefully attractive: it should not be too warm but well ventilated and
graded types of questions, i.e. Illustrations, Worked Exam- away from distractions. A desk or table, on which you can
ples, Guided Examples and Exercises, in each Unit to help you spread your books, is ideal for working on and the light should
to improve understanding of each topic, check progress and be good, the best form of lighting being a reading lamp.
develop problem-solving technique. Keeping all your books, files, paper, calculator and other
If you use it as a revision aid, you can use the syllabus essential equipment readily available in this one place will save
analysis and the Study Units as the basis of your revision you a great deal of valuable time during your study periods.
programme and the sections on Revision Strategy and
Examination Techniques to improve your approach to revision
Your study periods
and examinations.
You may use this book in one or more of these ways or, Mathematics:is a subject which you cannot study by simply
alternatively, you may have your own ideas on how to reading: you need to ‘do mathematics’ to understand it.
integrate this book into your course of study. If you have any Private study periods will usually be spent either working on
such ideas, the authors would be pleased to hear about them notes or on problems but to make them as productive as
(write care of the publishers) so that they can be taken into possible vary the topic and/or activity and set yourself
account in future editions. definitive objectives. By starting each session with a brief
review of the previous session on the same topic, you will find
that it acts as a ‘mental warming up’ time and reinforces the
STUDY SKILLS previous session’s study.
Unfortunately study skills are rarely taught to students but if
you can develop good study skills your learning will be more Making notes
efficient and more effective, which means that you will learn As soon as possible after each lesson/lecture, you should write
faster and better. The important thing is to have the right up your lesson/lecture notes whilst the topic is still fresh in your
attitude to studying, in the end you must want to study to be mind. The actual process of making notes will help you to
successful. understand the topic you are studying and encourage you to
concentrate on what you are learning. Remember that your
Your study plan
notes are for your use and will eventually form the basis of your
Whether you are studying at school, college, evening class or at revision plan, so the way you organise them must be concise
home, there will be a much greater onus on you at this level to and presented in a form which is best for you.
organise and plan your own work. You will have to spend a Every time you work through your lesson/lecture notes,
considerable amount of time working on your own, possibly your textbook(s) and this book, you should be jotting down
without a great deal of guidance, so a personal study plan is notes and trying to work through the mathematics for yourself.
essential if you are to make the best use of your own time. If This book will provide ideal resource material for your notes
you are attending lectures or lessons at college or school, you and you should use it also to vary your approach to
will already have a weekly timetable for these. Your personal note-making. Making card-index files, small notebooks or
study plan will be an extension of this timetable and you will charts on themes such as key terms, formulae, etc. are
find it useful if it covers not only study periods but other excellent note-making activities which you will find extremely
activities which feature regularly in your week. It will help you useful during your revision time. Using the alternative
to spread your work sensibly throughout the week on each of approaches supplied by other textbooks is a worthwhile
the subjects you are studying and to meet deadlines for activity and will help to broaden your mathematical
assignments set on your course(s). knowledge.
vi
 Understanding the topic you are studying is essential but if, REVISION STRATEGY
after making reasonable efforts to do so, you still cannot
understand something, do not worry about it: make a note of it Revision should be an on-going process which starts very early
and ask about it later. Do not allow worrying about one topic in your course. The amount of knowledge to be accumulated
to ruin the rest of your work schedule for a study session. and the variety of skills and techniques to be developed are
large and they are best assimilated gradually and consolidated
Problem solving as you go along. Regular revision is really a part of the learning
Problem solving is one of the most important aspects of your process but, of necessity, becomes more concentrated as the
mathematics course so you will need to spend a large part of examination approaches.
your private study time tackling problems, either for
homework assignments or on your own account to improve Regular reviews
your understanding of a topic and your ability to answer Research has shown that, although factual recall declines
questions. | rapidly after the first session, the use of regular reviews keeps
It is a good idea, if possible, to attempt problems set for the level of recall much nearer to its original very high level. It
homework assignments more than a day before they are due to is important, therefore, that the strategy of regular reviewing
be handed in. This will give you the opportunity, if needed, to should be a continuous and integral aspect of a planned study
sort out any difficulties you may encounter, either by programme. If you review each section of work one session,
consulting this book, your textbook, your teacher or simply by one week, one month, or three months after you have
giving yourself time to ‘sleep on it’. Persevere with your originally studied it, then you will have revised each topic at
problem solving: do not give in too easily, but on the other least four times before you reach your final intensive revision
hand do not waste time on a problem that is not yielding to programme.
your strategy and on which you do not have any alternative
strategies to try. Leaving a problem and coming back to it can Final revision programme
often be fruitful, the break giving you new insight into its At the start of your final revision programme (say 3 months
solution. before your actual examination) you must get organised and
You will find that working through the notes provided in the best way to do this is to devise a revision timetable. The
the appropriate Study Unit in this book will remind you of the strategy involved is basically the same as that used throughout
basic principles, notation, formulae, units, etc. needed in your the study of your A-level course. Plan your time carefully, give
problem solving sessions. Working through the examples in yourself definite objectives for each session, revise actively,
each Study Unit, stage by stage, will help to develop your test yourself regularly, make notes, practise problem solving.
problem solving technique. As you work through each section Use revision sessions to study topics you have worked on
of a Study Unit, cover the solution to each Illustration (marked before as revision is simply the process of reminding you of
[i] ), try to answer the question yourself and then compare topics and techniques previously understood. You will
your working with that given. When you feel that you appreciate how well-organised notes will help you during your
understand a topic, try to answer the Worked and Guided revision. Write out important definitions, proofs, formulae
Examples, before referring to the given solution for guidance. and equations, checking them against your notes or this book.
If you are really stuck, either look at the first few lines of the Rework previously solved problems without looking at your
explanation to give yourself a start and then try to complete the previous solution, then attempt questions that you have not
solution yourself or cover the working in the book with a piece looked at before. Make special revision notes for quick
of paper and only look at each line of the solution after reference on cards to keep in your pocket and charts to hang on
attempting that part of it for yourself. Only rarely will you find the wall of your study room. Practise your examination
that you can do none of a problem, so using the Worked and technique.
Guided Examples in this way will help you to locate your
weaknesses in a particular topic and to build up your Examination practice
confidence in your problem-solving abilities. Finally try the Familiarise yourself with the mode of the examination you are
questions from the past examination papers, those marked going to sit by studying Table II on p. xiv and analysing
with * being the easiest, coming from Alternative Ordinary examples of recent examination papers for your Board.
level papers. There is no need to restrict yourself to questions Booklets of past examination papers can be bought directly
from your own Examination Board; try to answer all the from your Board (address on p. ix) and if you are a student at
questions on the Unit you have studied. You will find answers school or college your teacher should have a stock of these
to these questions at the end of the book. papers. A study of these papers will enable you to calculate the
Learning amount of time you will have available to solve each question
and to grow accustomed to the style of paper you are going to
Mathematics is a very demanding discipline. To understand
sit eventually.
some of the basic ideas and concepts will involve you in some
During your ordinary study periods you will have
hard thinking and for the first time in your intellectual
attempted many questions but seldom given yourself strict
development you may be aware of consciously directing your
time restrictions. In examinations the timing of your answers
critical powers to discover the nature of any misunderstandings
to questions is vitally important. Practise answering examina-
which you may have.
tion questions in mock examination conditions, allowing
There are a large number of identities, formulae and
yourself only the normal available examination time and the
equations in mathematics and most probably your Examina-
equipment you are permitted to take into the examination
tion Board will provide a book of formulae for you to use.
room. To obtain ‘mock examination’ practice save one or two
There is no reason why many of these formulae should not be
complete examination papers so that you can use them as final
committed to memory. If you make an attempt to memorise
test papers ‘against the clock’.
new results when you first see them it is not such a daunting
task as it may appear and the effort pays handsome dividends
when you do not constantly have to refer to a formulae book
EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE
when solving problems. However, if you are not confident in
your memorising abilities, regular use of the formulae book Examination nerves are common and understandable but if
will help you to get to know where in the book a formula you have worked conscientiously and followed a sensible
appears so that you can check. course of study and revision, then they should not be too
At A-level you may also be asked to prove results and serious. However, you may not do yourself justice if you have a
standard bookwork: make sure that you understand the poor examination technique. The following hints should help
‘bookwork’ and can produce these proofs when necessary. you to tackle the examination with greater confidence.
Vii
Before the day list the marks to be awarded for each question or part question.
Before the actual day of your examination make sure you This information will help you to decide which questions or
know:
part questions to do.
Answering the questions Before you attempt to answer a
e the date, day, time and place of each paper of your
question, read it all again carefully, jotting down points such as
examination;
formulae and information relating to that question. These
e howto get to your examination centre if it is not well known hints should help you when writing an answer.
to you;
1. Make sure that your writing is legible.
e@ your candidate number;
2. Draw a large clearly labelled diagram if appropriate.
e your examination centre number;
3. Present your solution in a neat, logical and concise way.
e the telephone number of your examination centre.
4 . Show all your working; many marks are given for working,
Prepare any equipment you will need for your particular not answers.
examination: 5. Solve the problem which has been set and not the one you
@ pens which are comfortable to use and ink,
think is being posed.
e sharp pencils, a pencil sharpener and rubber,
6. Do not do things you are not asked for; for example, do
e drawing instruments such as a ruler, compasses, protractor, not do proofs unless specifically requested.
set squares,
7. State any principles, results, formulae, etc. used and
e calculator (if allowed) and spare batteries (check that you indicate your reasons for using them.
know how to replace them quickly),
8. Check any formulae you use with the formula sheet, if
® an accurate watch or small clock. provided.
9. Use and state the correct units, e.g. m s-?, Ns, etc.
On the day 10. Always do a rough estimate of any calculation to check
Before the examination Check that you have all the equipment that your answer is sensible.
you will need before setting off for your examination centre 11. When using a calculator, make sure that each calculation is
with plenty of time to spare. If you are delayed, contact your shown clearly in your answer.
examination centre (have the telephone number with you) to 12. Give your final answer to the required degree of accuracy.
explain what has happened. Arrive at the examination room
early; a late start to an examination cannot be a good start. 13. In questions saying ‘hence or otherwise’, try ‘hence’ first
since it is usually easier and uses the suggestion given in the
first part of the question.
Just before the start Listen carefully to the invigilator. There
may be some changes or special instructions which you were 14. If you get ‘stuck’, re-read the question carefully to check
not expecting or some errors in the paper. Fill in any details that you have not missed any important information or
such as candidate number and examination centre number hints given in the question itself.
when the invigilator instructs you to do so. 15. When you have completed your solution, re-read the
question to check that you have answered all parts.
Reading the instructions When the invigilator says that you
may begin, read the instructions on your examination paper Examination discipline It is important that you try to keep to
very carefully. Make sure that it is the correct examination the times you have allocated to answering a question or section
paper! Although you will be familiar with the style and format and that you answer the correct number of questions. If you
of past papers for your examination, these can change without answer less than the number required you are limiting the
notice. Note these in particular: number of marks available to you.
In short-answer papers or sections, which are often
° the number of sections and questions you have to do; compulsory, if you cannot see how to solve a problem fairly
e how much time you have to do them in; quickly, leave it and return to it later if you have time. A fresh
e which questions (if any) are compulsory; look at a question often helps.
In longer-question papers or sections do not overrun your
® what choice of questions (if any) do you have; time allocation on any question by more than a minute or so.
e how to present your answers. Do not be lured into thinking ‘just a few more minutes and I'll
have the answer’. In most examinations, the first parts to many
Planning your time Quickly calculate the length of time you questions are easier than the later parts so it is usually easier to
should spend on each question. You will have practised doing gain more marks by attempting all the questions required than
this for past papers but make sure that you use the instructions by completing a question.
on your actual examination paper, not the ones you are Different Examination Boards have different policies
expecting. Try to allow about 10 minutes at the end for regarding candidates who have answered too many questions.
checking your paper. This can vary from year to year so check on your board’s
policy. If you answer too many questions and your board:
Choosing the questions Read through the whole examination 1. Marks all your questions and ignores your worst marks—
paper carefully, checking that you have read every page. If you hand in all your answers.
have a choice of questions:
2. Ignores your last questions—cross out the questions you
cross the ones you can’t do; feel you have done badly, leaving only the correct number
tick those you can definitely do; to be marked.
choose the correct number to do; At the end Before handing in your examination paper check
that:
mark the order in which you are going to attempt them,
attempting your best question(s) first. e any ‘front sheet’ is completed according to the instructions;
@ every loose page is clearly marked with your examination
Try to answer full questions if you can but you can sometimes
number, etc; ‘
pass an examination by answering a lot of part questions.
Indeed, questions are often structured—the first part being @ every answer is numbered correctly;
easier to answer than later parts. Some Examination Boards @ pages are numbered clearly and in order.
Vili
BOOK LIST Statistics
Statistics and Probability. S. E. Hodge and M. L. Seed. Blackie
and Son Ltd.
Pure Mathematics
Essential Mathematics for A-level. D.C. Taylor and Modern Applied Mathematics. J.C. Turner. Hodder and
Stoughton.
I. S. Atkinson. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics.C. J. Tranter. The En glish Fundamentals of Statistics. H. Mulholland and C. R. Jones.
Butterworths.
Universities Press Ltd.
Advanced General Statistics. B. C. Erricker. Hodder and
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics. S. L. Green. University
Stoughton.
Tutorial Press.
Advanced Level Statistics. A. Francis. Stanley Thornes
Pure Mathematics. E.D. Hodge and B. G. J. Wood. Blackie
(Publishers) Ltd.
and Son Ltd.
A Concise Course in A-level Statistics. J. Cranshaw and J.
Pure Mathematics for Advanced Level. B. D. Bunday and
Chambers. Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.
H. Mulholland. Butterworths.
Advanced Mathematics, a unified course. L. K. Turner. General and background reading
Longman.
A Path to Modern Mathematics. W. W. Sawyer. Pelican.
Mathematician’s Delight. W. W. Sawyer. Pelican.
Prelude to Mathematics. W. W. Sawyer. Pelican.
Mechanics Men of Mathematics 1, 2. E. T. Bell. Pelican.
Applied Mathematics. E.D. Hodge and B. G. J. Wood. How to Lie with Statistics. D. Huff. Pelican.
Blackie and Son Ltd. Mathematics in Western Culture. M. Kline. Pelican.
Applied Mathematics I and IT. L. Bostock and S. Chandler. The World of Mathematics. (4 volumes.) J. R. Newman. Allen
Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd. and Unwin Ltd.
Applied Mathematics for Advanced Level. H. Mulholland and The Gentle Art of Mathematics. D. Pedoe. Pelican.
J.H.G. Phillips. Butterworths. The Scientific American Book of Mathematical Puzzles and
Advanced Level Applied Mathematics. C. G. Lambe. The Diversions. M. Gardner. Penguin.
English Universities Press Ltd. The Mathematical Experience. P. J. Davis and R. Hersh.
A-Level Applied Mathematics A. J. Francis. Bell & Hyman. Penguin.

EXAMINATION BOARDS AND ABBREVIATIONS

(A) AEB Associated Examining Board

Stag Hill House, Guildford, Surrey GU2 5XJ

(C) Cambridge University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate

UCLES Syndicate Buildings, 1 Hills Road, Cambridge CB1 2EU

(J) JMB Joint Matriculation Board, Manchester M15 6EU

(For JMB Publications contact John Sherrat & Son Ltd,
78 Park Road, Altrincham, Cheshire)

(L) London University of London School Examinations Board

Stewart House, 32 Russell Square, London WC1B 5DN
Publications Office: 52 Gordon Square, London WC1H OPJ

(OLE) Oxford Oxford Local Examinations

Delegacy of Local Examinations, Ewert Place, Summertown, Oxford OX2 7BZ

(O & C) Oxford & Oxford & Cambridge Schools Examination Board

Cambridge 10 Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1QB and Elsfield Way, Oxford OX2 8EP

(S) SUJB Southern Universities Joint Board for School Examinations

Cotham Road, Bristol BS6 6DD

(W) WJEC Welsh Joint Education Committee

245 Western Avenue, Cardiff CF5 2YX

(H) SEB Scottish Examination Board

Ironmills Road, Dalkeith, Midlothian EH22 1LE
(For SEB Publications contact Robert Gibson & Son Ltd,
17 Fitzroy Place, Glasgow G3 7SF)

(N) NISEC Northern Ireland Schools Examinations Council

Beechill House, 42 Beechill Road, Belfast BT8 4RS
LAYOUT OF A STUDY UNIT

Look at the items ®-@ in order, to find out the things you need to know about the organization of a Study Unit.

(ay Star alia ct pee

3 Vectors
Representation, Definitions, Addition and subtraction, Multiplication by a scalar. Position vectors.
@ Study i a aeons Ratio theorem.
contents

Representation A vector has magnitude and direction. [i] = 3

In print a vector is denoted by bold "YB €-8: a, or by a=AB=\ 4
two capital letters and an arrow, e.g. AB. 2
In 2-dimensions, the vector a can be represented by
Hyg fig
a-(*) or a=(xit+ yj) OR Se

where i= (5) and j= (°) are called base vectors. 4 units Base vectors in 3-dimensions:

= ‘1 0 0
i
In 3-dimensions, .-(3)or a=(xi+yj+zk) y=
; i={0].j=|1].k=[0
: () (') (°)
z

Definitions The magnitude of a, ja}, is V(x? +y*)in2—d Ui] If a=Si—sj—2k and b=fi+2j—uk are equal
and V (x?+y?+ 2’) in3—d. vectors. find (a) s. tand u. (b) |al.
A unit vector has magnitude |. 4 is the unit vector in
the direction of a. (a) Since a=b, then S=r, —s=2 and ~2=—u
The zero vector, 0, is any vector with zero > t=5,s=—2andu=2
magnitude.
; (b) a =Si+2j-2k
The inverse of a is —a ;
Two vectors xi+yj+zk and ai+bj+ck are equal. if jaj=V[S°+2*—(—2)"]=V33
and only if x=a, y=b and z=c.

© Section heading Addition and / The triangle law is used to add and subtract vectors. i] 2 —]
subtraction Addition: b Given a=| — 1 and b= 5 find
a+b=c 3 3
. Addition is commutative, . +b(b)a—b
: ie. at+b=bta #tbec ea ad
@®_ Section notes and associative, 2 ol 1
i.e. (at+b)+ce=at(btc) Figure | (a) a+b=|—-1]+| S]=\4
Subtraction: =e 3 =a 0
© Bold
= a keyword SWS)
a—b=at+(—b
RON 24-1 3
or phrase (b) a—b=| —1]- 5 1=1.=6

Figure 2 3 ~3 6

ee ‘ ; : : = 1 =)
Multiplication A scalar is a real number, it has only magnitude. Li] Solve the vector equation s| 1 )+1/ 1 )= 1 )
by a scalar If k is a scalar, then ka is a vector parallel to a but
with k times the magnitude. sagas alae)
If A>0, then ka is in the same direction as a. 1 1 1)
If k<0, then ka is in the opposite direction to a. OM npees 5 aD ohn
Multiplication by a scalar is distributive over vector Sores i}>s re
addition, i.e. k(at+b)=kat kb.

Position The position of a point Y P(x, y) fi] The 3-dimensional

vectors P(x, y) in the plane can 5 i position vector O
be given by the vector can be written as
S sie: See 5
OP=r=(*) or (xi+ yj). (e) x pans 2 {
y Figure 3 OQ=q=\|5 y
3/ ~BSunits
or (2i+5j+3k). 2
Figure 4
x
In 3-dimensions, -(")or (xit+yj+zk).
Zz

Ratio If c divides AB internally If a=(2i+3j) and b=(8i+9j) are the position

theorem in the ratio A: u, then vectors of A and B,find the position vector. ¢. of C
EN which divides AB internally in the ratio 1:2.
Cs
At+u ee TY ei 2) EAST ees
If the division is external, Figure § 1+2 3 a
Ab— wa
thence —=————
A-u

© i] ustration
—a short example
illustrating the notes
@ Question Solution
— always printed —always
in black italics printed in blue
® WE) Worked example
—shows you how to ©) Exercise
—past examination
solve the question questions for you
and how to set out to practice answering
your working

Vectors
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WE} In the diagram, ST=2TQ, PO =a, SR=2a and SP= b. (EX) 1 The vector p has magnitude 7 units and bearing (52°, and
(a) Find in terms of a and b: the vector q has magnitude 12 units and bearing 163°. Draw
a diagram (which need not be to scale) showing p, q and the
(i) SO A resultant p+q. Calculate, correct to one decimal place, the
(ii) TO magnitude of p+q.
“(L)
(iii) RO S 2a
(iv) PL nN From an origin O the points A, B, C have position vectors @® * Alternative
a, b, 2b respectively. The points O, A, B are not collinear. GCSE
(v) TR P b s The midpoint of AB is M, and the point of trisection of AC question
nearer to Ais T. Drawa diagram to show O, A, B, C, M, T.
(b) What do your answers to (iv) and (v) tell vou about the Find, in termsaand b, the position vectors of M and T. Use
the points P, T, R? your results to prove that O, M, T are collinear, and find
the ratio in which M divides OT.
(a) (1) SO =SP+ PQ=b+a (or a+b by commutativity)
*(L)
— l=
(it) TOS SOm (a Lb) w Given that OA=a, OB=b, OP=0A and that Q is the
a z)
midpoint of AB, express AB and PQ in terms of aandb. PQ
(iii) RO=RS+ $Q=—2at (a+b) is produced to meet OB produced at R, so that QR =nPQ
a ee eel ye and BR=kb. Express QR: (i) in terms of n, a and b;
(iv), PT =PS--ST (i1) in terms of k, aand b. Hence find the value ofn and of k.
Ser oe = =A = *“(C)
=—b+_ SO (since ST=—SO. i.e. ST =2TO)
.— The position vectors of three points A, B and C relative to
2 2 l an origin O are p, 3q—p, and 9q—Sp respectively. Show
=—b+= (a+b) =< a—-b that the points A, Band C lie on the same straight line, and
3 3 3
state the ratio AB: BC. Given that OBCD is a
| parallelogram and that E is the point such that DB = 4DE,
me (cab)
find the position vectors of D and E relative to O.
(v) TRE TS SR
*(C)
@® No symbol
= —= (a+b)+2a 5 The points A, B and C have position vectors a, b and ¢ —A-level
3 respectively referred to an origin O.
question
a Pea
=-a——b== (2a—b)
(a) Given that the point X lies on AB produced so that
AB: BX =2:1, find x, the position vector of X, in terms of
3 3 a and b.
=< aepf = one’s = =)
(b) Since PT = zi(2a—b) andTR = 3 (2a—b). PT and TR (b) If Ylies on BC, between B and Csothat BY: YC=1:3,
find y, the position vector of Y, in terms of b and c.
are both multiples of the same vector (2a—b). Hence PT and (c) Given that Z is the mid-point of AC, show that X, Y
TR are parallel and T is common to both lines, so, P, T, R lie and Z are collinear.
on the same line, i.e. they are co-linear (d) Calculate XY: YZ.
(L)——— @ (L)-board which
(a) OS and OT represent the vectors hi+ty and witAj where dA set the
6 O, A and B are three non-collinear points; the position
and « are scalars and i andj are unit vectors in twa mutually question
vectors of A and B with respect to O are a and b
perpendicular directions Ox and Oy. Show that \OS\=|OT\.
respectively. M is the mid-point of OB, T is the point of
Given that OS and OT are two adjacent sides of a rhombus
trisection of AB nearer B, AMTX is a parallelogram and
OSUT, find the vectors represented by the diagonals OU and
OX cuts AB at Y. Find, in terms of a and b, the position
A iA vectors of:
(b) PO and PR are represented by the sides PQ and PR of the (a) M; (b) T; (c)exe (d) Y.
triangle POR, Show that (O&C)
PO + PR =2PS 7 The vertices A, B and C of a triangle have position vectors
where S is the midpoint of QR. a, bandc respectively relative to an origin O. The point P is
Hence, or otherwise, find the position of the point O within the on BC such that BP: PC =3:1; the point Q is on CA such
triangle PQR such that that CQ:QA =2:3; the point R is on BA produced such
OP+00+0R=0 that BR: AR =2:1. The position vectors of P, Q and R are
(a) Use the definition of the magnitude of a vector to show Pp, q and r respectively. Show that q can be expressed in
that OS= OT. terms of pandr and hence or otherwise show that P, Q and
R are collinear. State the ratio of the lengths of the line
Sketchtherhombus OSUT. Use, OU = OS + SU and segments PQ and OR.
ST = SO + OT to find the required vectors. (J)
(b) Use the ratio theorem to express PS in terms of PO and
8 The points P and Q have position vectors p and q
PR. Hence, required result. respectively relative to an origin O, which does not lie on
Consider a point O on RT (where T is the midpoint of PQ) PQ. Three points R, S, T have respective position vectors
r=\|p+iq, s=2p—q, t=p+#3q. Show in one diagram
Write down OP + OO using the result just established. Hence
the positions of O, P, Q, R, S and T.
show that
OP +00 + OR =0, )
where O is the point which divides RT in a certain ratio. State
what this point O is called.

47

0) GE) Guided example

—suggests a method
for solving the question
(the answer(s) are given
in the book)
 7)

Table I — Analysis of Examination Syliabuses Pure Mathematics

S (Ql

AS EI EH A A AaA a
eg=
”n Nn n Scot
>|
n:

Syllabus

1 Polynomials
2 Rational Functions
3 Quadratics P| e ee] Q

4 Sequences and Scrics iss |

@|Hi

5 Summation of Series
6 Permutations & Combinations i)N

7 Binomial Theorem

ele
loo
leemele
_

11 Coordinates and Graphs

12 The Straight Line [>|e
>
13 The Circle
14 Conic Sections
15 Loci jo}
fsa
le
felele
|
folelele
16 Polar Coordinates
17 Experimental Laws
NBR
BBS.
RORO
BES
Ce ERE
318]
(si
(88/3)
| 2 ee)
Din
Din|B

21 Plane Triangles
22 3-d Figures
23 Vectors

24 Vectors and Geometry \e

ej
e@\e

25 Complex Numbers
26 Complex Numbers and Graphs
27 Differentiation e | Pl
oee
@\e ae
e
[d|d
S/d|
28 Methods of Differentiation 9 e ies]Q

3
a |8 BBE
29 Application of Differentiation fele| [e| e | Pl \e
ee e @\e

30 Changes
31 Special Points ||ae!
‘geh 313>
32 Curve sketching al ies)
33 Integration \e
ej @,|;@/\e
pipes
et
pee
ac] Tres e e e ies]Q
34 Methods of Integration Pl ee)Q
35 Applications of Integration
36 Differential Equations
E
: el 8|

EEE
39 Functions
40 Matrices

BG- Background mathematics,

foslola
etelels
lel
lolol
|PECs
felelele
[2cleleolelelele|
|
°
lelelelelele
fe[ai[>|-]
slPrP
>>>
|
eee
Pll
rhs
PPPP
EEL
ePPPPP
PP
>PP
br
b SE
necessary but not examined separately.
O1-Option 1, etc.
2,—Paper 2, section 1, etc.
Oc-— Option C, etc. 1—Maclaurins series needed.
A-Section A, etc. 2—Only the parabola needed from ‘Conic Sections’.
P1—paper 1, etc. 3—Needs topics outside the scope of this book.
S—Statistics paper only. 4—Second-order differential equations needed.
AM-— Paper AM1 only
Al, A2—Paper Al, Paper A2, etc.

*
 Table I, continued
Mechanics

AS|

41 Force Diagrams
Aa
B

s\2
fe je,
+

42 1-D Kinematics
je |e!
fe le!
fe | |
fe le,
fe le.
fe le,
fe le,
fe le
fe le
fe le!
fe | |
fe | |
fe | |
les]

wo ESIIES Pe
fe le|
je |e|
on
Re]
[SLR
eee
foo
BlelelelSlERleleLE
[ELE
etis
|e |e|
>N
> iS

zi
pM|2|
| ||
Ob- Option B O2- Option 2 BM- Section B, Mechanics B-Section B syllabus, etc. *1—Also needs Gravitation, Orbits and Method of Dimensions.
*2—Includes a section on Decision Mathematics. P3—Paper 3 etc. 2,—Paper 2, section 1. *3—Needs 2nd order differential equation.

Table I, continued
Statistics Notes
> >
=
val

Syllab
yllabus |a [Sa rae lyse] Weel Pas Ne |Paes
siZigio|s|2IS/S12/
8|ZF 818
HPIFZSISFSISIOlLS
ISISIA1A| cleans

Ar aeEs bei ae re a
166Pictorial Representation Le [03] @ |@| eee Epfs
_|
67FrequencyDitibuions ___[« [oa]o |e.
rel ~~ix
EiEl

Ww]
w
Be
a)
+
||
2
WwW

s _ =i=]a oO * 3 PeoO 7) & lo) S. i=) ge > = fe} = = agoO n wi

i+

EEEpei
Be
:|4
*
wi]
Wl
WwW
w

73 Discrete Probability Distributions RB P3

74 Continuous Probability Distributions lk P3
75 Binomial Distributions ied
76 Poisson Distribution @ || ea
pei ey

PPR
os)
Ei

| nea See
Se
OSS
Si

[ee
[81Hypothesis Testing @|
isi
a
esi
a
ied
PEEP
EEE
EEE
[eal heal ee
Oe

je|{8}
||
|
[sieielsie
= AINAILAILAILAlLAILAIAIAIAL/AlIAlAl
AINININIA

[86Special GraphPapers fe Josfe Te] | | Tt | BEREEE

BS-—Section B, Statistics Oc-— Option C P3- Paper 3, etc. O3- Option 3 xiii
1—Needs sampling and experimental design theory 2—Paper 2, section 2 3—Option C only A3-—Paper A3
Table II — Analysis of the Methods of Examination
Board Syllabus Level No. of Duration Style % marks Formula Calculator
papers sheet
ee Ye icin ee Se es ee
AEB 994 AS Z Pl 1%hr P1—5to7 compulsory questions, not necessarily 35% Yes Yes
carrying the same marks.
P2 2% hr P2— Answer at most 5 questions out of7. All 65% Yes Yes
questions will carry equal marks.

AEB 995 AS 2 Pl 1%hr P1—5to7 compulsory questions, not necessarily 35% Yes Yes
carrying the same marks.
P2 2% hr P2— Answerat most 5 questions out of7. All 65% Yes Yes
questions will carry equal marks.

AEB 996 AS 2 Pl 1%hr P1— Compulsory questions, set on the complete 35% Yes Yes
syllabus and requiring the application of
statistical techniques to given data.
P2 2%hr P2— Answer at most 5 questions out of 7.All 65% Yes Yes
questions will carry equal marks. i

> EB 648 A 2 PS 3hr P5— Section A (30% of marks),shortcompulsory — 50% Yes Yes
questions not necessarily carrying equal
marks.
Section B (70% of marks), longer questions
carrying equal marks. 3 questions will be set on
the basic syllabus and on cach of the 3 options.
Candidates must answer 5 questions of which
at least 2 must be from those set on the basic
syllabus. The other questions answered must
come from at most 2 of the options.
P6 3hr P6—As for P1. 50% Yes Yes

AEB 636 A 2 Pl 3hr P1—Pure Maths: 50% Yes Yes

Section A (54% of marks), short, compulsory
questions.
Section B (46% of marks), answer at most 3
questions from 5
P3 3hr P3— Applied Maths: 50% Yes Yes
Section A (43% of marks), short compulsory
questions.
Section B (57% of marks), answer at most 4
out of6questions.

AEB 646 ; A 2 Pl 3hr P1—Pure Maths: 50% Yes Yes

Section A (54% of marks), short compulsory
questions.
Section B (46% of marks), answer at most 3
questions from S.
P9 3hr P9— Statistics: 50% Yes Yes
Answer at most 6 questions out of 10.

AEB 649 A 2 B33. hr P3— Applied Maths: 50% Yes Yes

Section A (43% of marks), short compulsory
questions.
Section B (57% of marks), answer at most 4
out of 6 questions.
P9 3hr P9— Statistics: 50% Wes Yes
Answer at most 6 questions out of 10.

LS C(9205) A 2 Pl 3hr P1— Pure Maths: 50% Yes Yes

Section A, short compulsory questions.
Section B, answer not more than 4 out of 7
questions.
P2 3hr P2— Applied Maths: 50% Yes Yes
5 questions on cach of the three options:
Particle Mechanics, Probability and Statistics
and Pure Mathematics.
Candidates must answer not more than 7
questions, not more than 4 from any one
option.
eon
COSSEC Mathematics AS 2 Pl 14%hr P1—8-10short compulsory questions. 40% Yes Yes
8480 P2 2hr P2—3 questions on Pure Mathsand5questionson 60% Yes mes
each of Probability and Statistics, and
Mechanics. Candidates must answer 5
questions, of which at least one should be from
the Pure Maths section.

COSSEC Applicable AS ilae Pl 3hr P1—Section I (35 marks), about 10 compulsory 80% Yes Yes
Mathematics project short questions.
8485 Section II (45 marks), answer3 out of 4 long
questions
Project— assessment on a project concerning 20%
some application of mathematics which has
———-_- .er——————e———————— been studied.
SSS
COSSEC Statistics AS 1+ Pl 3hr P1—Section I (25% of this paper), one compulsory 75% Yes Yes
8505 1 individual question, taking about 45 minutes.
study Section II (75% ofthis paper), answer 5 from 8
questions.
Individual study — should occupy approximately 40 25%
hours. Internally assessed, externally
moderated.
JMB PM AS 1 Pl 3hr P1—A number of questions of varying length. No 100% Yes Yes
restriction is placed upon the number
attempted.
JMB PMM AS 1 Pl 3hr P1— A number ofquestions of varying length. No 100% Yes * Yes
restriction is placed upon the number
attempted.
Table II — Analysis of the Methods of Examination — continued
Board Syllabus Level _No. of Duration Style % marks Formula Calculator

JMB S AS 1 ; Pl 3hr P1—Section A (40% of marks), 5 compulsory 80% Yes Yes

+ project questions.
Section B (60% of marks), answer 3 questions
out of 5.
Project — Teacher-assessed assignment. 20%
JMB MPA(A) A 2 Pl 3hr P1—Norestriction placed on the number of Not Yes Yes
questions attempted. specified
AMI 3hr AM1—Norestriction placed on the number Yes Yes
of questions attempted.
JMB MPM(A) A 2 Pl 3hr P1—Norestriction placed on the number of Not Yes Yes
questions attempted. specified
Mel 3hr Me1—Norestriction placed on the number Yes Yes
of questions attempted.

JMB MPS(A) A 2 Piesine Pi —No restriction placed on the number of Not Yes Yes
questions attempted. specified
S 3hr S —Norestriction placed on the number Yes Yes
of questions attempted.
L Pure AS 1 Pl 3hr P1— About 15 questions, all of which may be 100% Yes Yes
arMaths a a a a a
attempted.
ee a a rn
L Mathematics AS 1 Pl 3hr P1— About 15 questions, all of which may be 100% Yes Yes
with attempted.
Applications

L Pure Maths AS 1 Pl 3hr P1— About 15 questions, all of which may be 100% Yes Yes
and attempted.
Theoretical
Mechanics

L Applied AS Lots Pl 3hr P1—1compulsory question and 5 other questions, 70% Yes Yes
Statistics project of which 4 may be attempted.
Project —2 assignments, | specified by the Board 30%
and one freely chosen by the candidate.

L B(371) A 3 Pl 1%hr P1— Pure Maths (Core Syllabus): multiple 20% No Yes
choice paper.
P22/2br P2— Pure Maths (Core Syllabus): about 15 40% Yes mcs
questions sct, all of which may be attempted.
P3 2'’2hr P3—Mcchanics and Probability: answcr6outof8 40% Yes Yes
questions.

L 420 A 3 Pl 1%hr P1— Pure Maths (Core Syllabus): multiple choice 20% No Yes
paper.
P2 24%2hr P2— Pure Maths (Core Syllabus): about 15 40% Yes Yes
questions set, all of which may be attempted.
P3 2%2hr P3— Statistics: answer 6 questions out of 8. 40% Yes Yes

NISEC Mathematics A 2 Pl 3hr P1— 26 short questions will be set. 50% Yes
18 on the Section A syllabus,
4 on the Section B syllabus,
and 4 on the Section C syllabus.
Candidates must answer 16 questions from
Sections A and B, or 16 questions from
Sections A and C,
P2e3ht P2— 14 questions will be sct. 50% Yes
10 set on the Section A syllabus,
2 set on the Section B syllabus,
and 2 set on the Section C syllabus.
Candidates must answer 8 questions from
Sections A and B, or 8 questions from Sections
AandC.

O Mathematics A 2 Pl 3hr P1—Pure Maths: 50% Yes Yes

9850/1 Plt Section A (80 marks),
P2ZPS0r short, compulsory questions on the basic
P4 syllabus.
Section B (80 marks),
10 longer questions, 6 on the basic syllabus and
1 on cach of 4 optional topics. 4 questions may
be answered.
Pure with 2 P2 3hr P2— Applied Maths(Mechanics): 50% Yes Yes
Mechanics Plea PZ Section A (72 marks),
9850/2 6 short, compulsory questions.
Section B (88 marks),
6 longer questions, of which 4 may be
attempted.
Pure with A 2 P3)3/hr P3— Statistics: 50% Yes Yes
Statistics PPS) Section A (72 marks),
9850/3 6short, compulsory questions. Section B (88
marks):
6 longer questions, of which 4 may be
answered.
Pure and A 2 P4 3hr P4— Applied Maths: 50% Yes Yes
applied P1 + P4 Section A (72 marks),
9850/4 10 short questions, of which 3 are set on the
Mechanics syllabus, 3 on the Statistics syllabus
and 4 onthe Decision Mathematics syllabus.
Six questions may be attempted.
Section B (88 marks),
12 longer questions, of which 4 will be sect on
cach of the Mechanics, Statistics and Decision
Mathematics syllabuses.
4 questions may be attempted.

x=
Table II — Analysis of the Methods of Examination — continued
Board Syllabus Level No. of Duration Style % marks Formula Calculator
papers sheet
0g
a ee
O&C 9650 A }} Jeah Siac P1— Part 1 (short questions): Not Yes
Section A, 6 questions on Pure Maths. specified
Section B, 3 questions on Mechanics and 3
questions on Statistics.
Attempt not more than 6 questions from Part
1, including not more than 4 questions from
each of the sections A and B.
Part 2 (long questions):
Section A, 4 questions on Pure Maths.
Section B, 2 questions on Mechanics and 2
questions on Statistics.
Attempt not more than 4 questions from Part
2, including not more than 3 questions from
cach of Sections A and B.
P2 3hr Not P2—as for P1 Yes
tee
Bee a Re a
specified ee ee
S 9203 A 2 Pl 3hr P1— Pure Mathematics: Not Yes
Section A, 7 compulsory questions, (44%). specified
Section B, 4 questions chosen from 7 (56%).
PZ oohr P2— Applicd Mathematics/Statistics: Not Yes
Section 1, 10 questions on Mechanics. specified
Section 2, 10 questions on Statistics.
Candidates may answer 7 questions, but
ce agar a ae Eenot moreDethanee 3 from a Section 2. a ie, Sn ke Ete
S 9214 A 2 Pl 3hr P1 — Pure Mathematics: Not Yes
Section A, 7 compulsory questions, (44%). specified
Section B, 4 questions chosen from 7 (56% ).
P2 3hr P2— Applied Mathematics/Statistics: Not Yes
Answer 7 questions from the 10 contained in specified
Section 2 (Statistics).
a ee a ha ee ee ee ee
Ww PM AS 1 Pl 3hr P1—Section A (40% of marks), 100% Yes Yes
short compulsory questions.
Section B (60% of marks),
answer 4 questions out of 7.

WwW Mathematics AS 1 Pl 3hr P1—Scction A (40% of marks). 100% Yes Yes

(Mechanics) short compulsory questions.
Section B (60% of marks),
answer 4 questions out of7.

WwW Pure Maths AS 1 Pl 3hr P1—Section A (40% of marks), 100% Yes Yes
with short compulsory questions.
Mechanics Section B (60% of marks),
3 Pure Maths questions and 3 Mechanics
questions of which 4 are to be answered.

Ww Pure Maths AS 1 Pl 3hr P1—Scction A (40% of marks), 100% Yes Yes

with short compulsory questions.
Statistics Section B (60% of marks),
3 Pure Maths questions and 3 Statistics
questions of which 4 are to be answered.

Ww Applicd
P1—Scction A (30 marks),AS 1 Pl 3hr 75% Yes Yes
Statistics
compulsory questions. + Project
Section B (45 marks),
Answer 3 questions out of 5.
Project — A report by the candidate on an 25%
experiment or a survey.
ea Se
Ww Mathematics A 2 3hr PA1—Scction A: short andcompulsory questions 50% Yes Yes
(Mechanics (40%).
option) PA2—Scction B: 4 questions from 7 (60%). 50% Yes Yes
Mathematics A 2 3hr PA1—Secction A: short and compulsory questions 50% Yes Yes
(Statistics (40%).
option) PA3— Scction B: 4 questions from 7 (60%). 50% Yes Yes
Applicd A 2 3 hr PA2— Scction A: short and compulsory questions 50% Yes Yes
mathematics (40%).
PA3— Scction B: 4 questions from 7 (60%). 50% Yes Yes
PA2 and PA3 may require knowledge of PAI.
Scottish Mathematics H 2 Pl 1%hr P1—40 compulsory questions. Approx. Yes Yes
45%
P2 2'’2hr P2— ‘Traditional’ questions. No choice. Approx. Yes Yes
55%

* vi
Glossary of Symbols fis the function under which x is mapped into y
the sum of (exact limits may be given)
n factorial

binomial coefficient
LHS left hand side (of an equation)
RHS right hand side (of an equation) the set of natural numbers
AOL AN angle the set of integers
aE is perpendicular to the set of rational numbers
| P is parallel to the set of real numbers
positive or negative, plus or minus the set of complex numbers
is equal to infinity
is identically equal to In x (log. x) the natural logarithm of x
is approximately equal to log x (logi9 x)the common logarithm of x
approximates to M!
the inverse of the square matrix M
# is not equal to the determinant of the square matrix M
< is less than the square root of —1
< is less than or equal to the modulus of the complex number z
= is greater than the argument of the complex number z
= is greater than or equal to the conjugate of the complex number z
Vr the positive square root the derivative of x with respect to ¢
= implies that the acceleration due to gravity (taken as 10 m/s”
<— is implied by unless otherwise stated)

S implies and is implied by (if and only if) a.b the scalar product of the vectors a and b

{a, b, c,...} the set with elements a, b, c, ... ry the unit vector in the direction of the vector r

€ is an element of Peer the magnitude of the vector r

such that i, j, k unit vectors in the mutually perpendicular

directions Ox, Oy, Oz
rH} the number of elements in the set (_ )
[Ea etCe events
7) the empty set
E,UE, union of the events EF; and E,
Sor S' the complement of the set §
E, NE, intersection of the events FE, and EF,
U union
P(E) probability of the event E
a) intersection
E complement of the event E
G is a subset of
P(E,| £2) conditional probability of the event FE; given
° corresponds one-to-one with that the event FE, has occurred
a varies directly as XG MG, Sy CMe: random variables
A the discriminant of a quadratic equation MV, Zp Clee values taken by random variables
| | the modulus of a number P1> P2> etc. probabilities of individual outcomes x, Xo, .. .
in the distribution of a discrete random
ox or Ax a small increment of x
variable X
o
iy
the derivative of y with respect to x fix) probability density function of a continuous
random variable X

|y dx the indefinite integral of y with respect to x aby Xn Cl observations

fis fr, etc. frequencies with which observations x1, x2, etc.
occur
|y dx the definite integral of y with respect. to x sample size
b
sample mean
i a function distribution function, P(Y¥<x) of the random
|
ii the inverse function of f variable X
f(x) the function value for x probability density function P(X =x) of the
discrete random variable X
(fg)(x) the composition of the functions f and g
or expected value of the random variable X
fg or fog variance of the random variable X

> is mapped onto (for mappings) population mean

approaches, tends to (for limits) population variance

raey x is mapped into y under the function f population standard deviation
XVii
 binomial distribution with parameters n and p population proportion
Poisson distribution with parameter u population product moment correlation
coefficient
normal distribution with parameters uw and 07
a dimension (x units)
probability density function of the standardized
normal random variable Z (N(0, 1)) a displacement (x units)
distribution function for N(0, 1) a velocity
sample variance an acceleration (a=b)
sample proportion an impulse
sample product moment correlation coefficient a force (F=/)
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for a
sample

The Greek Alphabet

Letters Name Zz, nu

alpha 8) xl
beta omicron
gamma pi
1S)
ss
SS
ey delta rho
epsilon cs
or)
On
)
as
Soa
QS sigma
zeta ] tau
eta es upsilon
theta
Se
Sse
Ce
re iota
kappa
lambda Mine
ie
ee
Se
pe
ea
Oa
=e Ss
ty
aS
SS
val
Es
Ke
ae
es)
ta)
(eS
lest
jae)
ay
= ss
=
= mu

XViii
Part II
The study units
 Polynomials
Definitions, Operations, Remainder theorem, Factor theorem, Special factors.

Definitions A polynomial in x, a variable, is an expression of the [i] 2x7+3x°-x*+6x+4

form is a polynomial of degree 7, with constant term 4.
COX” FCN FO” Pee FOnait Fen
where n is a positive integer Polynomials of low degree have special names.
Anko nC Gn aay Care constants: Degree Nae Example
rae 1 linear SL 2
He degree of the polynomial is n, the highest power ) quadratic do? + 3x48
; 3 cubic 8x°-7x +2
The constant term is c,. 4 quartic 3x4—2x?
5 quintic Ce al
For brevity we often write f(x) for
Cox? Pein” SG” Heat eu.

Operations Addition Subtraction

Add corresponding terms (powers of x). Subtract corresponding terms.

Lil] Oe Li] fxyedxt—Sx2 + x4

g(x)= 4x3 3x?
+4y +3 B(x)= Ax’ 3° + 4x +3
FQ) eS 30 = x7— 3x7 Sx -1 f(x) —g (4) 30° 9x? 43 3x 7

Multiplication Division
This can be set out like a ‘long multiplication’. This can be set out like a ‘long division’.
Leave spaces for ‘missing terms’. Leave spaces for ‘missing terms’.

[i] f(x) 3x3 = Dy 4 Li] x°+4x+11

2 =
SA) AEs Se 2-443 bo = 2ett 3r— 6
f(x)xx? 3x5 — 2x3+4y? aia t Oe
fio) x-3
= = Ox
O73 + 6x
EsW i) 4x3 — es
5x7 + 3x

Fx)xg(x) 3x5 “11x + 4x? +64 —12 16e+12

4x
(Ee ie eS
11x*—44x +33
35x%—39
ee) eae = =

_—i 8244x4114=
Nee vate Ki AXES

Remainder If a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x — a), then the Li] Find the remainder when 3x° — x? + 1 is divided
theorem remainder is f(a). by (x + 2).

f(a) is the value of f(x) when x = a. f(x) =3x°—x?+1

f(—2)=3(—2)°-(—2)?+1=-96-4+1=-—99

Factor If (x — a) is a factor of f(x), then f(a) = 0. [i] Find the factors of f(x) = x3 — 5x? + 2x + 8.
theorem Conversely if f(a) = 0, then (x — a) is a factor of
(car Try the factors of 8; i.e: 21,7227 24, +8:

This may be used to find the factors of a polynomial. Try a=1. f(1) =(1)3—5(1)?+2(1) +8 =6 £0.
Factors of the constant term are usually tested first. So (x-—1)isnota factor.
— Try a=~—1. f(—1)=(—1)3—5(—1)?+2(-1)+8=
If it is suspected that (x — a) is a repeated factor: So (x+ one ieee Neha) Ra
(a) ‘take out’ the factor, either by inspection or long Try a=2. f(2)=(2)'—5(2)?+2(2) +8=0.
division to give SOv (2s atactor
f(x) =(x—a)g(x), Try a=4. f(4)=(4)?-5(4)?+2(4)
+8=0.
(b) test (x — a) as a factor of g(x). So (x—4)is a factor.
eee
Special a’—b’=(a—b)(a+b) a’—b*=(a—b)(a?+ab +b?)
factors a’+2ab+b?=(a+b)* a’+b?=(at+b)(a?—ab +b’)
 Polynomials
Worked examples, Guided example and Exam questions

AS SEV IN Le RT A TRIALS, Bak od

NE] The expression 2x° + ax? + bx +2is exactly divisible by (x +2)

and leaves a remainder of 12 on division by (x —2). Calculate
3 When (x4+kx?+4x+2) is divided by (x+3), the
remainder is 8. Find the value of k. (UL)
the values of aand b and factorise the expression completely.
4 If f(x) denotes the polynomial 2x? —3x”—8x—3, find
Let f(x) =2 +ax7+-bx+2 the remainders when f(x) is divided by (i) x—1,
(x +2) is a factor off(x), so f(—2)=0 (ii) x +3, and (iti) 2x +1. Deduce which of (x—1), (x+3),
f(—2) =2(-2)? + a(—2)* + b(—2) +2 = —16 + 4a—2b+2=0 and (2x +1) is a factor of f(x), and find its remaining
factors. *(O & C)
Le. 4a—2b=14 [1]
Division by (x—2) leaves a remainder of 12, so f(2) =1
‘5
5 The cubic polynomial 6x° — 7x? — ax + b has a remainder of
f(2) =2(2)° + a(2)* + b(2) +2 = 164+ 4a+2b+2=12 9 when divided by (x —2) and is exactly divisible by (x +1).
Calculate a and b. Show that (2x — 1) is also a factor of the
1.e. 4a+2b=—6 [2]
polynomial and obtain the third factor. =(6S!)
[1]+ [2] gives 8a = 8, a= 1 and [2]—[1] gives4b= —20, b= —5
y= or ae ee 6 One of the factors of the cubic polynomial 2x*+ 3x7 +ax+b
Since (x+2) is a factor of f(x) is (x—2). When the polynomial is divided by (x—1), a
divide f(x) by (x+2) to obtain a quotient 2x7—3x+1 remainder of —5 results. Find a and b, and hence factorise
“. f(x) = («+2)(2x?- 3x41) the polynomial completely. (6S)
= (x+2)(2x—1)(x—-1), by factorisation
“. f(x) =(«+2)(2x—-1)(x-1) 7 State the Remainder Theorem.
When the cubic polynomial x*+ax*—3x+4 is divided by
x—3, the remainder obtained is twice the remainder
When the polynomial P(x) is divided by (x — 1) the remainder obtained when the polynomial is divided by x—2.
is 7, and when divided by (x —3) the remainder is 13. Find, by Calculate a.
writing “(S)
P@)=(«=1)@—3)O@)+ax+b 8 (a) Given that x+1 and x—2 are factors of
6x*—x°
+ ax?—6x+b, find the value of a and b.
the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x —1)(x—3). If also
P(x) is acubic in which the coefficient of x° is unity and (b) Given that [x°—3x*?—4x+ 16 =(x—2)(x+3)(x—-c)+
P(2) =6, determine Q(x). Px+Q], find the value of P, of Q, and of c. (C)

Division by (x—1) leaves a remainder of 7, so P(1)=7 9 Given that 2x—1 is a factor of 8x°+4x?+kx +15, find the
value ofk and then factorise the expression fully when k has
Ke, Papel 7 [1] this value. (A)
Division by (x—3) leaves a remainder of 13, so P(3)=13
10 When f(x), where f(x) =x*—2x°+ax?+bx+c, is divided
ic. 3¢--b)—13 [2] by x—2 the remainder is —24. When f(x) is divided by x +4
[2]—[1] gives 2a=6, a=3 and from [1] b=4 the remainder is 240. Given that x+1 1s a factor of f(x),
52 JAG) = (r= WN C2— SO Ca) seSie eet show that x—1 is also a factor. (A)
/AGs 3x+4 11 (a) Given that f(x) =x°+kx?—2x+1 and that when f(x) is
(x—1)(x—3) mE aay ga) divided by (x—k) the remainder is k, find the possible
values of k.
Thus the remainder on division by (x—1)(x—3) is 3x+4
(b) When the polynomial p(x) is divided by (x—1) the
If P(x) is a cubic with the coefficient of x° unity then remainder is 5 and when p(x) is divided by (x—2) the
Ox) =(+c) remainder is 7. Given that p(x) may be written in the form
iS. (MGA (68 — N62 — 3) GearG) )arokeare! (x—1)(x—2)q(x)+Ax+B, where q(x) is a polynomial and
A and B are numbers, find the remainder when p(x) is
and P(2)=6, (2—1)(2—3)(2+c)+3(2)+4=6 divided by (x—1)(x—2). (C)
—(2+c)+10=6
1-e: G2 12 When the polynomial P(x) is divided by x—2 the remainder
. O(x)=x+2 is 4, and when P(x) is divided by x—3 the remainder is 7.
Find, by writing P(x) =(«—2)(x—-3)Q(x)+ax+b, the
The quadratic polynomial P(x) leaves a remainder of 3on remainder when P(x) is divided by (x—2)(x—3). If also
division by (x—1), aremainder of 12 on division by (x —2) and P(x) is a cubic in which the coefficient of x* is unity, and
no remainder on division by (x +2). Find P(x) and solve P(1)=1, determine Q(x). (J)
P(x) =0.
13 Given that f(x) =3—7x +5x’—x°, show that 3—x is a factor
Let P(x) =ax*+bx+c [1] of f(x). Factorise f(x) completely and hence state the set of
Let P(1)=3, P(2)=12, P(—2)=0, obtaining three values of x for which f(x) <0. (L)
equations in a, b and c.
14 (i) Three of the factors of x*+ax°+bx?+x+c are x,
The found values of a, b and c are substituted in [1] which
x+1 and x—1. Find a, b and c.
may then be factorised and P(x) =0 easily solved.
(ii) Write down an expression of the form x°+px*+
qx +r which gives a remainder 4 when divided by x, x—2
1 The expression 2x*+ax*+bx+6 is exactly divisible by OLX oO:
(x—2) and on division by (x +1) gives a remainder of —12. (O & C)
Calculate the values of a and b and factorise the expression
completely. *(A)

2 fx) =x? +ax+b

When f(x) is divided by (x—2), the remainder is 8. When
f(x) is divided by (x+3), the remainder is 18. Find the
values of the constants a and b. (UL)
,
eS
 Rational Functions
Definitions, Partial fractions.

4
Definitions A rational function is a function of the form a : Li] x#1 a 2x —x7 +1
x 2 wes
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x. me tet f xtx—d
If the degree of P(x) < the degree of Q(x), then are rational functions of x
Fe, is a proper fracti degree l— x71, ee
O(n) fraction. degree 2-> 7=1 is a proper fraction.
He: degree of P(x) = the degree of Q(x), then Neeee se oe eae . Aras
Ox) is an improper fraction. decrees —> mys ayal pe ae

Partial A rational function which may be expressed as a sum Li] LL

a ee oe i Z
fractions of separate fractions is said to be resolved into its (x+2)2(x-1) (x+2)? (x ¥2 GEN
partial fractions.
rational function partial fractions

2 +2x7-x—-3
1. If the rational function is a proper fraction. [i] Find the partial fractions of
The method of obtaining the partial fractions depends (x+1)?(x?-2)
on the type of factors in the denominator. The repeated linear factor (x + 1)’ has partial
Three types are considered at this stage fractions
(a) For every linear factor (ax + b) of the A B
a :
denominator there will be a corresponding partial Gal): -Gee
fraction oe. ; The quadratic factor (x? — 2) has partial fraction
(ax +b)
(b) For every repeated linear factor (cx + d)’ of the (Bese/0)
denominator there will be two corresponding Creal
B c
partial fractions fe, x3+2x?-x-—3 A B Cx+D
(cxt+d) (cx+dy’ fe) = + oe
(x+1)*(x?—2) (x+1) (x+1)? (x?-2)
(c) For every quadratic factor (ex* + fx + g) of the
denominator there will be a corresponding partial wAGtDG@?-2)
4BORA) HC DGS
[Dyer le,
fraction (x4:1)7(x7
—2)
(ex?+fxtg)
ie. x°+2x?—x—-3 =A(x+1)(x?—2) +B(x?-2)
To find the constants A, B, C,... +(Cx+D)(x+1)? (1)
(a) Form an identity between the original fraction
and the sum of the partial fractions. Let x = —1, then (1) becomes
(b) Write all the fractions using a common (1)? +26 (-)—3=8 ily 2) a
denominator.
Compare coefficients of x’on L.H.S.and R.H.S. of (1)
(c) Compare the two numerators by
1=A+C (2)
(i) comparing ‘convenient coefficients’ on
Compare coefficients of x*on L.H.S. andR.H.S. of (1)
each side of the identity.
2—A+B+2C+D>1=A+2Z€7) (3)
and/or (ii) substituting values of x which reduce Letx = 0, then (1) becomes
individual factors to zero.
—3=-2A-2B+D>-1=-2A+D (4)
Always check your answer by reversing the process,
(3)-(4) 2=3A+2C (5)
i.e. by combining the partial fractions to form a
2x(2)-(5) 0=-ASA=0.
single fraction.
(5)> C=1
(4)> D=-1
gE ED ale wean elel
"(x+1)2(x2=2) (x41)? (x?=2)
! pte) aCe Gay
Check:
GeFd? Die, Gate 2
24x 2x?3 x?-2e-1
4+x-4
(x+1)7(e?=2)

(CWea aGe.)
[i] x1+3x3+x?-—5x—5
2. If the rational function is an improper fraction. Express ———______~ in partial fractions.
(FIV (x—2)
(a) Divide to obtain a quotient and a proper x84+3x034x7-5x-5 2 3
3 +2—-y
fraction.
(b) Resolve the proper fraction into partial fractions (x + 1)%(x*—2) (x +1)°(x?—2)
as before.
=1+ 1 x-l

(e +1) (@?=2)
eee
4
 Rational Functions
Worked example, Guided examples, Exercises and Exam question

A
N GNGAPls Ns
WE) Resolve into partial fractions Binomial expansions give,
4x° + 16x°— 15x + 13 easily oe UN a eat
(e+2)(2x—172 7 5 Nee open nap ee
4 2 A 38
Since the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the and similarly for the other two terms, and collecting like terms
denominator, the denominator is divided into the numerator. from the three expansions gives the result,
2x-1)*== (x 2)\(4x24+-2)(4x7 — —4x4x +1) =43
(x +2)(2x—1)* = 42° + 4x? oe-7x42 ees) is IG) 47 Pea ae
x? +
; 1 Smolen 28 2
Ax? + 4x? —Jx +2 )4x34+16x
15x2—
+13
47+ 4x?- Tx+ 2 INTEGRATION
(Oa ree)
GE} Express pat as partial fractions and hence evaluate
— 4x3+ 16x7-15x4 13 12x?
= 811 GL) Ge 2)
WEE Ore (x+2)(2x-1)° 3 1 ’
meee earns :
12x*-8x+11 A B C ;
== “ = Partial fractions give
(x+2)(2x—1)? (+2) (2x-1) (2x-1)?
1 1
ie. 12x°—8x+11=A(2x—1)?+
B(x +2)(2x—-1)+ C(x +2) (x+1)(x+2) (x+1) (x42)
x=—2, 48+16+11=25ADA=3 Therefore the given integral can be written as
Kap, O44 1s C24
g 1 E 16
x=0, 11=A-—2B+2C>B=0 s hae inUsed)
(+2) 2 = Inzs-
=| (x+1) Ca)
Ieee 8 4 E
Pig Ce le eat) ) (Ox 1)2
end [EX) 1 Find the constants A and B in the following identity:
Ae plone lox Fis 3 en 4 NA B
(x+2)(2x-1)? (x+2) (2x-1) sea hee oa (L)

Resolve into partial fractions the following:

Expressing an algebraic fraction in terms of its partial: fractions 2x*—x 5x°+6x+7
is rarely of interest in itself; it is however often an important Se ee
means to other ends. (2+x)(1 +x") (x—1)(«+2)
Three common uses of partial fractions are given below, ioiey. oe
and briefly illustrated with Guided Examples. we SagesTe
Ge
(1+x)(1 —2x’) (1—2x)(2—x)
SUMMATION OF SERIES mec fet tee
=< Pe
GE) Express : in partial fractions, and hence find the sum to (1—2x)(2 +2) (2+x)(1—2x)
KOZ) \ :
terms of the series § ——-——— —————
Peers Bi (1—2x)(1 = 3x) (20) (1=xy2
—+—+—4...
|B Rae eeTe 10 Z u De
(= 7) (G9) (i) (Cae)
Partial fractions give =
2 X(x+2) 2x 2(x+2) v 5x+4 B payee MWe
De Ryeoth ee
The first term of the series can be represented a al oe) =)
2D 23
the second term ee262
oven iti the terms of
so on. Writing ee
(+1) ice
GPa oy
the series
in this fashion enables the result, >
16 ae ee
,Ce
Gee (1+ 2x)(x +2)? (t+ D027 +1)
18 os x°+ 10x +6
BINOMIAL EXPANSIONS (x—1)(x?+1) mln=3
2+x° L :
Express ——.——~ as partial fractions, and hence expand 2
GE) ae Cx) (4x) A
the function ina series of ascending powers of x as far as the (GF1) +2)
terminx>.

Partial fractions give

LM 2 1 if. 1 mr 1
(2—x)(4+x) 2(2-—x) (2-x)° 2(4+x)
 Quadratics
Quadratic equations, Quadratic functions.

Sup iL tw DA SRE i UR sR SS AE I TE TT

Quadratic The general quadratic equation is of the form [i]

; Find, to ;two decimal places, the roots of
i
equations ig Meee, ak —3i— Xx 4 =U,
1 3 ;
where a, b and ¢ are constants and a#0. Use x= Al=|pa5 WY ac |witha=2,b=—3,c=—
The two values of x which make ax’+bx+c zero are 2a
called the roots of the equation. =113 4 V/(-3Y-4 x2x(—4)]
The roots are given by
=}/3+V41]=1[3+6.403
roz| -b2 ViT=aac| al baal
2a =2.35 or —0.85 (to 2.p.)
b’—4ac=A is the discriminant of the equation since
it discriminates between the types of roots. i] ;
If A>0, the roots are real and different, Show that 2x*—3x+4=0 has no real roots.
rar es roots are real rieequal, Useih= p22 doe with a=2. == =
<JU, the roots are complex. ie. A=(-3?-4xX2x4=9-32= =a -a())
Sum and product of roots “.2x?-3x+4=0 has no real roots.
If wand P are the roots of ax*+bx+c=0, then
ey ae and op=~ Li] If 3x°-6x+8=0 has roots a and B, find the
f q equation whose roots are — and —.
The quadratic equation may be written a
=6
x’—(sum of roots)x + (product of roots) =0 at Bp=— La
Oo; =2, apm"
=
This can be used to obtain a new quadratic equation
whose roots are functions of w and f. If A and B are the new roots,
Useful results in such examples are ; en 1 (tie w+fi NS
a + B’=(a+ B)?-2a8 sumOf new roots 18 x B ap = 4

a+ B=(at B)>—3aB(at ay OL teats:

poate OO product of new roots is AB=—X—=—_=—
ie beeat B a B ap 8

OWN The new equation is x*—(A+B)x +(AB) =0

nel’_ (at B)’-208 i.e. x?—3x+3=0
pope (a)? or 8x?—6x +3 =0

:
eee The general quadratic: function
cpa
ise f(x)=ax*+bx+c.
ew)
[i] Sketch the graph of f(x)=3x2—7x+4.
By completing the square on the RHS. f(x) is a quadratic function so its graph is a parabola.
Ce!
fdmal(es) (Gas)
Its axis of symmetry is x=—
2(3) 6
Since a=3, i.e. a>0, f(x) has a minimum.
Graph of a quadratic function
ae ed-(=—*) ah he
The graph of f(x)=ax?+bx+c is a parabola. Its value is —
4(3) 12 12:
Its axis of symmetry is x= oem
a Since A>0, f(x) cuts the x-axis twice at
~2(—))= V1 ~ AEls Bef
If a>0, f(x) has a minimum. a>!0 a<0O
Se
2(3) Gm
Ones
6. 6
If a<0, f(x) has a maximum. a
When x=0, f(x)=
Its maximum or minimum
; b?— see
value is —
4a
minimum

Figure 1
If f(x) =0, the graph
(a) cuts the x-axis twice, if (b?—4ac)>0,
(b) touches the x-axis, if (b?>—4ac)=0, Figure 2
(c) does not cut the x-axis, if (b>—4ac)<0.
[i] if x is real, find the possible range of values of
Values of a rational quadratic function y=(x’ +x+1)/(x+1).
To find the range of possible values of a function of The given expression is x°+x+1—y(x+1)=0
ax’+bx+c x +(1=y)x +O —y)=0
the type y= , when x is real
pxt+qxtr For real x, b°>—4ac=0 — + -—» ,
e. (1-y)*—4.1.(1-y)=0 peck ial
(a) rearrange the equation as a quadratic in x,
(b) use the fact that (b?—4ac)=0 for real x.
(1=y)@e-y—4) a0 Figure3
(1-y)(y+3)s0 Soy=lorys-3.
 Quadratics
Worked examples, Guided example and Exam questions

SR TEA IS eT OTR SRR EDI MERE UT RINT ape toe)

WER forall realx, 0<— 1 <1. Find the equations with numerical coefficients whose roots are
AGS (i) at+3andBh+3; (ii) 5,a+3andp+3.
1 Let f(x) =x°+x—-10.
Sketch the curve y=. .
a ax tS Show f(2) =0, when (x —2) is a factor of f(x) and x =2 is a root
of f(x) =0.
Completing the square on x*+4x+5 gives (x+2)°+1.
Since (x+2)?>0, (x+2)?+121 and so
Show f(x) = (x —2)(ax?+ bx +c) i.e. a linear factor times a
quadratic factor, when a and f will be the roots of

ea
x°+4x4+5
= ax*+bx+c=0 and a+f= Bern ap =<
a a
: 1 (i) LetA=a+3, B=8+3
Since —, tends to zero through Find A+ Band AB when required equation is
x x°—(A+B)x+ AB=0
positive values for |x| large, Z
ie Sy (ii) The required equation will be
(x—5)[x?-
(A+ B)x+AB]=0
Siolanly —————__— > ()
(Giese ese Al 1 Find the range of values of g for which the roots of the
equation x*+6x+q°>—7=0 are real. If q is a positive
integer, list the values of g for which the roots of the
x°+4x+5
equation are real and of the same sign, giving reasons for
your answer. *(A)
To sketch y= en ay consider y) =x?+4x+5
x°+4x+5
2 (a) Given that the roots of x7+px+q=0 are a and B,
=(x+2)+1 ; 1 1
which is a parabola, axis of symmetry x= —2, vertex down and form an equation whose roots are — and B
minimum value y=1.
Clearly for each value of x eee es Y (b) Given that a is a root of the equation x* = 2x—3 show
that (i) a’=a—6, (ii) a? -2a°=9. H(G)
1
Var andy has axis of
3 (a) Find the set of values of k for which the equation
symmetry x = —2, vertex up x°+kx+2k—3=0 has no real roots.
and a maximum value of y= 1. When k=7, the roots of the equation x7+kx+2k—3=0
The x-axis is an asymptote are a and f, where a>f.
for y. (b) Write down the values of (a+) and af.
(c) Form an equation with integral coefficients whose
B
roots are = and —.
a
(d) Prove that a—B= V5. *( Eh)
4 (a) If a? and Pf” are the roots of x°—21x+4=0 and a and
Given that a andf are the roots of the equation ax? + bx +¢ B are both positive, find:
=0, where a, band care real anda #0, write down the values 2 iM ; ; 1 1
of a+ and af in terms of a, b and c. State the conditions that (i) af; (ii) a+; (itl) the equation with roots ee
a
the roots a and P are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. I i
Hence find the value of k for which the equation (b) If a+f=5S and af =2, calculate -+— and hence
a
x°-2x i coe determine the values of m and n such that x7+mx+n=0
4x—c k+l has roots u and at
has roots equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. *(S)
5 Prove that the equation x(x— 2p) = q(x—p) has real roots
If a and f are the roots of ax*+bx+c=0 then for all real values of p and q. If g =3, find a non-zero value
for p so that the roots are rational. (H)
b c
a+Bp=—-, ap=-
a a 6 Given that a and f are the roots of the equation
For a and f to be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, 3x°+x+2=0,
b=0 and a and c have opposite signs. : ke a
(i) evaluate 5+ —,;
he tlte
x°—2x k-1
(ii) find an equation whose roots are ands
Ay =cM kl
(iii) show that 27a*=1la+10. (A)
> (x?-2x)(k+1) =(4x-c)(k-1)
> x7°k-2xk+x?—2x—4xk+4x+ck—c=0 7 (a) Find the set of real values of x for which x?—9x +20 is
ie. x7(k+1)+x(—6k+2)+c(k—1)=0 negative.
For this equation to have roots equal in magnitude but (b) Find the set of values of k for which x*+kx+9 is
opposite in sign —6k+2=0, i.e. k=3. positive for all real values of x. (A)

8 The real roots of the equation x7+ 6x+c=0 differ by 2n,

Show thatx= 2 is a root of the equation x* +x —10=0. Given where n is real and non-zero. Show that n?=9—c. Given
that the other roots are a.andB, show thata+ B= —2 and that the roots also have opposite signs, find the set of
find the value of ap. possible values of n. ; (J)
—— EE ___ Es

f
 Sequences and Series
Definitions, Arithmetic and geometric series, Arithmetic and geometric means.

Hn
Definitions A sequence is a set of terms in a defined order with a Li] 6, 24, 60 120, . . . is an infinite sequence with
rule for obtaining each term. It is often written as: uy=r(r+1)(r+2).
Tits Wis, Whe oo 6 5 Uhh 6 ov GUNG de rAdueIaIN AS 7h.
1,4,9,...., n° isa finite sequence of n terms.

_‘The series formed from 6, 24, OOO) cats cals

A series is formed when the terms of a sequence are
added. The series formed from 65-0460 41204).
Wis Uap. tase ate eS
Un talipainills
tpateroatal mies

S, is the sum of the first n terms of a series.

S. is the sum to infinity of a series. [i] n
: ir=14243-+0.4n
ee means the sum of all terms such as u,, where r r=
takes all integral values from a to b inclusive. i me I
It is read as ‘sigma from r=a to b of u/’. 2P=3'+4+5°+6 +7

Arithmetic An arithmetic series is of the form Li] Three consecutive terms of an arithmetic series have sui
and
peohtris a+(a+d)+(a+2d)+(a+3d) +... 21 and product: 315. Find
. the numbers.:

series a is the first term, d is the common difference. Here it is easier to let the three terms be
To find d, subtract any term from the next term. (a—d),a, (atd).

Un=[at(n-1)d]
- nt S,= = X[a+(n—1)d]
- vf Sum APD
of terms: (a—d)+a+(a+d)=21

=4n[2a+(n-1)d] Product of terms: (a—d)a(a+d) =315

=3n(a+l) a(a*—d*)=315
he ethed But a=7, so 7(7°—d°) =315 d= +2.
ae rae eee: So the numbers are 5, 7, 9.

The ‘sum formula’ for an arithmetic series can be Li] Three consecutive terms of a geometric series have
used to find a formula for its nth term, u,=S,—Sp-1. 49
product 343 and sum —. Find the numbers.
A geometric series is of the form -
2 3
PIT GR Ps: Here it is easier to let the terms be = e CLERS
a is the first term, R is the common ratio.
To find R, divide any term into the next term. a
Product of terms: = a.aR =343

Un=aR
= n-1
Si= = aR n-1
ak
ae
<a—
a(1—R") Sum ofterms: “+a+aR=—
For R#1, S,=—————. For R=1, S,=na. R 2
oA
If |R|<1, a geometric series may be summed to
»
i.e. —(1 i ies ME Ey
49
eae a
infinity, and Saray But a=7,s02+2R+2R°2=7R
i.e. 2R?-5R+2=0>R=hor2.
For the solution of problems, the stated formulae are
often used to obtain simultaneous equations ina and _ Go the numbers are a 7 *fd
d, or a and R, which can then be solved. 2

Arithmetic a, b, c fgrm an arithmetic series if b=3(a+c). Lil Insert

and b is the arithmetic mean of a and c. (a) five arithmetic means between 6 and 30,
geometric x, y, z form a geometric series if y= V(xz). (b) four geometric means between 243 and 1.
means y is the geometric mean of x and z.
HOmthey7 valulespvimeecom Xan aor (a) 6, the five arithmetic means and 30 form an
el arithmetic series.
the arithmetic mean is —(x%;+x2+x3+...+Xn),
n lst term: 6=a; 7th term: 30=a+6d>d=4.
‘ . n So the arithmetic means are 10, 14, 18, 22, 26 hence
the geometric mean is VW (x1. Dae enrages 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30 form an arithmetic series.
Given any two numbers it is possible to insert any
number of arithmetic (or geometric) means between (b) 243, the four geometric means and 1 form a
the two numbers to make the resulting terms form an geometric series.
arithmetic (or geometric) series. Ist term: 243=a; 6th term: 1=aR°>R=}.
So the geometric means are 81, 27, 9, 3 hence
243, 81, 27, 9, 3, 1 form a geometric series.
eS
 Sequences and Series
Worked examples, Guided example and Exam questions

The first three terms of a geometric progression are k—3, 1 Three consecutive terms in a geometric progression are c,
2k—4, 4k —3, in that order. Find the value of kand the sum c+4 andc+6, in that order. Determine the value of c and
of the first eight terms of the progression. the value of the common ratio of the progression. *(S)
Since k—3, 2k—4, 4k—3 are three consecutive terms of a 2 Show that there are 18 integers which are multiples of 17
geometric progression and which lie between 200 and 500. Find the sum of all
2k—-4 4k—3 these integers. “(L)
k-3 — 2k-4 3 Then" term of an arithmetic progression is denoted by u,,,
i.e. (2k—4)? =(k—3)(4k—3) and the sum of the first n terms is denoted by S,,.
4k? —16k +16 =4k?—15k+9 (a) In a certain arithmetic progression, us +Uj.=44 and
Sig = 35 9. Calculate the value of the first term and of the
ki)
common difference.
The first three terms of the progression are 4, 10, 25 (b) In another arithmetic progression, uw, = 1. Given that w7,
uj, and u;7 are in geometric progression, find the value of
ie, G4. r=
l|Nn
WN
each. T(G)
4 (i) A man invests £100 at the beginning of each year for ten
.. the sum to eight terms is Sg = ay dak eal years. The rate of compound interest is 9% per annum.
Calculate the total value of the investment at the end of the
2 ten full years.
(ii) Write down the sum of the arithmetic progression,
= 4066.3438 Nese oe teils ILS
SP AP Oar ocean!
Inacertain arithmetic progresssion, the sum of the firstand \ ; :
n
fifth terms is 18 and the fifth term is 6 more than the third term. Find a value of n such that S,—}<10~°. *(OLE)
Show that the sum of the first ten terms ofthe progression ts
16S. 5 Find the common ratio of the geometric sequence
sin 2a, —sin 2a cos 2a, sin 2a cos? 2a,....
Let the first six terms of the arithmetic progression be 1 :
a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, a+4d, a+5d Prove that for Drees the series
Given a+(a+4d)=18
sin 2a—sin 2a cos 2a+sin 2a cos*2a+....
(a+ 4d) =(a+2d)+6
has asum to infinity and show that the sum to infinity is
1.6. 2a+4d=18
tana. (H)
and 2d=6
-. d=3 and a=3 6 Find the sum to infinity of the geometrical progression
.. the arithmetic progression has first term 3 and common L4x/(x+1)4+27/(x+1)?+...
difference 3. and determine the set of values of x for which the result
So the sum of the first ten terms is holds. (O & C)

Sip=—X(2X3+9%3)
7 Find the set of values of 0, (—17<@Sz7), for which the
series
1+2cos’0+4cos*@+8cos°6+...+2” cos” 6+...
= 165 as required has asum to infinity.
Show that, for this set of values of 9, the sum to infinity of
The three real, distinct and non-zero numbers a, b, c are such the series is —sec 20. (J)
that a, b, c are in arithmetic progression and a, c, b are in eet il 1 1 4
geometric progression. Find the numerical value of. the Saltus given! that —— teen |aeeed GLOMUS CONSECUtiVe
common ratio of the geometric progression. baile Car Gaels
Hence find an expression, in terms of a, for the sum to terms of an arithmetic series. Show that a’, b* and c’ are
infinity of the geometric series whose first terms are a, c, b. also three consecutive terms of an arithmetic series. (/)

Since a, b, c are in arithmetic progression 9 The sum of the first twenty terms of an arithmetic
progression is 45, and the sum of the first forty terms is
b-a=c—b [1] 290. Find the first term and the common difference.
Since a, c, b are in geometric progression Find the number of terms in the progression which are less
than 100. (J)
ate [2] 10 One sequence of alternating terms of the series
Gh
1+ 2344458 eat
Eliminate b between [1] and [2] and solve the resulting forms an arithmetic progression, while the other sequence
quadratic in c (c will be found in terms of a). Using these of alternating terms forms a geometric progression. Sum
values of c in [2] the common ratio of the corresponding the first 10 terms of each progression and hence find the
geometric progression can be found. One value of r is less sum of the first 20 terms of the series. (iL)
than 1, hence the sum to infinity of the geometric
progression can be found. 11 The first term of an arithmetic series is (3p+5) where
p is a positive integer. The last term is (17p+17) and
the common difference is 2.
Find, in terms of p (i) the number of terms; (ii) the sum
of the series. Show that the sum of the series is divisible by
14, only when p is odd. (A)

ee
eee ee ————————E—eEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEe=e=eeEeEeEeEeeeeee

9
 Summation of Series
Mathematical induction, Arithmetic and geometric series, Some special results.

Mathematical Mathematical induction is a method of proving a Li] Show by induction that

induction given (or suspected) result for positive integers. -
This method is often used to prove the formula for S,= Dlat(r- 1)d] =4n[2a+ (n—-1)d]
the sum to n terms of a series. Sl
Ua) GNoM hanes Sale ; i.e. the sum to n terms of an arithmetic series.
(a) Assume that the stated result is true for some
positive integral value of n, say k, and show that Assuiie the result isiuichenenii en
ie, Seeweiaaeal ,
it is true for the next integral value, i.e. k+1.
(b) aa oe He result is true for the first value, Add the next term, the (k+1)th, giving
i.e. for k=1.
(c) Conclude that, by the principle of mathematical Sk+i=2k[2a+ (k—1)d]+[a+(k+1-1)d]
induction, the result holds for all positive =}(2ak+k*d—kd+2a+2kd]
integers k. =3[2a(k+1)+kd(k+1)]
=
This concludes the proof because: =H(k+ 1)[2a +kd]
since the result is true for k=1, But this is S, with n replaced by (k+1).
then by (a) it has been shown to be true for k=2, .. if the result is true for k, it is true for (k+1).
since it is true for k=2, Put k=1, S;=3[2a+(1—1)d]=a,
then by (a) it is true for k=3, ... and so on. i.e. the first term is a, which is true.
So it is true for all positive integers k.
.. by the principle of mathematical induction the
formula is true for all n.

Arithmetic If the terms of a series can be recognised as an Li] Find the sum to 21 terms of the series
and arithmetic series or geometric series then the
geometric appropriate formula for its sum can be used. (20) + (=18) + (16) Ps.
series ; : .
ae ; : :
This is an arithmetic series with a=—20 and d=2.
For an arithmetic series Use S, =4n[2a+(n—1)d]
S,=2n[2at+(n—-1)d] S>, =2X21[2 x (—20)+(21—1)(2)]
: , =}xX21[—40+40]
For a geometric series =

als
ee Li] Find the sum to infinity of the series
S.=— if-1<R<1. feetetSe
This is a geometric series with a=1 and R=}.
Since —1<R=1.,

use S..=——= : =2.

Jey oleae

Some The following special results can be useful when Li] Find the sum to n terms of a series whose general
special summing series. term is 4r2+3r+1.
results
1. Distributive property of >
i.e. X[af(x) +bg(x) +ch(x) +...] We require S, = 2 (4r +3r+1)
=axf(x)+ bzg(x)+czh(x)+...

2. Natural number series

(a) 14+2+3+4+...+n= Lr=in(nt1)

(b) P+24+3°+4+,..+0= 2P=bn(nt 1)(Qn+1) =4[an(n + 1)(2n +1)] +3[3n(n +1)

] +n
(c) P+P4+3°444... += DVP=In%(n+1) = §n(8n?+21n+19)

Note: P= (>r)
‘

3. Sum of a constant

aR ORS?aox
VS" Si
r=) n times

10
 Summation of Series
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WE) (a) Prove by mathematical induction that Then show

1 1 1 n a (QK+5S)\(2k47) 3
ta + = Sk+1
1 ee nit lind 2(k+3)(k+4) 4
for all positive integers n. *. assuming S$; is true, S,,, is true.
(b) Obtain, and simplify, an expression for the Sy eR SET) Se Pas)
sum of each of the following series:
ae . a
'"2x3x4 2x3x4 4. 2x3x4
1.24+3.44+5.6+...4+(2n-1).2n
which is true.
2 4 +6— 7) + n(n +1) .. by mathematical induction the result is true for all positive
(a) Assume integral n
1 1 k
Sp=—+——+...4+
e233 (kerri)
=——
hear (2+2)(2+2)
n n 5
‘Then write S,, as

See
|;
SS Par
1 1 |
+
1 2(142)(143)
n n
z
12Qy02.3 k(k+1) | (k+1)(K+2)
lim
eee eS Show Sa S
no 4
(k+1) (k+1)(K+2)
Peete ka) | kD (EX) 1 (a) Find the sum of n terms of the following series:
(k+1)(k+2) (k+1)(K+2) k+2 (i) 1.14+2.34+3.5+...; (ii) 2x+4x7+
8x7 +..., x<4.
In each case give your answer in as simple a form as
(N.B. The result for 5,4; is that for S, with k replaced by possible.
k+1.)
(b) Show that the nth term of the series
*. assuming S, is true, $,4, is true. 14+(14+2)+(14+24+27)+(1+2+2°+23)+... is 2"=1.
Hence find (i) the sum of 1 terms of the series; (ii) the value
1 1 1 cit.
S.= —=>———= —. which is true. of n if T,.,—T,,=64, where T,, denotes the nth term.
ee ESB Py *(W
2 Prove by induction, or otherwise, that ON)
.. by mathematical induction the result is true for all positive
integral n. (a) Bret ly =T(n4 1y(n+2),
(Deere. — bo 3.4+5.6..4-(2n—1) x on
Let the rth term be u,=(2r—1)X2r
(b) Y rr I r+2)= nt I(n+2)(n+3).
We require Show that °=r(r+1)(r+2)—3r(r+1)+r and hence
prove that
Su, = > (2r—1) x 2r
T=.) - r= 1

Evaluate y r(r+3)(r+6)
r=1

= 4xF(n+ 1)Qnt1)—2x (n+) (L)

3 Prove by induction that, for all positive integers n,
B4+23+...4n3 =4n* (n+).
=n(n+1)|20n+1)-1| Deduce that
(nt+1)3+(nt+2)3+...4+(2n) =4n? (3n4+1) (Sn+3).
net 4n+ 2-3] = n(n+1)(4n—1)
3
(V)
4 Prove by induction that, for every positive integer n,
Let S=(2—3)+(4—5)+...+[2n—(2n+1)] (1x 4)+(2x5)+(3X6)+...+n(n+3) = 3n(nt+1)(n+5).
This series contains 2n terms which taken in n pairs,
each pair having sum —1, has sum (—1) Xn=~—n.
VJ)
5 By induction, or otherwise, prove the following results:
GE] Use induction to prove that the sum to n terms of the series n sin 2nx
s(27—1) x= =
W) Liven aa 2 sin x
5 7 9
+ + a
ie as (r+4) 1 it
DXB Cleo ASK on VALCO <O (ii) » r im n s
r=12'r(r+1)(r+2),, 2 .2"(n+1)(n4+2)
jp CR t3)Gnt5) _5 (O & C)
. Find the sum to infinity ofthe series.
2(n+2)(n+3) 4
6 Use induction to prove that the sum of the first 2n terms of
Assume the series 17—3°+5?—7°+... is —8n”.
Write down the sum to (2n+1) terms. (O&C)
5) 7 (2k+3)
k= is
Do xK4e SxX4xXS (k+1)(kK+2)(k+3) 7 If x*=x+1, prove, by induction or otherwise, that
ak (2k+3)(2k +5) 2) 0°" =a,X+b,+¢,x%%, where a,=1, b} =1, c,;=0, and
An = On—-1+Dp_1, Dee Byer rei EeCnei, Cy =An—1FCn-15
2(k+2)(k+3) 4
LOM — 2 eee (OLE)
a UaaEa IInEEIIEIIIEIEnEINIIIEIEEERIERERERE
nee EERE

11
 Permutations and Combinations
Factorial notation, Permutations, Permutations with identical items, Combinations.

SSB EET aR eg RN SN RS RE

Factorial n!=n(n—1)(n—2)(n—3)...2.1 i] Sl=s <4 aera

notation i.e. the product of all integers from n to 1 inclusive. = 120
n! is read as ‘factorial n’ or ‘n factorial’.
We define 0!=1.

Permutations A permutation is an arrangement of items. Li] The permutations of A, B, C

ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA.

The number of permutations of n different items Li] Find the number of permutations of the letters
taken r at a time is written as "P, or ,P,. A, B, Ctaken two atatime.
np= n! !

(nr)! Spe ses

G9)!

If r=n, i.e. n items are taken n at a time,

Li] In how many ways can the letters of MATHS be
n! arranged?
ary since 0!=1.
>P;=5!=120 ways

Permutations (a) One set of identical items Li] In how many ways can the letters of MIME be
with identical The number of permutations of n items taken n arranged?
items at a time, when p of the items are identical and
There are 4 letters, son = 4,
the rest are all different, is
2 Ms, so p = 2.
n!
4!
p! Number of permutations = rT = 4x3=12.

(b) Two sets of identical items [i] Find the number of permutations of the letters of
The number of permutations of n items taken n PARALLEL.
at a time,
when p items are identical and of one kind, There are 8 letters, son = 8,
q items are identical and of a second kind, 2 As,
SO p = 2;3 Ls, so g =3.
the rest are all different, is
n!
Number of permutations “F131 = 3360.

Pig,

(c) Repeated items Li] Find the number of three-letter codes.

The number of permutations of n different items
taken 7 at a time, when each item may be used The number of permutations, with repetition, is
repeatedly, is n’. 26°=17576.

Combinations A combination is a selection of items when Li] There is only one combination of the letters
arrangement is not important. Different permutations ABC.
of the same items count as one combination.

The number of combinations of n different items

n
taken r at a time is written as ( One
r
Li] A sub-committee of six, including a chairperson,
is to be chosen from a main committee of twelve. If
(")nC ee ee !
the chairperson is to be a specified member of the
r ri(n—r)! main committee, in how many ways can the sub-
committee be chosen?

(or
Some useful results are:
_n(n—1)(n—2)... <7 factors starting at n As the specified member of the main committee has
to be included, we require the number of
r(r—1)(r—-2) ... <r factors starting at r combinations of 5 from 11, i.e.
i Oak Orhan
(‘)_11x10x9x8x7_
The total number of selections from n items when 462.
each can be either included or excluded is 2”—1, if at 5 5x4x3x2x1
least one item is to be taken.

12
 Permutations and Combinations
Worked examples, Guided example and Exam questions

CER STA PS GN PN Rs Ng ga Ai NST CWI

A committee of four is chosen from five teachers and three sixth- (EX) 3 At an athletics meeting, eight lanes are marked on the
formers. In how many ways can this be done so that the running track. Find the number of ways in which the
committee contains: runners in a heat can be allocated to these lanes when there
(a) at least one teacher; (b) at least one teacher and one sixth- are:
former? (i) 8 competitors in a heat;
(ii) 5 competitors in a heat and no restriction on which
(a) Tabulating the possibilities for the committee gives
lanes are used;
(iii) 10 competitors in a heat, so that two competitors have
No. of No. of No. of No. of to share lane 3 and two have to share lane 8, but no
teachers ways sixth-formers ways
ne! ———— a ——— a= ee! eee ee ee
acco.tnt is taken of the way in which these lanes are
shared;
1 aC, 3 aC
D OF 2 PCs
(iv) two teams, each of four competitors, on the starting
line, and members of the same team may not be in
3 {ee 1 °C; adjacent lanes.
4 2G, 0 2G “(A)
A concert pianist has prepared seven different pieces of
*. No. of committees
music for a recital, three of which are modern and four are
= ed OOM LO el ON iG 1 Op eon classical. Calculate the number of different orders in which
she can play the seven pieces when:
SE EG-GIKE Ate
x
=S cals (a) there are no restrictions;
Ts? 1<2
(b) the recital must start and end with classical pieces;
=5+30+30+5=70 (c) classical and modern pieces must alternate throughout
the recital. :
(b) Tabulating the possibilities for the committee would give “(A)
the first three rows of the table above.
i>) Calculate the number of different 7-letter arrangements
-. No. of committees =5+30+30=65.
which can be made with the letters of the word
MAXIMUM. In how many of these do the 4 consonants
How many different arrangements of letters can be made by all appear next to one another? “(C)
using all the letters of the word MINIMUM? In how many of
these are the vowels separated?
Four visitors Dan, May, Nan and Tom arrive in a town
There are 7 letters, including 3 Ms and 2 Is. which has five hotels. In how many ways can they disperse
themselves among the five hotels
.. the number of possible arrangements 420 (a) if four hotels are used to accommodate them,
312! (b) if three hotels are used to accommodate them in such
a way that May and Nan stay in the same hotel? (L
Treat the three vowels I, I, U as one letter, then the number
5!
of arrangements with the vowels together is SE at The result (home-win, score-draw, goalless-draw or away-
win) is forecast for each of ten football matches. In how
The factor 3 is introduced to allow for the three possible many different ways can the results of these ten matches be
arrangements of the vowels among themselves. Thus the forecast to give exactly seven correct results? (L)
number of arrangements with the vowels separated is
420 — 60 = 360.
From eight persons, including Mr and Mrs Smith, a
committee of four persons is to be chosen. Mr Smith will
A batch code on the side of a food container is composed of not join the committee without his wife, but his wife will
six dots, one blue, two white and three black. Find the number join the committee without her husband. In how many
of different codes possible. ways can the committee be formed? (L)
It is decided to use only five dots chosen from six where one
is blue, two are white and three are black. Find the number
Find the number of different permutations of the 8 letters
of different codes possible in this case.
of the word SYLLABUS. Find the number of different
The number of codes possible is equal to the number of selections of 5 letters which can be made from the letters of
permutations of six objects of which two are alike and of one the word SYLLABUS. (L)
kind and three are alike and of another kind. In the second
case, consider the possible selection of five dots, which is best Five people, of whom three are women and two are men,
presented in a tabular fashion. are to form a queue. Find how many different
arrangements there are (i) if no two people of the same sex
Blue |White |Black are to stand next to each other, (ii) if the first and last
people in the queue are both to be men. (C)
1 2 2
1 1 3
[In this question, answers may be left in factorial form.]
0 2 S
State the number of possible arrangements of the nine
For each selection find the possible number of permutations of letters of the word FACETIOUS. Determine in how many
5! of these arrangements: (i) the order in which the vowels
five objects, e.g. the first selection gives ah occur is the same as in the original word; (ii) the vowels, in
any order, are separated from each other by a consonant.
Hence the total number of codes that can be formed with five (C)
dots can be found.
a

13
 Binomial Theorem
Positive integral index, Any rational index, Applications, Approximations.

cin eh a A ee gc a a i SU SESEE SESS

Positive The binomial theorem, for all x and positive integral values of n, is given by
integral n(n-1 Mab = 2) =
index (at+x)"=a"+na""'!x ae Mee By a x"

Note:
There are (n+1) terms in this finite expression.
The degree of each term is 7, i.e. the sum of the powers of a and x in each term is n.
The general term is the (r+1) term and is
n(n—1)(n=2)...a=r+)) G ae

r!

: ; * 5 : n
The coefficient of x’ in the general term is sometimes written as (") or" Ce

The coefficients in the expansion of (a+x)" form a pattern which is useful for small values of n.
It is shown in Pascal’s triangle.
expansion
n Pascal’s triangle (a+x)'=1at 1x

! : J (a+x)*=1a?+2ax+1x?
; 1 - 3 ‘i 3 : 1 (a+x)>=1a?+3a’x + 3ax?+ 1x3
4 i. a eT ee (a+x)*=1a*+4a°x + 6a°*x? +4ax?+ 1x4
5 1 5 10 10 5 1 (a+x)°=1a°+5a‘*x + 10a*x? + 10a2x? + Sax*+1x°

Any rational If n is any rational value, positive or negative, and —1<x<1, then the binomial theorem is
index te = =
x)=1-+nx OD a es
2! 3!
Note:
The RHS is an infinite series since n(n—1)(n—2) ... willnever become zero.
Se eee ar
The general term is BAe sis
Die 2 gE
Mar 1)
wD
r!

The first term must be 1. If it is not, it must be rewritten: (a +ayt=a"(1 +2)"

a

and the expansion can be applied provided that —1 <-< hes

Important special cases are:
(dex) Sd awit etki (1+x)7?=1-—2x+3x?—4x3+5x4—...
(1—x) t=1+x+x?+x3+x4+... (1—x)-?=14+2x+3x7+4x3+5x4+...
These are only true if -1<x<1.

F é ‘ > * aS
Applications In any form of the binomial theorem, the ‘x term [i] Find the first four terms of (1—2x)™*.
may be replaced by a negative value or a power of x P
or a group of terms. (1-2x)7? =14(-)(—2x) + DOD (ay
The range of values of x over which the expansion is Deal
valid must be found usin
=< pete
: <i.
+CDCDCD
ey ia|
pos,
)itee

=14+3x-—4Px7+38x3-...
This expansion is valid for —1<—2x<1,
MAR ee nt

Approxi- The binomial theorem, in the form (1+.x)”, may be [i] Evaluate 25.1 to four decimal places.
mations used to obtain approximations and to evaluate roots
of numbers to any degree of accuracy. V25.1=(25 +0.1)'=5(1 +0.004)!
roy gee’
=5 E+ (3)(0.004) +O) (0.004)"+ a4 |
=5(1+0.002 —0.000002 +...)
~5(1.001 998) =5.00999
So V25.1~5.0100 (to four decimal places)

14
 Binomial Theorem
Worked examples and Exam questions

HRS PA hl No SCE
(i) Find the expansion of (1+ 2x +x’)* in ascending powers 3 Using the binomial theorem, or otherwise, find an
of x up to and including the term in x’. expression, in descending powers of x and with whole
(ti) Calculate the value of the term independent of x in the number coefficients, for (2x —3)*— (2x +3)’. *(L)
expansion of ( 3i
i 4 Obtain the binomial expansion of (1+2x)~? in
x ascending powers of x as far as the term in x°. *(L)
(i) (14+2x+x7)* =[14(2x+x7)]*

yey
5 Show that
; 4x 1 18
=14+4(2x+x7)+ a(x") + terms>x?

=14+8x+4x?+24x?+
terms > x?
18 ae
= 14+8x+28x?+terms
> x2 Hence, or otherwise, express -——~ as a series in
15 (9-x’)
(ti) The general term in the expansion of (x-3) is ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x’,
x2 assuming that the value of x is such as to make the
ena eo)
expansions valid. *(A)
V(1-x) -2V(1—2x)
nN Show that can be expressed in the
for the term independent of x the index of x must be zero V(1—3x +2x’)
Memo (e-27)— Onl ean
. the 6th term is the one independent of x and has value
form (1—2x)~#—2(1 —x)?.
- Using the binomial expansion write
15x 1413x1211
BC(¢3)) == 1x2x3x4x5
x (-3)° (1—2x)~?— 2(1—x) “*as a series in ascending
powers of x up to and including terms in x*. Hence
show that the first non-vanishing term in the
= —729 729 expansion of
6
TD osain the first four terms in the expansion of (1
= *). Use 8 V(1-3x+2x’)
as a series in ascending powers of x is kx*, where kis a
these terms to find the value of (0.99)°, giving your answer to
constant. Find the value of k. *(OLE)
four decimal places.

(a) 2,
6

oe
+—\
2 LS
5a
| —-—]
Ne

to4 terms
2 7 Find, in ascending powers of x, the first three terms in the
expansion of (2—3x)°.
Use the expansion to find the value of (1.997)* correct to
the nearest wholenumber. *(G)
POX. 2 8 Expand (2—.x)° in ascending powers of x up to and
including the term in x”. Use these terms to find the value of
= 1=an+ Pye to 4 terms 2.01°, giving your answer to three decimal places.
*(S)
Letx
= 0.02
9 Write down the first four terms of the binomial series
expansion in ascending powers of x of the function
(1—x)~?, and hence show that

vioas)L4 20+s
20x40
+
seerx
———__—___—_.

20x40x60
(OLE)
~1—3x(0.02)+ 2 x (0.02)?— ox(0.02)°
10 Find the coefficient of x”, where n =2, in the expansion, in
ascending powers of x, of (a+bx+cx*)e*. Given that, for
15 5
=1-0.06+ x0.0004— 5 0.000008 n=0, the coefficient of x” is TS Aide Det
= 0.94+ 0.0015 —0.000 02 V)
= 0.9415—0.00002 11 Write down the expansion in ascending powers of x up to
the term in x? of (i) (1+x)* (ii) (1—x)~3, and simplify
=().9415 to four decimal places.
the coefficients. Hence, or otherwise, expand

(EX) 1 Expand (2
5
= z)in ascending powers of x. Use the first four
terms of the expansion to find an approximate value for
Ve)
in ascending powers of x up to the term in x”. By using
(1599) a (@) x= 1/10 obtain an estimate, to three decimal places, for
Wi
2 (a) Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1—4x)! V)
in ascending powers of x and state the range of validity of 12 Find the first four terms of the expansion, in ascending
the expansion. Use the expansion to determine the value powers of x, of: (i) (1—x)7}; (ii) (1—x)~?.
of V 15.36, correct to 5 decimal places. Hence show that, if p=1-—q; (ili) p+ pq+pq’+pqrt
... = 1; (iv) p+2pqt3pq?+4pq?t+...=I/p.
(b) The coefficient of x’ in the expansion of (1+ ax)'is —6.
Calculate the two possible values of a. =(5) (A)

15
 Inequations
Rules for manipulating inequations, Solving inequations, Modulus.

_eB age ees rt em I NS SSR IT Rn

Rules for If a, b, c, d and k are numbers such that a>b and Li] 5>-2 and5+1>-2+lie. 6>-1
manipulating c>d, then: 4> Jand4—7m 2a Thenaseed,

pn Pees 4>-6 and 2x4> 2x-6ie. 8>-12

i ae acne aie 4>—1-and —1%9<—1% —-11e. 321
ak<bk fork<0.
(Cc). etc>o7+ad 4>9 and 3>—1, so4+3>2+—Lite. 7>1

A similar set of results arise for <.

Note: We cannot make any deductions about:

a—c and b—d or ac and bd or a+c and b+d.

Solving The solution of an inequation is a range (or ranges) of Li] Find the solution set of 8—x2=5x-4.
inequations values of the variable. Pa ear 4p aay ty Sitar

1. Linear inequations in one unknown eee ee

These can be solved using the rules of inequations. This is illustrated as:
The solution set can be illustrated on a number line.
Note the symbols used: — Ait Soest
x<a posi é hase ile x2a =o 0 1 2 3
—) oint es ¢
SS Sars fet included jrisluded <a Figure 3

Fi 1 Fi 2
sr bec [i] Solve y=0,x+y2 and y—2x<2.
2. Linear inequations in two unknowns Draw the lines
These are best solved graphically. 1 _» (continuous)
The corresponding equality gives the boundary line. “ ee= o ne
This is drawn as: MT ES EROS
(a) a continuous line if the inequation is = or <, io haw aes ©,ee
(b) a dotted line if the inequation is > or <. y=0 gives the near a
A convenient point is chosen to identify on which
side of the line the inequation applies. The solution y—2x=2 x+y=2
set of the inequation is usually left unshaded.
Figure 4
3. Quadratic inequations
(a) solution using a number line Li] Find the solution set of x°—2x—8<0.
. . —_ =

If the inequation is written as f(x)>0 or f(x)<0, 3 5 oe =

then the end points of the inequation can be found ae Spe x sate Gre
nme
by solving the corresponding quadratic equation. Test x=0: (—4)(2) ae, (true) ee
ae
A convenient point is tested to identify the range. 64 9= oe 4 a F
5 igure
(b) graphical solution ; =
The graph of the corresponding quadratic equality (b) Sketch of y=x*—2x—8, i.e. of y=(x—4)(x +2)
(a parabola) is sketched. By inspection the range M
corresponding to the inequation can be seen. £O¢
y<0 for
4. Other inequations ~2ax<4
These are usually solved graphically. ee is the ,
solution set o
the inequation.

Figure 6

Modulus The modulus function f(x) = |x| is defined as

[i] \x—4|<2 meansx-4< 2>5x<6
|x|= xforx=0, or —(x—4)<2 i.e.x-42>-2>x>2 |So 2=x=6.
|x|= —xforx<0.
So |x| is the numerical value of x.
|x| is read as ‘mod x’.
The graphs of y= x and y = |x| are: Li] Solve |sinx|<$
for —m<x<n.
y iv |sinx|<! means sinx <3
Vieax y =|x| or —sinx S3i.e. sinx=>—3$
From the graph we see:
—m<x<—5n/6
Figure 7 Figure 8 or —2/6<x<2/6
or 5n/6Sx<2
For x <0, y = |x| is the reflection of y = x in x-axis.

16
 Inequations
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

PS SE SE TSS SE GE Ne eae me ee en tssame ercA Cesc al

WE] Obtain the three sets of values of x for which |GEgaz the set of values of x for which
(a) ueae 2
(a) x°-—5x+6>2

(b)
%
1 eee (b) x7-S5x+6
=—+—<32
N43 =x
(a) Rearrange the inequality to give x*—5x+420 and solve
(c) 2kx—1|>|x+1| directly.
(a) To preserve the order of the inequality, multiply both sides (b) A sketch of y=x?—5x+6 is helpful.
by x” to give 2x°>x 5\cottl
Write y = (x—3)(x—2)=(x-=]
i.e.2x°-x>0 2) —-4
or x(2x°—1)>0 from which we deduce that the graph has zeros at x =2, x =3,
giving x(V2x— 1) (MeeHe 0 i is vertex down with axis of symmetry x= :and minimum value
The values x Vy * 0 and x= V2 divide the domain Fi The graph indicates that there are three sets of values of x
os = = ivi 1 1 = 5

into four parts. The sign of the factors in each part is best to be considered, two where y is positive and one where y is
investigated using a tabular display. negative.

: Now consider =e for each of these sets of values of x,

y a

Sek es bese x<0/0<x eid: oe taking care with the direction of the inequality when
M26 VD V2|v2 rearranging, deduce the values of x within these ranges for
| which the inequality holds.
x = = +: ote
(V2x-1) - - - +
(V2x+1) x es + as (EX) 1 (a) Find the range of values of x for which 4x*— 12x +5<0.
x(V2x—1)(V2x+1) - + = + (b) Find the ranges of values of x such that Pia ;
a=
1 1 *(A)
= A <x<0 ee <1
2 Find in each case the set of real values of x for which:

a*. Solution
set is +x Stemi: <x<0o
<a, lo: <<7 Re ey
V2 V2 (ii) ——->—.
x= il ees ll (A)
1 x 1
es
x-1
.3-x 3 For what real values of x is 14+2x
=1?
To preserve the order of the inequality multiply both sides by 1
(x—1)* and (3—x)’, giving (x—1)(3—x)?>x(3—x)(x—-1)° Solve the inequality ke (0&0)
i.e. (x—1)(3—x) [3-—x)—x &—-D]>0
(x-1)(3—x)(3—x’)>0 4 Find the sets of real values ofxfor which:
or (x —1)(3—x)(V3—x)(V34+x)>0 (i) (2—3x)(1+x) <0;

’ is
The four values x= — V3, x =1, x= V3, x = 3 divide the (ii) Q-3x(1tx)
domain into five parts, the sign of each factor in each partis - 3
best investigated in a tabular form. (iii) <- 3x <1,
; == Se ee ae aes x (A)
[pea evs<x<1 |l<x= V3) V3<x<3 |3<x 5 Solve the inequality
x” —|xl— 12<0. (J)

a a " i if 2 6 Find the set of values of x for which Me

oe cet.
(V3e5)| + + + - - (C)
- + + + -
:roduct
*) _+ Bd tf es a 7 Sketch the vane
region in the
Be xy plane ;within which all three of
= a ee ee ae the following inequalities are satisfied:
x<-V3 1<x< V3 3<x (i) y<x+1; (ii) y>(e—-1)*s (iii)
xy<2.
Determine the area of this region. (J)
. the solution set is
{x:x<— V3 0rl <x< V3 or3<x}
(c) Ix—1|>|x+1|
2(x-1)>(x4+1) or —2(%-1)>(@+1)
2x-2>x+1 or —2x+2>x+1
3,5) or 13x
1>x

.. the solution set is{x: x<} or 3<x}

17
 a]

Indices and Logarithms

Index notation, Basic rules of indices, Logarithms, Basic rules of logarithms, Solving exponential
equations.
SR Seo to ep SP IE EP PI EIS a As

Index a” means aXaXaXaX...Xa Li] 8°=8x8x8x8x8

notation —S Se a
n factors 5 factors
n is the index (plural indices). a is the base. 5 is the index. 8 is the base.
An index is also called a power or an exponent. 8° is read as ‘8 to the power 5’.

Basic rules When m and n are positive rational numbers: Li] The basic laws of indices can be illustrated as
of indices follows:

multiplication: = a” X a"=a™*" axa’=a***=¢@°

dda (hea gel

division:

raising to a power: (a”)"=a"™" (a?)?=a***=a°

zero index: a=1 P=1

ee fer ill: 1 1
negative index: ee Scta = =—
a” n) 25

3
fractional indices: tad v= V8=2

ata"
Vab=ai
3 4
=a

Logarithms If N=a”*, then we define x as the logarithm of N to Li] If 8=2°, then 3 is the logarithm of 8 to
the base a, the Powork to which @ mut be fovoed (D the base 2.
i.e. if N=a‘, then x=log,N. an Sa Ee ENE
This can be used to convert from ‘index form’ to i.e. 8=2’>log.8
=3
‘logarithmic form’ and vice versa.
Logarithms to the base e, written In x or log. x, are
called natural or Naperian logarithms. If7=e*, then x=loge7.
Logarithms to the base 10, written log x or logy x, are an es "
called common logarithms. 100=10", so logio 100 =2.

Basic rules multiplication: log.(p xq) =log.p + log.q Lil log 3+ log 2=log (3 X2) =log 6
of logarithms
division: log.a(p=+q)=logap —logaq log 8—log 4=log (8+4)=log 2

raising to a power: log. p"=nlogap log, 8=log, (2°) =3 log, 2

logarithm of unity: log, 1=0 logiol =0

logarithm of the base: log.a=1 logee=1

To change a logarithm from one base to another use

logeN= oes feito l ee 1

log.b logio2 logio2

In particular, log. n=l0B0N and log,a= ! :

logioe logab

Solving Exponential equations, i.e. equations in which the Li] Solve (a) S*=4 (b) 27*!-5(2*)+2=0.
exponential _variable is an index, can often be solved by
equations either (a) taking logs of both sides of the equation
and using the basic rules of logarithms, (9). Taking Sous give lon ee
x log 5=log 4
x=log 4+log 5=0.8614
or (b) using a substitution of the form y=a* to (b) The equation is 2(2*)?—5(2*) +2 =0
obtain an equation in y (usually quadratic) = a ys 4 e 26. =
which can then be solved. UNE oe? yew
(2y—1)(y-2)=0
y= or y=2
So 2=$=2 (Sx hon2
=o Sy
—_——
SSeSeeeSSSSSSSSFSFSFSFSFSSSSSSSSSSSsSsSsS
Ss
18
 Indices and Logarithms
Worked examples and Exam questions

ESR SD a a a eet eer eaecere ee om rR

WE) (a) Evaluate: (i) (2) (EX) 1 (a) Given that x” =z, find:
(ii) (2)bi 5
(i) z when x=9 and y=3;
Mia eos Oo (ii) z when x= 64 and y= —3;
(b) Simplify: ae (iii) x when y= —3 and z=4;
xX (iv) y when z=2 and x =}.
x (b) Express 3*”—3”*!—3”+3 in terms of z, where
(c) Bab eulesi
z=.
Hence solve the equation 37” —3’*! —3”+3 =0.
(a)
(i) (=) CCD arty Go (c) Without using tables evaluate
log 6+log 4+log 20—log 3—log 16, where all
256 (256)' (256)? (4) arnt
logarithms are to the base 10. *(W)
FM CON aoe weAE La ae 2 (a) Simplify: (x8+x4)(xt!-x74)
i (2) - (2) =i chartprapeias
(dx?
DTS 6.88 a(S ae = 2 ae (b) Without using a calculator find the logarithm of 8 to the
(b) an gnt+2 ve a8. (3°)0t4 base a: (i) when a= 64; (ii) when a=}. *(A)
33("+2) 5 2.33"+4 3 Without the use of tables, slide rules or calculators:
a 3 32(n+2)
x (i) evaluate 8-?+81)';
(ii) find the value of x given that log; x+log, 8=0.
Oreoees 4 (a) Express in its simplest form, log, 64—log, 16
oy 33n 34
(b) Given that log, u+log, v=p and log, g u—log, v=q,
7 3°"(3°—2.34) prove that w=x!?*® and find a similar expression for v.
& 33n 34
*(A)
_Se
34(3?—2) @s (a) Solve the equation logs x = 16 log, 5.
X(b) Find the values of y which satisfy the equation:
1
=7. 8). —=4.
ae 32 *(S)
=2x02 =2) x0 Ex)
x x
(c) =
('+x/)\(y!—x) 6 (i) If 2*=51x3*, prove that x log ==log 51 and

_ xyt—xi+ xy?+x! hence find x.

(ii) If y varies directly as x-? and x=4 when y= 64, find
Va’ the value of y when x= 16. (O &C)
_2evy 7 (a) Given that logo x =p and logy3 y=q, express xy and
se ee
— as powers of 3.
y

WE (b) Solve for x the equation e*+e*—6=0.

8 (a) Simplify (i) 20x82"—5x4"+!; AK (log, 5) x (logs 8).

(A)

Solve the following equations:

(b) Find x and y given that e‘+3e”=3 and e*—9e” =6,
(a) log, 3+log, 27=2; (b) log; x+3log, 3=4.
expressing each answer as a logarithm to base e. (A)
(a) log, 3+log, 27=2 f9 If 2 log, x+2 log, y=5, show that log, x is either 3 or 2.
. log, (3X27) =2 Hence find all pairs of values of x and y which satisfy
i.e. log, 81=2 simultaneously the equation above and the equation
so, Sry? xy =27. (J)
=> x=9 10 (a) Prove that, ifx =log \y (a—by)—log,y a, where a and
b are constants, then y = (a/b)(1—10*).
(b) log; x+3log, 3=4,
Find the value of ywhen a=4, b=2 and x= —2.065.
can be rewritten as (b) Without using tables find the value of
1 log 0.8—log 32+log 8
log; x +3 =4
log3x log 0.7+log 7—log 49
i.e. (log; x)? —4log,; x +3=0. given that log 2=0.30103. All logarithms are to the base 10.
Let log; x=y, then we need to solve, (OLE)
y’—4y+3=0, Mu (a) Find the real value of k such that 10°=e** for all x.
i.e. (v—3)(y—1) =0 X (b) Find g(x) such that x*=e*8 for all x.
Hence, or otherwise, find the derivatives of 10° and of x*
=> y=3 or 1.
with respect to x. (A)
Hence, log;
x =3 > x =3?=27,
or, [Op, ed Se = a.
So, the solutions of the equations are 3 and 27.
x 12 Given that log, x +2 log, y=4, show that xy = 16.
Hence solve for x and y the simultaneous equations:
logio (x+y) =1
logo x +2 logy y=4. _ (A)
ee eae EE
EsEEEEESSSI Sa
SSSI nnn

19
 a)

4Q Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Graphs, Exponential series, Logarithmic series.

Graphs Exponential functions are functions in which the

variable is in the index, or exponent, e.g. a”.
e* is called the exponential function.
e is the number such that the gradient of y=e* at
(0, 1) is 1.

The logarithmic function y=log. x is the inverse of the

exponential function y =e”.

The graph shows the typical exponential and

logarithmic curve shapes.
Figure 1

Exponential _ e“ can be expressed as an infinite series. Li] Calculate e to six significant figures by using the
series es x" series for e* as far as the 10th term.
e=1+=+>4+54..454
iene! n! excels +—+—
{Ants
t= -1°
2 st 9!
The series is valid for all values of x.
Evaluating the terms using a calculator.
The value of e can be calculated to a required degree e=2.718 28 (to six significant figures)
of accuracy by substituting x=1 in the series for e*.

Other exponential functions such as e“ and e***,

olen Lil Expand e* and e**? as far as the as
where k is a constant, can be expressed as infinite *P GHA oss hai
series. seep (3x) , 3x)’, Gx)*,
To write e* as a series, replace x by kx in the sa 1! 2! rie
expansion, so

ee er a
1! 2! 3! n!
; ; e**t?=@7@%
To write e*** as a series, use e***=e*.e*, so
acs a" -e(1+x+2+2+..)
ettaet(1+te ties...) pA SE):
Re A NN n!
These series are valid for all values of x too.

Logarithmic There is no simple series for Inx, but Li Expand In (1—x) as far as the third term and
series Oy ieee 3!) give the range over which it is valid.
ath ge 5
In (14x) =x = =+———F (-x)? (—x)3
21634 4 in (12) = bal (a)
This series converges provided —1<xS1. ill
ka =-xXx----——

To write In (1+kx) as a series, replace x by kx in the 2 US

expansion and find the new range of validity. This series is valid for—1<(—x)<1
i.e. -1<x<1.

To express logarithms of products and quotients as Li] Expand In {(1+x)/(1—x)} as far as the third
eee eee them using the basic rules of term and give the range over which it is stated.
ogarithms first. In {(1+x)/(1 —x)}=In (1+x) —In (1—x)

( Tooke, ( pid ores

=(x-1+2-2+4...)-(-x-L-1-=- 2
D2 So +4

ae ges
=2(x4+242+...]
3.)

The two series are valid if -1<x<1 and —1Sx<1.

So for both to be valid -—1<x<1.

Approximate values of logarithms can be calculated [i] Find the value of In 1.5 to4decimal places.
using logarithmic series. 1+x
sR We use In (*)=1n1.5 i.e. x=0.2.
The series for In (=) is often used for these ee
—%
3 fA ae (0,2)7,.0:2)°
approximations because it converges rapidly. aaa re (1 =o) =2|(0.2) " 3 if 5 “3 |
= 2(0.202731) = 0.4055 (4d.p.)
—_
ees
20
 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Worked examples, Guided example and Exam questions

(a) Expand e'~ as a series of ascending powers of x as far as

— 3 . .

Expand e™ \n (1+2x) in ascending powers of x as far as the

the term in x° and find the general term. term in x*. Write down the range of values of x for which this
(b) Find the first four terms and the term in x” in the expansion series is valid.
of (+ xje"
Expand e * as,far as the term in x’.
(a) el =el et ExpandIn (1+2vx) as far as the term in x*.
—oe \2 = NS Vn ae why there is no need to expand e “as far as the term in
= e[14-0) +O ys goocat +... ba
3 2! 3! n! Multiply the two series obtained together, discarding any
terms which are of order x° or bigger.
wef das by EO" Pog eo Hence you have obtained the required series. Write down the
2 6 n!
ranges of validity for (i) e * and (ii) In (1+2x).
a
Hence, e!~ : SoS h
1 1 €
ey) as far as terms in x’, and
. g
Hence write down the range of values of x over which both
series are valid.
(es en
the general term is a
(EX) 1 Expand as a series of ascending powers of x as far as
(EEX
x se eS x the term in x° and give the set of values of x for which
(b) (4ne'=(149( 1+—+—+—+4...4
pibiat 25, the expansion is valid.
(L)
ele ae ’ :
2 Expand 7 as a series of ascending powers of x.
Vx —Vx
‘ j er ae
Deduce the general term in the expansion of or ar

(L)
(a) Write down the first 4 terms and the term in x” in the
expansion of e*. Prove that the coefficient of x” in the
expansion of (x?+ x)e* is

“when n>2.
(n—1)!
i Al i Deduce that (x7+x)e*—x is always positive when x is
+{—+— }x"+...
n! nl positive.
4 3 ViISx
=1+5\*+ ay? xP en + ea ee (b) Express in ascending powers of x up to and
2! 3! n!

: 5 tt 1
eRe halls ; F
including the term in x’. By substituting x = show that
WE) Express \n teeag:as a series of terms in ascending powers of x
=x pre2755
up to and including the term in x°.
1944 (S)
; V11
Use your series to obtain an approximate value for \n (—
Expand, in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x ho
giving your answer correct to six decimal places.
(a) log. (1—2x); (b) log. (1—3x).
(f= 2x)? as far as rex” and find
De |Gece aera Meg aber Hence expand log. (3x)
3X,
the term in

=} [In (1+x)-—In (1—~x)] the coefficient of x” in this series. Write down the range of
values of x for which this series is valid.
2 3 4 5
(A)
: (x pont ag ES
nn (a) Expand e*log, (1+) in ascending powers of x as far
Me aw ons oe as the term in x‘ and hence show that, for certain values of
9 wDolerSyes 47405 x to be stated,
rae x e“log. (1t+x) +e "log, (1—x) =ax*+...
yp pF
3hwd and give the value of a.
(b) Expand (1+x)~?in ascending powers of x, giving the
He eetVJ then =<1 first four terms and the general term. Hence, without using
poe 10 tables or calculator, obtain the value of 1/V/101, correct to
6 decimal places, showing all working.
Putting x == in the series obtained,
(S)
aD) Pee hate 142% :
3) 10 1000 100000 Express log. AEE. as a Series of terms in ascending
=0.1-+0.000 333+0.000 002 powers of x up to and including the term in x°. Use your
series to obtain an approximate value for log. (5/3), giving
So In (=) =0).100 335, correct to six decimal places.
your answer to 5 decimal places. (A)

21
 11 Coordinates and Graphs
Rectangular cartesian coordinates, Definitions, Drawing graphs, Solutions of equations

TWEE eS TS 4 UU eR oY

Rectangular Rectangular cartesian coordinates determine the YA axis

cartesian position of a point in the plane by reference to: cy ee 4 P(x,y)
coordinates a fixed point O (the origin), y
a pair of perpendicular lines (axes) through O. a (Sele
Any point P can be described by an ordered pair of i) x-axis
numbers (x, y). The x-coordinate (or abscissa) is
given first, the y-coordinate (or ordinate) second.
Figure 1

Definitions Let A, B, C be (x1, yi), (x2, y2), (%3, y3) respectively. i] A, B, C are (2, 3), (4, 7), (7, 3) respectively.

The length of AB is VQi—»2)°+(1-y2)- The length of AB is V(2—4 =V20=2V5

(3-7)?)?+

The peadienpatedsns =" The pradtent of BC (gee 4

Maal 3-7 —4

The midpoint of AB is (3[x1+x2], 3[yit+y2]) The midpoint of AC is (3[2+7], 3[3 +3]) =(43, 3)

The point P which divides AB in the ratio A: is The point P which divides BC in the ratio 1:2 is
oa ae (eereees 1XB42%7) «(5 58)
Atm? Atp / 1+2 ”* 1+2 ae
Area of AABC is A pee
$[x1(yo—y3) + x2(y3—y1) + x3(Y1—y2)] rea O Is
‘ 4(2(7-3)
+4(3—3) +7(3—7)] =10 units?

Drawing To draw the graph of y=f(x) i] Draw the graph of y=4x°—4x’—x +6, plotting
graphs (a) Ascertain the range of values of x and calculate, points for values of x=—2, —1.5, —1, —0.5,..., +2.
to two decimal places, the corresponding values
A table of values gives
of y. The results are usually displayed in a table.
(b) Draw axes Ox and Oy intersecting at right angles be | 9) ikey il Nis) Sree) aril aries) sr
on graph paper. The position of the axes on the
paper is determined by the ranges of values of x
and y. ae et
(c) Choose suitable scales and sensible units (and Co aa 10b
sub-units) for the axes. The graph should use as son 7
much of the graph paper as possible. Different
scales may be used on the axes but they distort
familiar shapes.
(d) Mark the ordered pairs with © or x.
(e) Draw the curve faintly first to obtain a general
impression and then use a heavier line.
When points are required from the graph:
(a) if the point(s) lie between calculated, or given,
values, the process is known as interpolation,
(b) if the graph has to be extended to find the
point(s), the process is known as extrapolation. Figure 2

Solutions of 1. To solve f(x)=0 i] The solution of 4x?>—4x?—11x+6=0 can

equations (a) Draw the graph of y=f(x). be found at the points where the curve
(b) Find the point(s) where the curve cuts the x-axis y=4x°—4x?—-11x+6 cuts the x-axis (y=0). From
the above graph these are where x=—1.5, x= +0.5,
(y=0). x=+2.

PO SONG (2 ie The solution of 4x°>—4x?—11x+10=0

(a) Draw the curve y=f(x) and the line y=a. i.e. 4x°-4x?-11x+6=—4
(b) Find the point(s) where the curve cuts the line. is found from the graph of y=4x>—4x?—11x+6 by
drawing the line y=—4. This line cuts the curve
3. To solve f(x) =0, rewritten as F (x) =G(x) where x~—1.65, x~+0.9, x=+1.75.
(a) Draw the curves y=F(x) and y=G(x) on the
same graph paper using the same axes and scales. The solution of 4x°—4x?—8x+6=0
(b) Find any point(s) of intersection of the curves. __Tewritten as 4x°— 4x?— 11x +6= —3x
This ‘two graph method’ is often used when F(x) is Soe from the graphs of y=4x°—4y!—1ix+ 6and
an algebraic function and G(x) is non-algebraic. gee
Non-algebraic functions, e.g. sin x, log x, are called If y= —3x is drawn on the above graph, it cuts the
transcendental functions. curve where x~—1.35, x~+0.7, x~4+1.65.
eee
22
 Coordinates and Graphs
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

LE
aT Sa aN aE DNE
SSSR NT ID RN UT SRO TOS eS ec
WE] A, B, C are the points (2, 3), (4, 7), (7, 3) respectively. 2 The midpoint of the line joining the points A (3, 0) and
Find (i) the length of AB; B (5, 6) is M. A point C (¢, 4t) is such that CM is
(ii) the coordinates of the midpoint of AC; perpendicular to AB. Calculate: (i) the value of ¢; (ii) the
(iii) the coordinates of the point of trisection of BC; area of the triangle ABC. *(S)
(iv) the angle BAC;
(v) the area of triangle ABC.
(i) neuer of AB= V(2—4)°+ 3-77 Draw the graph y ae plotting values of x at 3-unit
= VIFT6 ne
intervals from x = 3 to x = 4, taking 2 cm to represent a unit
=2V5 units. on both axes. With the same scales and axes, again plotting
(ii) If N is the midpoint of AC, then N has coordinates values of x at 3-unit intervals, draw the graph y=x(4—x)
Gx ) - 9 , from x=0 to x=4. Read off the values of x at their
intersections. Of what equation in x are they roots?
DAI 2 2
*(0 & C)
(ili) If P and Q are the points of trisection as indicated then P
has coordinates Three points have coordinates A(—2, —1), B(6, 9) and
IX7+2x4 1X3 4+2X7 2
C (2 —3). The line through the midpoint of AB parallel to
——— De 5- AC meet the x-axis at X and the y-axis at Y. Calculate the
3 Se 3 coordinates of X and Y. Hence deduce the area of AXOY,
and Q has coordinates where O is the origin.
(res oe) (0.4
Ht *(C)
3 ; 3 3 The points A and B have coordinates (—3, —1) and (7, 4) °
7-3 respectively. Find the coordinates of the point C which
(iv) Gradient of AB=tan of angle BAC= rie =2. divides AB internally in the ratio 2:3. Find also the
equation of the line through B perpendicular to AB.
. ZBAC=63° 26’
*(L)
(v) Area ABC=; [2(3—7)
+ 7(4#<3) + 4(3—3)] A; By-C and Dare: the points (— laos 4)2(2, 922),
(—2, 4, 3) and (9, 9, —40) respectively.
1 , (a) P and Q divide AB internally and externally in the ratic
Ried, = 10 units~
2:1. Find the coordinates of P and Q.
(b) Find the ratio AP: AQ.
(c) M is the midpoint of AD. Find the coordinates of M.
[d3 ora" the graph of y= Biplotting values of x at 3-unit intervals (d) Prove that CP is perpendicular to MQ.
x
from x =% to x =4, using the same scale on both axes. With the (#1)
same scales and axes draw the graph of y=x(3—x) from x =0 Given the three points A (4, 0), B (0, 2) and C (—2, —2),
to x=4 for 3-unit intervals. Read off the values of x at their show that: (i) AB= BC; (ii) AB is perpendicular to BC.
intersections. Of what equation in x are they the roots? A square ABCD is formed. Calculate the coordinates
of D. [A diagram will be found helpful, but a solution using
Table of values for y - measurements from an accurate drawing is not acceptable. |
G
(C)
tole 1 1 2 23 5) ab | 4 The points C(6, 6), O(0, 0) and A(4, 3) are three of the
| 4 | oe
} vertices of a parallelogram COAB:
Wea 2033. 1 | 0.80 4 0x67.) “0°57. 4) 10,50 (i) Calculate the coordinates of the point B;
(ii) Show that the tangent of the acute angle AOC issand
Table of values for y=x(3—x)
hence write down the exact value of the sine of the
angle AOC;
xe 5 1 13 2 23 3 33 4 (iii) Calculate the area of the parallelogram COAB.

POA ee 2.25 482 ete2s VO i 173) 4 (A)

Draw a graph of these two functions.

The values of x at the points of intersection are approximately
1 and 2.75.
Nath
They are the roots of the equation —-=x(3—
x),
%
ieee 3x 4+2=0

1 Three points have coordinates P (—2, —3), Q (2, 9),

R (8, —8): (i) Prove that POR= 90°; (ii) Calculate the area
of APQR; (iii) Calculate the length of PR and hence, or
otherwise, find the perpendicular distance of Q from PR.
“(C)
i ee EU EEEEEE UES RRR

23
 12 The Straight Line
Equations, Perpendicular distance, Pairs of lines.

SASS SN a SPU RS a I ER Se

Equations The general equation of a straight line is The line of gradient m, through (x1, y:) has equation
ax + by+c=0 y-yi=m(x—x1)
where a, b and c are constants. The line through (x1, yi) and (x2, y2) has equation
The line with gradient m and intercept c on the y-axis JED tees
has equation yo2-Yi X2-%1

y=mx+e. If the perpendicular from the origin to the line is of

id length p and at an angle 6 to the x-axis, then the
Note: y=mx passes through the origin (0, 0). equation of the line is
y=c_ is parallel to the x-axis.
x=k (kisaconstant) is parallel to xcos0+ ysinO6=p
ee Note: ax+by+c=0 and xcos6+ ysin @=p represent
The line which cuts the x-axis at (a,0) and the y-axis —_the same straight line if
at (0, b) has equation 3 7 mie (3
=.
zen al ose (a? +B?) V(a? +b?)
a b — c
oe V (a? +b’)
The signs are chosen so as to ensure p is positive.

Perpen- The length of the perpendicular from (x;, y;) to the Li] Show that (—1, 2) and (3, 4) are on opposite
dicular straight line ax+ by+c=0 is sides of the line x+2y=6.
distance Dee bVice
+— Perpendicular distance from (—1, 2) to x+2y—6=0
V (a+b?) i Ce =
al It 2@jiebeed
The perpendicular distance from the origin is taken ViPEZY PENS
as positive.
Points on the same side of a line give the same sign. Perpendicular distance from (3, 4) to x+2y—6=0
Points on opposite sides of a line give different signs. O26) ore
V(1?+27) V5
Since these distances are oppositely signed they are
on opposite sides of the line.

Pairs of lines The angle @ between two straight lines with gradients Li] Find the angle between the lines y=\/3x+2 and
m, and m2 (m,>mz2) is given by V3y=x-4,
tan gens y=V3x4+25m=V3; pee
ne ye
1+mm,

The two lines are (a) parallel if m;=mz, CL Neagle: CLS =

cerca =.
(b) perpendicular if m,m2=—1. +mm2 Way a 3(t+1) 3
1 3

Os
@=tan-!—_=30°
The equations of the bisectors of the angles between Lil Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles
the lines a,x +b,y+c,=0 and @mx+bhoy+c=0 are between 5x+ 12y+4=0 and 3x—4y+1=0.
given by Sxtl2y+4_ 3x—4y+1
The equations are
ayx + by SCA
=
a2x +bry +c2 V(5?+127) ~~V(3?-+(—4)?)
V (at +b) V(a3+b3) >S5(Sx + 12y +4) =+13(3x—4y
+1)
giving 2x— 16y—1=0 and 64x+8y+33=0.

The equation of a line through the intersection of the Li] Find the equation of the line through the origin
lines aix+b,y+c,=0 and ax +b2y+c,=0 is given by and concurrent with 2x —Sy—3=0 and 3x —4y+2=0.
(a,x +byy +c1) +A(a2x
+ bry +c2) =0 Any line concurrent with the given lines has an
where A is a constant. equation of the form
(2 ="Sy ="3) FP AGx =4y+2)=0
A is usually found from the given conditions. Since (0, 0) lies on the required line

—3+2A= 054-5

So the required line is 13x—22y=0.

24
 The Straight Line
Worked examples and Exam questions

(3 A triangle has vertices at A(—4, 10), B(2,2), C(5, 8). Calculate

the coordinates of D, the midpoint of AB. The line through D
parallel to AC meets BC at E. Calculate the equation ofthe line my—-m Sao, ee
Ys k= eee i
DE and the coordinates of the point E. 1+mym, 1+ (-3)(5) yr 22 11
3/\9
D has coordinates (2) =(-1, 6)
< 2 2. Hence tan 0= ae
11
Gradient of AC elke 2
—4-—5 (iii) Let p be the length of the perpendicular from A to DC
A (—4, 10)” then
*. equation of line through D
parallel to AC is = D)
= a neat where (x;, y;) =(—4, 6)
y—6 2

ma CaeamiS UN reer, units

(iv) Length of CD = V(2+1)*+(4—1)*
Equation of BC is =V9+9=3V2 units
.. Area of parallelogram = p X CD =4V2X3V2= 24 units”
ee Ree
cD So
i.e. y—2=2x—4 1 Three points have coordinates A(1, 7) B(7, 5), and
2x—-y=2 [2] C(0, —2). Find: (i) the equation of the perpendicular
The coordinates of E are found by solving [1] and [2] bisector of AB, (ii) the point of intersection of this
[1]—[2] 10y=SO y=5 perpendicular bisector and BC.
*(C)
y=Sin [2], x=3.5
’. coordinates of E are (3.5, 5).
2 The midpoint of the line joining the points A(7,3) and
B(-—1,—5) is C. Find both values of k if the straight line
The points A(—4, 6) and C(—1, 1) are opposite vertices of a joining C to the point P(k’, k) is perpendicular to AB.
parallelogram ABCD. The sides BC, CD of the parallelogram
lie along the lines “(A)
x+3y—2=0 and x-—y+2=0 3 The perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points
respectively. Calculate: (1, 2) and (5, 4) meets the y-axis at the point (0, k).
Calculate k.
(i) the coordinates of D;
(ii) the tangent of the acute angle between the diagonals of *(S)
the parallelogram; 4 P and Q are the points of intersection of the line
(iii) the length of the perpendicular from A to the side CD;
(iv) the area of the parallelogram. ~42— 1; (e055 >0);
a b
Gradient of BC and AD is —3.
Gradient of AB and CD is 1. with the x and y axes respectively. The distance PQ is 10
Equation of AD is and the gradient of PQ is —2. Find the value of a and b.
y—6 1 “(C)
yeah 3 5 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line
joining the points A (0, 8) and B (4, 2).
*(S)
6 The triangle OAB has vertices O (0, 0), A (25, 0) and
B (18, 24). Prove that AO= AB and find the equation of
the internal bisector of the angle OAB. Given that the
internal bisector of the angle AOB is x —2y =0, deduce the
equation of the circle which touches the sides of the triangle
i.e. 3y—18=-—x—-4 OAB and has its centre inside this triangle. State the
x+3y=14 [1] coordinates of the point of contact of the circle with the
Similarly, equation of AB is x-y=—10 [2] side OB.
Given equation of BC is x+3y=2 [3] (O & C)
and equation of CD is x—-y= —2 [4]
7 The equations of the sides of a triangle ABC are:
OitI=Ish, . adv 216. ya AB x—2y+11=0, BC y=7, AC 2x—y+7=0.
y=4 in [4] gives x=2 Without using tables or calculator, find: (i) the tangent
*. coordinates of D are (2, 4). of the angle BAC; (ii) the area of the triangle ABC.
Gi) (3]-[2] 4y=12, y=3 (A)
y=3 in [2] gives x= —7
*. coordinates of B are (—7, 3).
a ee 5
m,= gradient AC=
—44+1 -3 3
‘lee
my = gradient BD = —— =—

25
 13 The Circle
Equations, Tangents, Intersecting circles.

EPR YS Tag RRA I I CS SE

Equations The general equation of a circle is of the form Li] Find the coordinates of the centre and the radius
. : x°+y?+2gx +2fy+c=0 of the circle given by 3x°+3y’+6x+12y+9=0.
It isi a second dai oa lee tion
: : in which
: The circle equation can be rewritten as
(@) ie eee of x* and y* are unity, x+y2+2x+4y+3=0

hie Aceh aati, , = Comparing this with the general equation of a circle
ie 50 =
and radius V(g?+f?—c). x+y’ +2gx
+afyte=0
gives g=1, f=2, c=3.
The circle, centre (a, b), radius r, has equation So, the centre of the circle is (—1, —2),
(x-a)?+(y—b)*=r’ its radius is V(1?+2?—-3)=V2.
If (a, b) is the origin, the circle equation is
v+yt=/

The equation of the circle on AB as diameter where Li] The equation of the circle with (0, 0) and (2, 2)
A is (x1, y;) and B is (x2, y2) is given by as end points of a diameter is given by
(x —x1)(x —x2) +(y ~yi(y —y2) =0 (x—0)(x-2) + (y —0)(y —2) =0
i.e. x?+y?—2x-2y=0

To find the equation of a circle through three points Li] Find the equation of the circle which
(a) Substitute the coordinates of each point in turn circumscribes the triangle with vertices (1, 0), (2, 1)
in the general equation of the circle. and (0, 2).

Ca aree imul tions

(c) Substitute g, f and c in the general equation.
to find
Substituting the coordinates in turn gives
1+2g+c=0;
5+4¢9+2f+c=0;
4+4f+c=0
Solving these equations gives g=—2, f=—%, c=.
Hence the equation of the circle is
3x? + 3y*—5x-7y+2=0.

Tangents The equation of the tangent at (x1, yi) to the circle Li] Find the equation of the tangent at (1, —2) to the
x’+y?+2ex +2fy+c=0 circle 2x?+2y?—3x+4y+1=0.
is xxityyit
g(x tx) +f(y ty) te=0
Note the relation between these equations: Rewrite the circle equation as
X?>xx1, yyy, x(x +x1), 2y>(y ty). x +y’—$x+2y +4=0
So the tangent equation is
To find the condition that y=mx-+c be a tangent to (1)x + (—2)y —3(x +1) +(y —2) +4=0
x?+y?+2gx+2fy
+c=0, see Ineo 23 = Zhy = =

The length of the tangent from (x;, y:) to the circle Li] Find the length of the tangent from (—5, 8) to
x?+y’+2gx +2fy+c=0 is the circle x°+y?—4x—6y+3=0.
2 2
V(xit+ yit 2gxit 2fyitc). The length of the tangent is
V[(—5)?+8?-4(—5) —6(8) +3]= V64=8

Intersecting The equation of any circle through the intersections of Li] Find the equation of the circle which
circles the circles passes through the point (—3, 1) and the points
x+y? +2¢\x+2fiy+c,=0 of intersection of x°+y?—y-—5=0 and
and x+y? +2eox+2hyte,=0 x+y*+2x+5y—1=0.
is given by an equation of the form
(x? +y?+2e.x+2fiy tc) + A circle through the intersection of the given circles
A(x?+y? + 2gox
+ 2foy +7) =0
has equation of the form
where A is a constant.
(x7+y?—y—5) +A + y*4 Debby S1)=0.
Since (—3, 1) must lie on this circle
A is usually found from the given conditions. [(—3)?+ 1?- 1-5] + A[(—3)?+ 17+ 2(-3) +5(1) - 1] =0

If A=—1, the equation reduces to a straight line. This

>i=-}
is the common chord of the two circles and is known So the required equation is
as the radical axis of the circles. (x? +y*—y —5)—-4(x?+y?+2x +5y—1) =0
ie. x°+y?-2x-7y—-9=0

26
 The Circle
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WE Find the values of c such that the line x+y =c shall be a tangent
to the circle x’ +y*—4x+2=0. For each value of c find the co-
Note: The section formula could also be used to find the
coordinates of D, the point of contact, which is the point
ordinates of the point of contact. Draw a sketch of the circle dividing AB in the ratio R,:R>.
and the two tangents. Let y=mx be the line through the origin tangential to C;.
To find the points of intersection of x+y=c and Applying the tangency condition gives m= +1.
x*+y?—4x+2=0 put y=c—x in the circle equation. So the required tangent is y= —x.
a x°+(c—x)’—4x+2=0, Similarly let y= Mx be the required tangent to C.
ie. 2x?—x(2c+4) +(2+c?) =0 {1]
Ifx+y =c isa tangent to the circle then this quadratic will have
equal roots,
i.e. A=b*—4ac=0
i.e. (2c+4)?—4 x 2(2+c7) =0
4c* + 16c+16—16—8c?=0
—4c?+16c=0, -.c=0or4
Apply the tangency condition to find the value of M.
The equations of the tangents are x+ y=0 and
The angle between the tangents will be
x+y=4
calculated as 6, hence the required angle a is easily found.
c=0 in [1] gives x= 1, when x+y =0 gives y= —1
c=4 in [1] gives x=3, when x+y=4 gives y=1
. the coordinates of the points of contact are (1, —1) and
1 Obtain the equation of the circle which passes through the
G, 1).
origin and has its centre at the point (3, —4). The line
The diagram below is a sketch of the circle and the two y=x—6 meets this circle at the points P and Q. Find the '
tangents. coordinates of P and Q. Calculate the distance PQ.
x+y=4
123)
2 Find the distance between the centres of the circles
x°+y?+6y+8=0and x*+y?— 12x —10y—60=0 and prove
that these circles touch one another. Obtain the equation
of the smallest circle that passes through the centres of the
given circles.
*(S)
3 Prove that the circles x?+y*+2x+2y =23 and x?+y?—
x+y=0 10x —7y +31 =0 touch each other externally, and calculate
the coordinates of the point of contact. (A graphical
solution will not be acceptable.)
Find the centre and radius of each of the circles C, and Cy whose *(O &C)
equations are x°+y*—16y+32=0, x*+y*—18x+2y+32=0
respectively and show that the circles touch externally. Find 4 [In this question the use of tables, a calculator or accurate
the coordinates of their point of contact and show that the drawing is forbidden.]
common tangent at that point passes through the origin. The The triangle ABC has vertices A (0, 12), B (—9, 0),
other tangents from the origin, one to each circle, are drawn. C (16, 0). Find the equations of the internal bisectors of the
Find, correct to the nearest degree, the angle between these angles ABC and ACB. Hence, or otherwise, find the
tangents. equation of the inscribed circle of the triangle ABC. Find
also the equation of the circle passing through A, B and C.
Find the centre and radius of C.
Find the centre and radius of C).
(C)
Find the distance between the centres and show that it is equal 5 Find the equation of the circle which touches the line
to the sum of the radii, thus showing that the circles touch y =x at the point (4, 4) and whose centre lies on the line
externally. which passes through the point (—1, —3) and the origin.
Eliminate x ? and y” from the equations of C, and C) to obtain Deduce the equation of the circle which touches the line
x = y which is substituted into C; giving a quadratic in x (or y) y =x at the point (4, 4) and whose centre is on the line
which has equal roots, thus the coordinates of the point of 3y =x. Find the equations of the three tangents common to
contact can be found. A sketch at this stage is useful. the two circles.
(O&C)

6 The points A and B have coordinates (8, 0) and (0, 6)

respectively and O is the origin. Find the equation of:
(i) the circumcircle; (ii) the inscribed circle of the triangle
AOB.
(A)

27
 )

1 Conic Sections
Definitions, Summary for parabola, ellipse and rectangular hyperbola.

Definitions A conic section is the locus of a point in a plane such (directrix)

that its distance from a fixed point (the focus) in the
plane bears a constant ratio (the eccentricity) to its
distance from a fixed straight line (the directrix) in
the plane.
The value of e determines the type of curve obtained.
If e=o, the locus is a pair of straight lines.
If e=0, the locus is a circle.
If e=1, the locus is a parabola.
If 0<e<1, the locus is an ellipse. PF
If e>1, the locus is a hyperbola. Pn > & (eccentricity)
If e= V2, the locus is a rectangular hyperbola. Figure 1

Summary The most frequently used information about the parabola, ellipse and rectangular hyperbola is summarised in
for parabola, the table below.
ellipse and
rectangular
hyperbola

Axes chosen so that the focus is Axes chosen so that the focus is Both axes are asymptotes to the
(a, 0) and the directrix is : oe a curve.
x+a=0.
(ae, 0) and the directrix is x=-.
e

Lines of X-axis x-axis and y-axis Lines y=+x

symmetry

Tangent of y=mx+2cV —m
gradient m y=mx+V (am? +b’) (Note: tangents only exist
m
for m<0)

Tangent at
(x1, 1) Vee ate Ny
Condition 2
=In al? + b?m? =n? 2—
that
lke+my=n
be a tangent

Normal at Beg ti phd i) eypee) —yy,=x-yi?

(x1, y1) (y-yi)= ry (waa)
y1 x}

Parametric x=ar, y=2at x=acos $, y=bsin d

equation

Tangent bx cos-~+ay sin p=ab xt+f’y—2ct=0

in terms
of parameter

Normal ax sin ¢— by cos

in terms =(a’—b’)sin pcos > Px—y—cP +-=0
of parameter

28
 Conic Sections
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

eA R
LT DTI ERS I AG SN OBS

WE Draw a sketch of the parabola y*=4x. Prove that the point

(?, 20) lies on the parabolafor all values oft.The line 2x +3y =8
The distance OP can be found immediately (using the distance
formula). The coordinates of N are found by solving the
cuts the parabola at the points A and B. D(t*, 2t), E(1—2) and normal equation with the equation y =x.
F(4, —4) are three other points on the parabola. The distance PN can now be found and the result follows.
(t#1 excludes the normal which coincides with the line y = x).
(i) Calculate the coordinates of the midpoint of AB.
Write down (or derive) the equation of the tangent at P, solve
(ii) Prove that the normal at D to the parabola has the equation
ix+y=2t+P. this equation with the equation y =x to give the coordinates
Oi Il.
(tii) Prove that the normals at E and F meet on the parabola.
(iv) Find the coordinates of the point C on the parabola where Write down expressions for OT and ON (using the distance
formula) form the product OT.ON and the required result is
the tangent to the curve is parallel to the line 5y = 8x-1.
easily obtained.

1 Find, in terms of h, the equation of the tangent to the curve

y =x’ at the point P, whose x co-ordinate is h. This tangent
intersects the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B. The midpoint
of AB is Q.
(i) Find the co-ordinates of Q in terms of h.
(ii) Find the equation of the locus of Q as h varies.
(iii) Given that h=4, find the co-ordinates of the point at
which PQ produced meets the locus again.
(©)
The sketch is as shown.
For the point (1, 2), nN Sketch the parabola x=, y =2t.
4y=AP = (22) = y* Show that the equation of the tangent to the parabola at the
point with parameter f,, is :y=x+¢j. The tangent to the
Ay = 4 for, all t.
parabola at the point A is parallel to the line 3y =x + 6. Find
Solve 2x+3y =8 and y*= 4x to find the coordinates of A the coordinates of A and the equations of the tangent
and B. and normal to the parabola at A. Given that the normal
y’+6y—16=0, i.e. (y+8)(y—2)=0 at A meets the parabola again at the point B, find the
y=—8 gives x= 16, (16, —8) are the coordinates of B. coordinates of B.
y=2 givesx=1, (1, 2) are the coordinates of A. The tangent at A meets the x-axis at D and the line AB
meets the same axis at E. Find the lengths of DE, AE and
(i) M, the midpoint of AB, has coordinates (z.3). AD.
(11) Bookwork. *(W)
(iii) The normal at E has equation —x+y = -—3
3 Show that the equation of the tangent to the parabola
i.e. x—y=3 [1]
y* =4ax at the point (af’, 2a?) is ty =x+ar. The three
The normal at F has equation —2x+y=—12 points P, Q, R on the curve have parameters p, q, r
Le. 2y-y = 12 [2] respectively. The tangents at P, Q meet the tangent at R at
[2]—[1] x=9, y=6. the points A and B respectively. Given that B is the
.. the normals at E and F meet at Q(9, 6). mid-point of AR, show that 2qg=p+r. In this case, show
y* =36=4x9=4x, as required for Q to lie on the parabola. that the tangent at Q is parallel to PR.
(iv) The required tangent has gradient : (C)
Gradient at the required point on the parabola is 4 Derive the equations of the tangent and the normal to the
PEA,
ellipse ee 1 at the point P (a cos ¢, b sin t). The
are 4 64 a
. Sie) normal at P meets the axes at the points Q and R. Lines are
.. C has coordinates & aL drawn parallel to the axes through the points QO and R;
64 4
these lines meet at the point V. Find the coordinates of V,
and prove that, as P moves round the ellipse, the point V
GE Prove that the normal to the hyperbola xy=c* at the point

P(ct, c/t) has equation y= xt — ct’. If the normal at P meets

moves round another ellipse, and find its equation.
(OLE)
5 Find the equation of the chord joining the points P(cp, c/p),
the line y =x at N, and O is the origin, show that OP = PN pro-
Q(cq, c/q) on the rectangular hyperbola xy =c*. Deduce
vided that t#1. The tangent to the hyperbola at P meets the line
y=x at T. Prove that OT.ON= Ae the equation of the tangent at P. If the tangents at the
points P, Q ona rectangular hyperbola, centre O, intersect
at T, show that OT cuts PQ at M, the midpoint of PQ.
Bookwork (O&C)
6 The normals to the parabola y* = 4x at the points P(p*, 2p)
and Q(q’, 2q) are perpendicular and meet at R. Show that
pq=-—1. Given that the coordinates of R are (p’?+q*+1,
p+q), find the equation of the locus of R.
(A)

29
 15 Loci
Definition, Equation of a locus, Parametric equations.

Definition A locus (plural loci) is the set of points having a Li]Ww: The locus of points
given property. equidistant from two given
Only loci where all the points lie in a plane will be points is the perpendicular
considered here An" :
bisector of the line joining
. . t :

In locus problems it is useful to sketch a diagram _ Hig We gn oe

with points marked in roughly correct positions using The'ioeds oF points
Bete es PxOper equidistant from a given —
point is a circle, centre
the given point.

Figure 1

Equation A locus can be expressed as an equation. [iJ A point is equidistant from the x-axis and the
of a locus point F(0, 2). Find the locus of the point.
If a typical point P of the locus has coordinates ;
(x, y), then it is usually possible to write the given A typical point P(x, y)
condition(s) in terms of x and y (and no other is shown in the sketch.
variable) and so obtain the general equation for the =P’ is equidistant from
locus. the x-axis and F(0, 2).

“.PF=PN Figure 2
But PF= V[(x—0)?+(y—2)7]
=V[x2+ (y-2)7]
andPN=y
So V[x?+(y—2)"] =y 2
ee. Pym Ay+4aypy=— 41.

This locus is a parabola, with F

Oy as the axis of symmetry,
vertex ‘down’, through (0, 1). O
Figure 3

Parametric Locus problems often involve parametric equations. Li] Find the locus of the midpoint of a chord of the
equations Each point used in the problem has a parametric circle x°+ y*=a’ which subtends an angle of 90° at the
value associated with it. Different points have centre.
different parametric values. For example, (af, 2at)
and (af{, 2at,) would represent two points on the Ifp has parametric coordinates
parabola y*=4ax. (acos 0, asin @),
and Q has parametric coordinates
The cartesian equation (in x and y) of the locus may
(a cos ¢, asin ¢),
be found by eliminating the parameters using the
given conditions. then the midpoint M of the
chord PQ has coordinates
: ; Figure4
Sometimes it is not necessary to eliminate each acos @+acos d asin 0@+asin@
parameter separately as fixed combinations of the SY SSS.
2 ba 2
parameters occur in the working. For example, t+t
and ft; are frequently occurring combinations in Since the chord PQ subtends an angle of 90° at the
centre, $—0=90°>p= 0+ 90°.
many problems (see WE} Ne
Further conditions are given to enable values for the Sox=5(cos 6+ cos(8+90°)); y=F(sin 8+sin(@+ 90°))
parameter combinations to be obtained.
>2x =a(cos 6—sin 0); 2y=a(sin 6+ cos 6)
Squaring and adding gives
4x’ + 4y’=a’(cos @—sin 6)?+ a*(sin 6+ cos 6)?
=a’(cos* @+sin? 6-2 cos @sin 6
+ sin’ 6+ cos? @+2 cos @sin 0)
=a(1+1)
i.e. 4x?+ 4y?=2¢?
= apes
2
This is the required locus which is a circle,
centre (0, 0), radius
a

30
 Loci
Worked examples and Exam questions

ESS I ENE ST me I TiN SaE SR

WE] O is the origin and Q is a point on the circle x? + y*—4x+3=0. Substitute for (t+ 7) from the midpoint value of x to give
Find the equation of the locus of P, the point of trisection of OO ox
nearest to O. Identify the locus. y=——-,, i.e. xy = 2Xecocy:
x
x°+y?—4x+3=0 represents the circle centre (2, 0) and he =
radius V4+0—3=1.
(EX) 1 Itis known that the point P is such that the sum
of the squares of its distances from the lines y = 0,
V3x+y —2V3=O0and V3x—y+2V3=(0is 6 units. Use
the fact that the perpendicular distance of the point (h, k)
from the line ax+ by +c=0is
(Sree |
AVY
Let Q have coordinates (p, q), then P has coordinates to prove that the locus of P is a circle touching the x-axis.
P q (You are advised not to approximate to V3 at any stage of
@ 1),being the point of trisection of OQ nearest to O. your working.)
*(0 & C)
Representing by (X, Y) the coordinates of P
2 Acurve is defined by parametric coordinates x = V3 cos t,
a yee y=sin t.
3 3 (i) Sketch the section of the curve for values of ¢ in the
i.e. p=3X, q=3Y range 0<t<z.
As (p, q) lies on the given circle (ii) Show that the gradient of the curve at the point
9X7+9Y2-12X¥+3=0 (V3 cos f,, sin ty) 1S — (cot t)/V3.

As (p, q) varies the locus of P will be (iii) The gradient of the curve at the point P is 3. Calculate
the coordinates of P and find the area of the triangle whos:
9x?+ 9y?—12x
+3 =0 vertices are P and the two points of intersection of the curve
d the x-axis.
Write this equation as x7+y*— >ar ;=0 ir ce Se *(S)

: 2, : 3 A curve is defined parametrically by the equations

representing a circle centre 3 0} and radius
x=f-6t+4, yatn34e Find (i) the equations of the
4 1 TS Gal
\)g 0- ) oeoak normals to the curve at the points where the curve meets
the x-axis; (ii) the coordinates of their point of
; ; : > ; intersection.
Find the locus of the midpoints of the chords of xy =c° which *(C)
pass through (6c, 4c).
4 Find the equations of the loci of points which are:
Let P(ct, c/t) and Q(cT, c/T) bet oints on xy =c’.
Bg oe ee Se eae Pam ae (i) equidistant from A (1, 5) and B (3, 1); (ii) equidistant
ee ene aso Ordnatee from C (7, -1) and D (15, 5). Verify that A, B, C, D
4 ck ane) all lie on a circle, and find the equation of this circle.
ep area (0 &C)
Equation of PQ is 5. Sketch the curve given parametrically by x=, y=P.
y—-clt c/T-clt i= 'F 1 (1] Show that an equation of the normal to the curve at the
= = * point A(4, 8) isx+3y—28 =0. This normal meets the x-axis
x—ct ef—ct 11(T—2) zi at the point N. Find the area of the region enclosed by the
It is required that the chord passes through the point (6c, 4c), arc OA of the curve, the line segment AN and the x-axis.
so substituting into [1] gives ‘ Gi.)

eee ot 6 Show that the equation of the normal to the parabola

6c—ct tT y’=4ax at the point P(ar’, 2at) is y+tx =2at+ar’. If this
E - normal meets the x-axis at Q shows that the midpoint M ot
oe oe ae ff [2] PQ has the coordinates (a+ar’, at). If P is a variable point
From the midpoint (6c, 4c) on the parabola, find the cartesian equation of the locus
coordinates Q (cT, c/T) of M.
cick Ch-BGk, (A)
x= and y= ———
ae 7 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve ay” = x° at the
These equations together with [2] enable t and T to be point (af’, at’) and prove that, apart from one exceptional
eliminated. case, the tangent meets the curve again. Find the
= FWat ae dinates of the point of intersection. What is the
From [2] iL Mot T) -5,and substituting into the midpoint Pains ied P
(O & C)
c(t+ T)
value of y gives y=
i(¢+T)-3
0 i I —————
 te

16 Polar Coordinates
Definition, Relation with cartesian coordinates, Curve sketching, Common curves.

Definition Polar coordinates determine the position of a point

in a plane by reference to: P(r, @)
a fixed point (the pole),
a fixed line through the pole (the initial line).
The point P in the diagram has polar coordinates initial line
(r, 8.)
r is conventionally taken as positive.
—1<0<a2 with O is the pole eer
8 positive when measured anticlockwise,
6 negative when measured clockwise.

Relation with There is a simple relationship between polar and Li] (a) Equation of a circle radius a, centre (0, 0)
cartesian cartesian coordinates. is x°+y’=a’ in cartesian coordinates.
coordinates —_[f a point P has Substituting x=rcos 6, ed sin 0 gives
cartesian coordinates (x, y) _ _ P(cos’ 6+sin* 8) =a'>r=a.
and polar coordinates (r, 9), So r=a is the polar equation.
then to change from one ; ms:
system to the other use (b) Consider the curve whose polar equation is
x=rcos 0 r=acos @.
mote x eae x
y=rsin 6 Se tal Substituting r= V(x?+y?) and cos 9=——>—— gives
V(x? +y?)
Ore ee ondian epee Figure 2 x’+y’—ax=0 as cartesian equation,
x i.e. a circle, centre (3a, 0), radius 3a.

Curve To sketch a curve r=f(0) Li] Sketch the curve whose polar equation is
sketching (a) Tabulate values of r for some special values of 0, | '=4 Cos @.
~ from —180° to 180°. 3
(b) Plot the corresponding points. Tabuisnnig © ad ee

Although polar graph paper is available, a sketch on

plain paper is usually required.

ee
G| 30° |e | SG | 1208)
ee 5 2508 oe

on
r 10.8642! Pe
0.5a! eo
O 1-0.5a

Since we consider r=0,

the curve will not exist
for —180°<6< —90° or
for 90°< @<180°.
Plotting the remaining
points and sketching the
curve gives a circle,
centre (3a, 0), radius 3a. Figure 3

Common Straight line Circle

curves Consider a line € as shown. r=a is a circle, centre the pole, radius a.
p is the perpendicular distance r=acos @is a circle with the pole on its
from the pole O to the line @. circumference and the initial line a diameter.
p is inclined at an angle a to
the initial line. In AOPA, In general, if the circle has
p=OP cos (6-«@) centre (c, a) in polar
i.e. p=rcos(@— a) coordinates and radius a, then
is one form of the polar by the cosine rule in AOCP, AK
equation of a straight line. Figure 4 =r+c’—2rc cos(@—«) O ——
is its polar equation.

Cardioid
r=a(1+cos 6) Parabola
is a cardioid as shown. 2a=r(1—cos @)
This polar equation is simpler is a parabola with the pole eo—a,
than the cartesian form: at the focus (a, 0) as shown.
+aV(x2-+y2)=x2+y2
BURNLEY asta Figure 5
Its cartesian equation is
y=4a(x+a).
Figure 7

32
 Polar Coordinates
Worked examples and Exam questions

WE] Draw the curve whose polar equation is r’=cos 20.

For —180°<6<—135°, —360°<20<—270° and cos 20=0,

hence r°>0.
For —135°<6< —45°, —270°<20<—90° and cos 20<0,
hence 7*<0 and so the curve will not exist for this range of
valuesof 6.
For —45°<0@<45°, —90°<20<90° and cos 20=0,
hence r°>0.
For 45°<6< 135°, 90°<2@<270° and cos 20<0, hence
<0 and so the curve will not exist for this range of values of
6.
For 135°<@<180°, 270°<26<360° and cos 20=0, hence
=0.
The curve is symmetrical about the initial line because
cos(—26) = cos(26).
A table of values for —180°<@<—135° and —45°<@<0°
_will enable the complete curve to be drawn.
Solve r=2+2 cos 6 and r=6 cos @ to find the coordinates of
Cm toOmie— ll Ose nOoe aK Oe||alas |)ila) 1)a Bye
P and Q, i.e. 2+2 cos €=6 cos @ giving cos 0=5 and Ore
PON S00. |S 50m C40 SOUmie— Oo20enl ol alk S00. |2007
or —~ and so r=3.
r 1 0.99 |0.97 | 0.93 | 0.88 |0.80 | 0.71 | 0.58
.. the coordinates of P are (3.5)and of Q are (3.= =):

@ |—140°|—135°| —45° | —40° -35°| = {IP |]Ss] 2X0 |)alle Let p be the perpendicular distance from O to PQ,
mu 1 :
m3
20 -2a0|-270 Oe OO eeOng OU me | As E: p=3 cos oa
: - |
r 0.42 0 0 (0.2 |0.58 0.71 | 0.80 | 0.88 | 0.93 . the polar equation of PQ is r cos o=3

The equation of the half-line OP is 0= gz

—§° 0°
3

=U | 0° Let q be the perpendicular distance from O to the line through

| =e, lsee P parallel to the initial line.
oe 1
v3
q=OP sin = =3x-—
3 2
.. the polar equation of the specified line is
3
r COS (0-2) =3~P or rsin 9-33

1 On the same diagram, sketch the curves given in polar

AW
Ze
Yyy coordinates by the equations: r=1+cos 6; r=3 cos 0.
\\
ne Zz, HM |\\
~sS These curves intersect at the pole O and the points P and Q,
Ei Ai\\i NS where P lies in the first quadrant. Find the polar equations
esse /MillIN of the line PQ and of the half-line OP. Find also the polar
DOS equation of the straight line through P parallel to the initial
line. (L)

2 Write down the polar equations relative to the origin O of:

T \

4NO CURVE\ (i) a circle, radius a, centre O;

° TAL nae (ii) a straight line with one end at O and making an angle
a with the initial line;
(iii) a straight line parallel to the initial line and distant c
from it;
This curve is called a lemniscate. (iv) a straight line through the point with polar
coordinates (d, 0) and making an angle £ with the
initial line. (O & C)
On the same diagram, sketch the curves given in polar co-
ordinates by the equations r=2+2 cos 8 and r=6 cos 6. 3 Sketch on the same diagram the curves given in polar
These curves intersect at the pole O and at the points P and Q, coordinates by the equations: r=a(1+cos 6);
where P is in the first quadrant. Find the polar equation of the 4r cos = 3a, where a>0. These curves intersect at P and Q
line PQ and of the half line OP. Find also the polar equation of Show that PQ is of length 3V3a/2. Obtain the polar
the straight line through P parallel to the initial line. equation of the circle which passes through the pole O and
r=2+2 cos @ is a cardioid with cusp at the pole. touches PQ at the point where it intersects the half-line
r=6 cos @ is a circle centre (3, 0) and radius 3. 6=0. a (de)
ee
33
 17 Experimental Laws
Introduction, Linear relations, Non-linear relations.

x RUA DL a a a
Introduction It is often necessary to find a relationship between two connected quantities. A table of experimental data,
showing corresponding values of the two quantities, and a suggestion as to the form of the expected
relationship are given. The data are usually displayed graphically and, if the expected relationship is
confirmed, the graph is used to obtain the unknown constants in this relationship.

Linear The simplest case is when the expected relation is a Li] The following data ! are believed
( to satisfy a law
relations straight line of the form y=mx+c. of the form y=ax+b. Find suitable values of a and b.
In this case simply plot y against x. If the points
plotted lie approximately on a straight line then the
given linear relation is approximately true. yo.) 5:8 08.78 1250450. 1814--20,9
The points rarely lie exactly on a straight line, so the
line of ‘best fit’ is drawn ‘by eye’. Consequently there From the graph;
is usually a small range of values in which acceptable
answers will lie. The gradient of the
The values of m and c can be found from the graph line gives
by
either (a) finding the gradient (m) of the line and its gat 29 9
intercept (c) on the y-axis, 4.1
or (b) substituting the coordinates of two points ee Or enn 2
on the line in y=mx+c and solving the ee 5 sy
resulting simultaneous equations. ;
Note: Do not use given values to find m and c since So
they may not give points on the line of ‘best fit’. (
y=2.9x+ 6.2

Non-linear __ If the expected relation is not in the form y=mx+c, Li] The data of the following table are thought to
relations then it must be transformed to a linear form before obey a law of the form y=ax’+b. Find suitable values
proceeding as before. The transformations for some for aand b.
common relationships are given below.

Relationships of the form y=ax"+b (n known)

Compare y=ax"+b
with Y=mX+c
Compare y =ax*+b
Plot Y=y against X=x” to give a straight line. with Y=mX+c
Gradient gives a, ‘Y-intercept’ gives b.
Constructing a table for X=x* and Y=y gives
Relationships of the form Loupe
we ae Gs X(=x’) | 0 1 2 9
; 1 el
Rewrite as -=—-+-. Y(=y¥), [Sons aera?
Vet Xi.d
Compare with Y=mX+c. The straight line represents Y=aX+b.
Gradient gives a, ‘Y-intercept’ gives b.
huis ¢ : : ;
Plot Y=- against X ao to give a straight line.
y x From the graph:
wor vee earl
Gradient is —1, ‘Y-intercept’ gives -. Gradient gives
a
_70
Relationships of the form y=ax" (n unknown) HEH ro Ls 9
He
Fefatefetapapalats falape eye Ren
Rewrite y=ax" HH saaecunuene Y-intercept’ gives
as log y=n log x +log a. Ry b==6

siti So,
HEC
Compare with Y=mX+c
Plot Y=log y against X=log x to give a straight line.
ann y- 70 be
Gradient gives n, ‘Y-intercept’ gives log a.
9
Relationships of the form y=ab*
i.e.
Rewrite y=ab*
as log y=x log b+loga a0
SSMS
Compare with Y=mX+c . 9
Plot Y=log y against X=x to give a straight line.
Gradient gives log b, ‘Y-intercept’ gives log a. Figure 2

34
 Experimental Laws
Worked example and Exam questions

WE]related by the equation

The following corresponding values of x and y are believed to be
y=x+ax°.
values, plot logio y against log;y x and hence estimate a
and b.
G 0.6 12 1.8 2.4 3.0
cae 4 Se; | 10 y 0.35 1.04 1:95 3.06 4.33 *(S)

ly|
7.54 |
9.33 | 11.00 12.59|14.12 | 19.90 4 The variables x and y satisfy an equation of the form
y=ax", where a and k are constants. Express logy y in
Draw a suitable graph to show that this may be so, and use your terms of logy x.
graph to find the probable values of a and b. In an éxperiment values of y corresponding to values of x
are as given in the table below:
Write y=x+ax? as y—x=ar?. Be 1.6 2.0 2.8 3.9 5.0
Taking logarithms gives log\) (y—x)=logiy a+b logo x y Sel diel 1 192 28.0
Let logio (v—x)=Y and logy x =X By drawing a straight-line graph estimate to one decimal
1.e. Y=logig at+bX place the values of a and k. Use your graph to estimate:
(a) the value of x when y= 10;
i.e. a straight line with slope b and y-intercept logiy a
(b) the value of y when x = V10. *(A)
5 Measured values of x and y are given in the following table:
= — = = —— — = ee

Ve deste 933°) L100 1 122597 142” | 19790 XG 1 2 8) as 5 6 v)

ss —} _| = —— = ‘ile ac =

JOSS || Sete |RSS! 7.00 VfB) Seal, 9.90 Vor coed 4.6 | 4.2 3.8 32 2.4 1.4
— et =
ee ee

=logu(—x) | OF74") O80 0:85 |) 0:88 | 40.91 1.00 Itiis known that x and y are related by the equation
Sa a ee ee ee ee ee
y?=atbx. Explain how astraight line graph may be drawn
X=logiox | 0.30 | 0.48 0.60 0.70 0.78 1.00 to represent the given equation and draw it for the values
given. Use the graph to estimate the value of a and b.
The graph is drawn as shown. Estimate the greatest possible value of x. “ey
6 Given that the values of x and y in the table below are
From the graph b= airkace 0.50
experimental values of variables that satisfy y=ax+b,
estimate graphically the constants a and b.
logio a 0.6, a=3.98

* y= x43. 98x9-% Xela. 4 7, 8 10

Y = log,oly — x) m5 Ius| 1.8-— E28 50.50.96 0,2 (L)
7 Rewrite the following equations in suitable form to display
a linear relationship in each case between two of the
variables, x, In x, y and In y.

(a) ae (by Se 6 (L)

8 A relation of the form y= ae* + b is known to exist between
two variables x and y. By plotting y against e*, use the
following table of experimental values of x and y to
estimate the constants a and b to 1 significant figure.

145.6 | 387.2
(L)
X = 109,9X
ee) ees oe | be 1 — = v | 5 10 15 20 25
0.1),°02 03 04 05 O06 07 08 09 1.0

R 149 175 219 280 359

1 It is believed that two variables x and y are related by
y =ka*, where k and a are constants. For the following The table shows corresponding values of variables R andv
values, plot log;9 y against x and hence estimate k and a. obtained in an experiment. By drawing a suitable linear
XG 0.5 1 v4 4 graph, show that these pairs of values may be regarded as
y 0.28 0.45 1:45 1203S) approximations to values satisfying a relation of the form
R=a+bv’ ,where aand bare constants. Use your graph to
2 The points (0.5, 0.265), (1.6, 1.352), (2.1, 1.978) and estimate the values of a and b, giving your answers to 2
(3.4, 3.883) very nearly satisfy the relation y = ax”, where significant figures. (L)
a and n are constants. Draw a graph of log y against log x, 10 Ineach of the follow'ig cases, given experimental values of
and use the points where the graph cuts the axes to x and y, explain how straight line graphs may be drawn,
determine the values of a and n. Use these values to using ordinary graph paper only:
calculate the value of y when x=1-8.
“OLE) (i) y=ab**?;
(ii) px’ +qy =x, where a, b, p, q are constants.
3 It is believed that two variables x and y are related by In each case express the gradient of the line and its ordinate
y=axr" , where a and b are constants. For the following for x=0 in terms of the coristants. eA)
Leaner nena ee ene ne eee ———————————————————

35
 18 Jrigonometrical Functions
Angle measure, Circular functions of the general angle, Trigonometrical ratios of any angle,
Special angles, Limiting values of angles.

Angle (a) Sexagesimal measure: 1 right angle = 90 degrees Lil Useful common equivalences are:
measure 1 degree = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds 0°=0 radians 30°= 45°= au

(b) Circular measure: The circular measure of an 6 4

angle is the number of radians it contains. = ee
A radian is the angle subtended f ; 180°= 2 60°=— 90°=—
at the centre of a circle by an 3 2
arc equal in length to the = : dy Qa eo Sye
radius. Figure’ 1 360° = 27 120°= 3 135°=

1 radian ~ 57°17'45"
The length of a circular arc Li] Length of minor arc AB A
of angle 6 radians is ré i hee
=-x4=— cm
3
The area of a circular sector Area of minor sector AOB B
nex CNET
of angle 6 radians is 37°80. ie creme
Figure 2 “9 a ae Figure 3

Circular The general angle is an angle of any size, positive or 2nd.quadrant Ist quadrant
functions of negative.
the general Let Ox, Oy be the usual perpendicular axes, with the
angle same scales.
If P is the point (x, y), OP =r (positive) and
ZPOX = 6 (anticlockwise positive), the definitions of
the trigonometrical functions when @ is the general PERE
angle are: rd quadrant 4th quadrant

os t “ Figure 4
sin e=2, cos 0=-, tan o=2, cosec 6 = —, sec 8=-, cot g=~
r r Bs y x y
The following identities are obtained from the above definitions:

cosec pea sec eee 2 tan 0= ae & cot Fis ta J

sin 8 cos 6 cos 6 tan@ sin@

Trigono- To find the trigonometrical ratios of any angle Li] Find the value of (a) sin 210° (b) cos 675°
metrical (a) Sketch the angle in relation to the x- and y-axes. —_(a)
ratios of 210° is in the 3rd quadrant.
any angle (b) Find the sign of So its sine ratio is negative.
the ratio using the Associated acute angle = 30°.
‘CAST’ diagram. So sin 210°=—sin 30°=—3.
This shows which ;
; ae Figure 6
ratios are positive
in each quadrant. ; Since 675° =360°+ 315°, 675°
Figure 5 (b) y is in the 4th quadrant.
(c) Find the ‘associated acute angle’, i.e. the acute So its cosine ratio is positive.
angle the radius defining the angle makes with Ae? age X —*Ssociated acute angle =45°.
the x-axis. ; So cos 675°=cos 45°=1/V2.
(d) Find the required ratio of this angle. Fioare

Special The trigonometrical ratios of 30°, 45° and 60° can be Of 30°. 45°) 60" = on
angles found using these triangles.
‘30°-60° triangle’ ‘45° triangle’
sine 0 1 HLS V3
VE Be) eV Ore
: cosine | 1 v3 aoe 0
Zo a De Or ne
1
Figure 8 Figure 9 tangent | 0 We 1 V3 undefined

Limiting
Seas Ifsites
6 is smallGes
and in radians, then Li] Solve, approximately, the equation cos 0=0.999.
2
of angles cos 0~1—46? Since @ must be small, cos @~1—36?.
“.1-467=0.999
6?= 0,002 6=0.004 472 radians

36
 Trigonometrical Functions
Worked examples, Exercises and Exam questions

SS
E a NA e
TS TS a RTT
Find the number of seconds in the angle subtended at the centre (EX) 1 By using suitable approximations for sin 6 and cos 0
of a circle of radius 5 kilometres by an arc of length 1 metre. obtain an approximation in radians to the positive solution
of the equation cos @—6 sin 6=0.9976 when @ is small.
Let 0 be required angle, in radians, and r the radius.
. arc length=r@=5 x 1000 @ metres
(L)
Express as a decimal of a right angle, to six decimal places:
“. 1=5x 10008, i.e. O00 radians (a) 44° 55’; (b) 65° 34’ 20”; (c) 134° 27’ 18”.
180
ee ee COLES Express the following as fractions of right angles in
7
sexagesimal measure:
1 180 (a) 0.041732; (b) 0.674513; (c) 1.397615.
=—
5000 xX —zi x60 605seconds

-. 8=41.3 seconds. Change the following angles to circular measure:

(a) 45°; (b) 73° 47’; (c) 175° 45’.

WE) The development of a cone is a sector of a circle of radius r and Change the following radian measure to sexagesimal
ow) . :
angle 3 radians. Find the semi-vertical angle of the cone. measure: (a) 3; (b) 7:(c) 1.5851.

Find the number of degrees subtended at the centre of a

circle of radius 1 m by an arc length 30 cm.

Find the number of degrees subtended at the centre of a |

circle by an arc which is twice the length of the radius.

Find in radians the angle subtended at the centre of a circle

of circumference 36 cm by an arc of length 7.5 cm.

Find the length of the arc of a circle of radius 2 m which

subtends an angle of 37° 45’ at the centre.
Let R be the base radius of the cone and @ its semi-vertical
angle. The slant length of the cone is r and the circumference of 10 Find the length of the arc of a circle of radius 12.5 cm which
its base 277R is equal to the arc length of the sector, subtends an angle of 1.5 radians at the centre.
i.e. 27R Bede and Ss 11 Find the radius of a circle in which a chord of length 10 cm
subtends an angle of 85° at the centre.
sin 0= Bene maipeeee
ne, 12 Find the radius of a circle in which a chord of length 15 cm
subtends an angle of 135° at the centre.
19228.
13 Find without using tables the value of sine, cosine and
(W]9 Fina the value of sin 7', without using tables. tangent of 5’.

If 9 is small and measured in radians sin 0~ 8. 14 Find without using tables the value of sine, cosine and
; 1 7 1 Wf
tangent of 20’.
In this case 7’ =——X — radians, .sin 7’=——
x —=0.002
180 60 ” 180.60 5 15 Find, without using tables, the value of:

(a) sin 6 and cos @, if tan o=%;

[M9 Fina, without using tables, the values of cos 6 and tan 0, if

sin 0=—. (b) tan @ and sin @, if cos e=5

13
Since sin @ is positive, 9 may be in quadrants 1 or 2. If @ is in
the first quadrant then (c) cos @ and tan 9, if sin =

cos Aa and tan ees

13 WD 16 Solve approximately the following equations:
(a) sin 0=0.0095; (b) tan 6=0.0099;
If 6 is in the second quadrant (c) cos 0=0.995; (d) cos 0=0.99.
then
17 By using suitable approximations for sin @ and tan 6 obtain
cos 6 = sae and tan d= at 3s an approximate value for the positive solution of
13 12
sin 0—@ tan 0=0.0016, when @ is small.

18 By using suitable approximations for sin 6 and cos 6

obtain an approximate value for the positive solution of
cos @—6@ sin @=0.9925, where 6@ is small.

19 The development of a cone is a sector of a circle of radius

10 cm and semi-vertical angle 135°. Find the semi-vertical
angle of the cone.

20 A solid cone has a semi-vertical angle of 30° and a slant

height of 12 cm, find the total surface area of the cone.

37
 :

19 Trigonometrical Graphs
Graphs of the trigonometrical functions, Inverse trigonometrical functions, General solutions of
trigonometrical equations, Graphical solution of trigonometrical equations.
a
ESE BE A E SS

Graphs The following are the graphs of the six trigonometrical functions between x= —360° and x=360°.
of the
trigono-
metrical
functions

——y=sinx, ——— y=cosx Vie LANs VaraCOLX

Figure 1 Figure 2

Some features of the graph of the sine and cosine

functions:
(a) Continuous functions, i.e. graphs have no breaks.
(b) Periodic functions with period 360° (27 radians),
i.e. curves repeat their values every 360°.
(c) —1<sin x<+1 and —1S<cos x<+1,
(d) The amplitude is 1. : ve ne )
Note: cos x is sin x translated through —90° along Ox. ! :ys es we i
| \
os / VI
Some features of the graph of the tan function: | ony / Nt
(a) Not continuous, being undefined when x=...90°, y =cosecx, ———y = sec x
ZIV
A ‘ 2 ‘ ; F
.
(b) Periodic function with period 180° (x radians). more?
(c) Unlimited range.

Inverse sin-‘a=arcsin a is the angle between —90° and +90° Li] arcsin $= 30°
trigono- satisfying sin 0=a. arcsin (—) = —30°
metrical
functions cos ‘b=arccos b is the angle between 0° and 180° arccos $= 60°
satisfying cos 0=b. arccos (—$)=120°

tan-‘c=arctanc is the angle between —90° and +90° arctan 1=45°

satisfying tan 0=c. arctan (—1)=—45°

General The general solution of sin 6 = a is The diagram shows why there are many solutions to
solutions of = 9§=nx+(—1)"a where sin w=a. sin 0=a and how they are generated by the formula
trigono- 6=nx+(-1)"e@ by putting n=—1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
metrical The general solution of cos 0=5 is
equations 6=2n2+ B where cos B=b.

The general solution of tan 0=c is

6=n2+y where tan y=c.

Figure 4

Graphical
: To find the graphical solution of f(x) =0 when f(x) ==0 Li] 7
Fiind,by a graphical method, ;
solution of can be written as F (x)=G(x), where F(x) is a ? BED i PALE BVPI O AT OGS
trigono- trigonometrical function and G(x) is an algebraic solutions of x sin (x+3)=—xX for U=x<2a,
metrical function, the two graph method is used. 6
equations The curves y= F(x) and y=G(x) are drawn on the Write the given equation as sin (x+2)=1-x/nx.
same sheet of graph paper using the same axes and
the same scales. The LHS is the trig. function y =sin (x + 7/6).
; The RHS is the algebraic function y = 1—x/z.
At any point of intersection of the two curves the two Construct a table of values for y=sin (x + 7/6)
values of y are the same and therefore at these points 0<x<2z and draw the curve. Using the same axes
F(x)=G(x). So the points of intersection give the and scales draw the straight line y=1—x/z.
required solutions. y
+1
0

=I
Figure 5

The points of intersection give x~32/20, 32/4,

977/60.
38
 Trigonometrical Graphs
Worked example and Exam questions

WE taut belt passes round two pulleys of radii 6 cm and 2 cm 1 The chord AB of a circle, radius r, subtends an angle of 20
respectively. The straight portions of the belt are direct common radians at the centre, O, of the circle. The perimeter of the
tangents to the pulleys and are inclined to each other at an angle minor segment AB is k times the perimeter of the triangle
of 2a radians. AOB.
If the total length of the belt is 44 cm, show that Show that k+ (k—1) sin 6=0. By drawing graphs of the
mt+a+cot a=S.5. curve y=sin 6 (0<@1.5 radians) and a suitable
Draw the graph of y=cot a and y=5.5—n—a and hence straight line, obtain an estimate of 0 in the case when
Wind a. © k=.
A diagram of the situation is shown below. *(S)
Sketch each of the following curves in the range 0<x <7:
(i) y=tan 2x;

(ii) y=tan fo(s-2)}

i 7
(iii) y=tan (; 2x),

*(A)
The length of the belt from A to B is 22 cm. Solve sin (@— 15°) =3, for values of 6 in the range
0°<0<180°. *(S)
arc AP=6X (5+<) cm
Find the values of x in the range 0<x<360 for which
COSEve— sino ia *(L)
PQ=4 tan (Z-«)=4 cot a cm
Sketch on separate diagrams for 0°<x<360°:
arc op=2x(5-a) cm
(i) y=3 cos x; (ii) y=cos 2x; *

(iii) y=cos (x—30°). (C)

-. 22=37+6a+4 cot a+m7—2a
Draw the graph y=sin 3x (x being measured in radians)
=47+4a+4 cot a
from x =0 to x= 67, at intervals of 37, taking 2 cm to
1.e.5.5=7+a+cota represent 7 radians on the x-axis and | unit on the y-axis.
An appropriate table of values for a, cot a and 5.5—1—a is Plot the point P (Sz, 3) and join it to the origin O. Write
given below. down (in terms of 7) the x coordinates of the points where
OP (produced if necessary) meets your graph. Of what
a 0
i
“.
in eq %
~ — | =
3m up Dy
=
1 equation in x are they roots? *(0 & C)
10 5 0°} 5 2
=) eae 12 ae Given that sin x = +3 and that 41<x<z7, show that
cot a co 3.08 133 | 0.73 0.32 0 cos x= —13. Without using tables or a calculator,
evaluate:
See a ‘ 2.36 0.79 (a) sin (x+7); (b) tan (x+2z7);
(c) cot (7—x); (d) sec (x +37). *(A)
Using the two graph method for y=cot a and y=5.5—7—a
gives the diagram shown below. Sketch the curve y=cos x+2 for the interval O<x <27.

y
On the same diagram sketch the curve y ae for
cos x +2
the same interval. *(C)

Find the values of 6, lying in the interval -7<0z7, for

which sin 20=cos 6. Sketch on the same axes the graphs
of y=sin 20 and y=cos @ in the above interval and
deduce the set of values of @ in this interval for which
sin 20=cos 0.
VY)

(@) T 1 37 27 a a
10 5 10 5 2

From the graph the value of a for which cot a=5.5—7—a is

approximately 0.50 radians.
LL KV
rrr

39
 20 Trigonometrical Identities
Standard identities, Applications.

ROSS RUAN NN SS SAN eG a

Standard An identity is a relationship which is true for all values of the variable.
identities Basic identities:
sin?A +cos?A =1 1+tan2A =sec?A 1+cot?A =cosec?A

Sum and difference formulae

sin(A +B)=sin A cos B+cos A sin B sin(A — B)=sin A cos B—cos A sin B
cos(A+B)=cos A cos B-sin A sin B cos(A —B)=cos A cos B ey Asin B
tan A+tan B _ tanA-—tan
—————— tan(A—B)=—————
nae) 1—tan A tan B ( ) 1+tan A tan B

Double and triple angle formulae

sin 2A =2 sin A cosA sin3A =3 sin A—4 sin? A
cos 2A =cos’?A —sin? A=1-—2 sin?A=2 cos?A —1 cos 3A =4 cos? A—3 cos A
2tanA 3 tan A—tan?A
tana 2A= 1—tan? A
aio AS eee ee
1-3 tan? A
Half angle formulae
2 tan 3A 1—tan*4A 2tan3$A
in A= OAS ae tan A=————_
es 1+tan?$A 1+tan?4A 1—tan?4A

Factor formulae
sin A +sin B=2 sin 3(A +B) cos }(A-—B) sin A—sin B=2 cos 3(A +B) sin3(A —B)
cos A+cos B=2 cos (A +B) cos 3(A —B) cos A—cos B=2 sin }(A +B) sin }(B—A)
i +B in(B-—A
iabertap eee) Ry arrt prrsa ae
cos A cos B sin A cos B

Applications 1. To find the values of trigonometrical ratios of Li] + 45°)

cos 75°=cos(30°
compound angles =cos 30° cos 45°—sin 30° sin 45°
Ve Ty = V2 (V/3~1)
Dt odie Des Vides ok
2. To establish other trigonometrical identities fi] Show that sin(x+y)—sin(x —y)=2 cos x sin y.
Change one side of the identity (usually the more
complicated expression), step by step, to the other sin(x + y)—sin(x—y)
side using the standard identities. Do not work with =[sin x cos y+cos x sin y]—[sin x cos y—cos x sin y]
both sides of the given identity simultaneously. =2 cos x sin y.

3. To solve trigonometrical equations [E) ‘Solve cos 6=2'sin26—1 fore’<0=< 360".

(a) Equations involving the ‘basic identities’
Use the ‘basic identities’ to express the equation The equation becomes cos @=2(1—cos?@)—1
in terms of one ratio only. The equation can be >2 cos?0+cos @B-—1=0
solved in the same way as an algebraic equation.
i.e. (2 cos 6-1) (cos 6+1)=0> cos 0=$ or —1.
Note: do not cancel a ratio from an equation or one
of the solutions will be lost. If cos 0=$, 0=60°, 300°. If cos 2=—1, 0=180°.

(b) Equations involving sums, differences or products Li] Find the general solution of
Combine terms to give sin 6+sin 56—sin 36=0.
‘an expression that will factorize’=0
then solve this equation like an algebraic The factor formula gives 2 sin 3@cos 26—sin 3@=0
equation.
> sin 30(2 cos 20-1)=0
If sin 360=0, 30 = na>O=$nz.
If cos 20=3, 20=2na+ha> 0=na+ 4x.

(c) Equations of the form a cos 0+5b sin 0=c Li] Solve 12 cos 8+5 sin @=3 for 0°<0<360°.
Note: for real roots c< V (a? +b?)
(i) Auxiliary angle method Let 12 cos 8+5 sin 8@=R cos @ cos a+R sin @ sin w
Use one of the standard forms, R sin(@+ a) or =R cos(@—«)
R cos(@+ @), to obtain an equivalent expression. This cives R cos a= me R?=12?+57=169
(ii) Half angle method BIS Rsin a= 5 tan a= %
Use t=tan $8, so that
So R=13, w=22°37' and R cos(@— w)=3 becomes
sin 0= ae and cos qe lee 13 cos(@—22°37') =3>cos( @—22°37') = #&
1+? 1+? =cos 76°39’
“. 9—22°37' = Int+ 76°39' = 76°39' or (360° — 76°39’)
Substitute these in the equation and solve the
quadratic in ¢. Hence find @. lees 6= 99°16’ or 305°58’
ese
40
 Trigonometrical Identities
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

A
TSUNRP ne Se et
[3 civen that 4 sin x—cos x=R sin (x—0), where R>O and 1 (a) If t=tan > show that sin 0= = and derive an
0°<6<90°, find the values of R and 6 correct to one decimal +P
place. expression for cos @ in terms of ¢. Hence, or otherwise,
Hence find one value of x between 0° and 360° for which the solve the equation 3 sin 9+cos @=2 for values of 6 in the
curve y=4 sin x—cos x has a turning point. range 0°<6@<180°.
: a
4 sin x—cos x=R sin x cos 9@—R cos x sin 8 sin 40+ sin 20 _ 30.
(b) Prove the identity =ta
i.e. R cos 0=4 and R sin 0=1 cos 49+ cos 20 *(S)

“. R= V17 and tan o=7, giving R=4.1 and 0=14.0° Prove the identity sec” A + cosec” A = 4 cosec” 2A. Find all
the values of A between 0° and 360° such that
“. 4 sin x—cos x= 4.1 sin (x—14.0°) 4 cosec* 2A —cosec? A =3. For which range of values of
One turning point of y=sin x is x =90°, therefore the constant k has the equation 4 cosec” 2A —cosec” A =k
one turning point of y=sin (x—14.0°) is x =90°+14° no solutions? *(OLE)
= 104°
“. y=4 sin x—cos x has a turning point when x = 104°
(a) Prove the identity tan A+cot A=2 cosec 2A.
(b) It is given that tan B=% and that B is acute. Without
using tables or a calculator, find the value of (i) cos 2B,
: 0 es B
l Pa =) (ii) tas:
tan 5 *(C)
@ 1+cos 6 2

(ii) Se o tan? (;= :), Find all possible values of x from 0° to 360° when:
1+sin 6 4 2 (i) sin’ x= 0075; (ii) 5 sin x =3 cos x;
ue LOS0 Siro 7 (ili) sec 2x =2; (iv) 3 sin? x+2 cos x=2.
C8) ——— se atae —— 0}.
cos 8+sin 0 + "(0 &C)
Hence, or otherwise, show that tan 223°= V2-1.
Given that a and # are acute angles so that sin a=——
1—tan? g
(i) Use the standard result cos 90= in LHS. and sin f == prove, without using tables, slide rule or
1+tan? —
es calculator, that sin (a+ 8) = a
The required result is found after a few lines of simple *(L)
algebra.
Find the values of x between 0° and 360° which satisfy:
2 tan é
(i) cos (3x—75°) =0.5; (ii) 2—sin x =cos* x+7 sin? x.
(ii) Use the standard result sin 0= in LHS. *(C)
1+tan’ —
2 , “ee : :
~— Show that f(x) =2 sin x°+6 cos” 5? can be written in the
After some algebraic manipulation the LHS is reduced
2) 2
form a+r cos (x—a)° where 0<a<360 and r>0 and
(1
—tan 5) state the values of a, rand a. What is the maximum value of
(>, since tan not this last result may be f(x)? (H)
(1+tan 4
D,
Express sin x —2 cos x in the form R sin (x—a), where R is
positive and a is acute. Hence, or otherwise:
fanr=—= tan
4 2 (i) find the set of possible values of sin x—2 cos x;
written as 5 and the required result (ii) solve the equation sin x—2 cos x=1 for 0<x<360°.
1+ tan 7 tan eA (A)
4 2
follows. Find all values of 6 between 0° and 360° for which
(iii) Using the standard half-angle results for sin 0 and cos 6 2 sin 6+8 cos’ 9=5, giving your answers correct to the
1—tan 6 : 1 : nearest 0.1° where necessary.
the LHS is reduced to —., no and since tan —= 1 this (C)
1+tan 0 4
1 10 Find all solutions in the interval 0°<0@<360° of the
tan ——tan 0 equations: (i) tan 30+1=0; (ii) 2 cos* 6+3 sin 6=0.
can be written as and the result follows. (O &C)
1
1+tan 4 tan 0
11 Solve the equation cos 38+ cos 6 = 0, giving those solutions
Put d= in result (ii) to obtain that satisfy 0<@<360°.
(O & C)

12 By expressing sin 6 and cos @ in terms of ¢, where

= tan’ (;
- 7)= tan? ;= tan? 223° = tan (0/2), in the equation 5 sin +2 cos 9=5, form a
quadratic equation in ¢ and solve this equation to find 6,
correct to the nearest 0.1°, in the range 40°<6@<S0°.
Evaluating the LHS and taking the square root leads to the (L)
required result.

41
 7)

21 Plane Triangles
Standard notation, Solving triangles, Special triangles, Sine and cosine rules, Applications of the
sine and cosine rules, Other formulae, Area of a triangle.

A zn
Standard In a triangle ABC, angles LS sides é d: b

notation the angles are A, B, e side a is opposite angle A, etc B A\_ 2X c B 5 Cc

the sides are a, b, c D
Figure 1 Figure 2

Solving Solving a triangle means finding all the unknown Useful geometric facts about a triangle:
triangles sides and angles in that triangle. (a) The angle sum of a triangle is 180°, i.e.
To solve a triangle: A+B+C=180°.
(a) Sketch the triangle and mark in the given data. (b) The greatest side is opposite the greatest angle,
(b) Use the appropriate formula(e). the smallest side is opposite the smallest angle.

Special Right angled and isosceles triangles can be solved 6 a’=b*+c’ Pythagoras’ Theorem
triangles using Pythagoras’ Theorem and/or the basic bs a ;
trigonometrical ratios. ek eb cos B ates tan B=— ete.
A b Cc a a (e
Figure 3

Sine and Triangles without right angles can be solved using the sine and/or cosine rules.
cosine rules
Sine rule:
snA sinB sinC
where R is the radius of the circumcircle of the triangle.

Cosine rule: a?=b*?+c?—2bc cos A b?=a’*+c?—2ac cosB c?=a’+b?-—2ab cosC

b?+c- 2 24 ade ep) 24 Pi eB

or cos A =< Deco n saan ereos @= 2IR SS

2bc 2ac 2ab

Applications (a) Given three sides, find: Li] Solve the triangle with sides 6, 14, 16 units.
of the sine the largest angle by the cosine rule,
and cosine the second angle by the cosine or sine rule, The largest angle is opposite to the ‘16 unit’ side.
rules the third angle by the ‘angle sum’. 142+62—162 A
(b) Given two sides and the included angle, find: cos A =————_—_ 6 a B
the third side by the cosine rule, 2x14x6 c 16
the smaller angle by the sine rule, =—0.14295A =98.2° Figure 5
the third angle by the ‘angle sum’. “16462142
(c) Given two sides and a non-included angle (the cos C ay Cel eee aN 5>C=60°
ambiguous case): 2x 166
try to find an angle using the sine rule (this can So B =21.8° (angle sum)
give two, one or no possible solutions),
find the third angle by the ‘angle sum’, A
the third side by the sine rule. Li] Solve the triangle illustrated.
(d) Given one side and two angles, find: ; 9
the third angle by the ‘angle sum’ rs al
the other sides by the sine rule. Leeks sin50° sin A oe 10 c

Th ics tao be os a tL te ae
(e) Given two or three angles only: : = § — <Q099)/ ong

The sine rule gives the ratios between sides. If A=58°20', C=71°40’ (angle sum).
Sine rule gives c=11.15 (2 d.p.)
If A=121°40', C=8°20' (angle sum)
Sine rule gives c=1.70 (2 dp.)

Other Half angle formulae (used when three sides are Included angle formulae (used when two sides and an
formulae known) included angle are known)

sin$A=
(s—b)(s—c)
./———-——— cosgA =
s(s —a)
4/———+
tan}(B-C)= (5)
b+c
cot $A
be be
= etc.
tanzA= eae where s=}(at+b+c)
s(s—a)

Area of a The area of a triangle is often denoted by A. Hero’s (or Heron’s) formula
triangle
A =}3ab sin C or ac sin B or bc sin A
A =Vs(s—a)(s—b)(s—c) wheres =}(a+b +c)

42
 Plane Triangles
Worked examples and Exam questions

A triangle ABC has area 20 cm’. Given that AC=10 cm, 3 (i) The sides of a triangle are 3, 7 and 8 units respectively.
BC= 6 cm and that ZACB is obtuse, calculate (i) ZACB, Prove that one of the angles is 60° and calculate the other
(ui) the length of AB. two angles to the nearest degree. (ii) Solve the equation
rea AARCOO oe. é V3 cos @—sin 8=1 for 0°<@<360°.
"(Ord E€
With standard notation
1 : 10cm eon 4 In the triangle ABC, AB=12 cm, BC=10 cm and angle
AE _ G=20 CAB = 45°. Find, to the nearest degree, the two possible
1 A B values of angle BCA. Find also the corresponding lengths
i.e. 5% 10x6xsin C=20 of the side AC. *(A)

giving sin oa 5 In AABC, BC=12 cm, AB=4 cm and angle C is acute

3 with sin C=. Find, in radians, the two possible values of
and ZACB = 138.2° the angle A, leaving your answer in terms of 7.
(ii) The cosine rule for AB gives, *(L)
AB* =10°+6*-2X10X6Xcos 138.2°
In triangle ABC, angle C= .
= 100+36+ 120
x 0.7455
= 225.46 (a) Prove that sin A =3(V3 cos B+sin B).
* AB=15.02 cm (b) Given that b=2a, where the usual notation for
GHECK Sa—6 glySyl triangle ABC applies, find, by using the sine rule or
b=10 s—a= 9.51 otherwise, the size of angle B.
= 5702 SD) — ll (H)
DS— Slee s-c= 0.49
In any triangle ABC, prove, mme the sine rule or
se Len
A = Vs(s—a)(s —b)(s—c) otherwise, that tan 3(B—C) =—— =tan 3(B+C).
= V15.519.51 5.51 0.49
In a particular triangle the ae Ne is 51° and b=3c. Find
= 19.96 cm?
the angle B in degrees and minutes. The area of this
triangle is 0:47 m*. Find a to 3 significant figures.
WE) The perimeter of a triangle t
is 42 cm, one side is of length 14 cm (A)
and the area is 21/15 cm’. Find the lengths of the other two
sides and show that the cosine of the largest angle is 4. In the triangle ABC, angle CAB=a°, D is a point on AB
; : A such that AD=3DB, and angle ACD=angle BCD = 15°.
With the standard notation
Prove that cot a=6-— V3.
2s =a+b+c=42, i.e. s=21
Let a= 14, then b+c=28 V)
Using A = Vs(s—a)(s—b)(s—c) A man walks due north. When he is at a point A he sees a
21V15 = V2121—14)(21—b)21—c) » pole on a bearing of 40°. After walking 200 m he is at the
point B from which the bearing of the pole is 70°. Find, to
Squaring both sides and putting c= 28—b gives
the nearest metre, the distance of the pole from:
441 x 15=21 7x (21—b) x (21—28+b)
(i) the man’s path, (ii) the midpoint of AB.
45 = (21—b)(b—7)
i.e. 45=—147+28b—b?* (A)
i.e. b?>—28b+192=0 An isosceles triangle ABC, in which AB=AC and
(b—16)(b—12)
=0, so b=16 or 12.
ZA = 28, is inscribed in a circle of radius 5 cm. Prove that
If b=16 then c= 12 or if b=12 then c=16. the two equal altitudes of the triangle have length
‘. the lengths of the other two sides are 12 cm and 16 cm. 10 cos 6 sin 20 cm. If the sum of the lengths of the three
Let a= 14, b=16 and c= 12, when B willbe the largest angle, altitudes is 10 cm, find the three angles of the triangle
a+c’—b’? = 196+ 144—256 to the nearest degree.
dcos B= (O&C)
al ac 2x 14x12
84 ABC is a triangle, with
SS as required. sides of lengths a, b, c
~2xK14x12 4’
opposite A, B, C
respectively. The point P is
1 In AABC, BC=8 cm, AC=5Scm and ZABC=30°.
on the opposite side of BC c rs
(a) Calculate the two possible values of ZBAC, giving
to A, as shown in the
your answers in degrees to one decimal place. diagram, and the triangle
(b) Draw a diagram to illustrate your answers. BCP is equilateral. Write
down an expression for A P*
in terms of a, c and the
2 In AABC, AB=12 cm, BC=6V3 cm and ABC= 150°. angle ABC. If the area of
Calculate (i) AC, (ii) ACB. the triangle ABC is S,
deduce that
AP? =A (a° +b? +c’) +uS,
where A and uw are
numerical constants, and
find A and w.
()
43
 22 3-D Figures
3-D problems, Problems involving planes.

3-D problems When solving problems in three dimensions: i] An observer notes that the angle of elevation of
(a) Draw a clear diagram and mark in the given the top of a tower is a from a point A, while at a
information. point B, x metres nearer to the tower, the angle of
(b) Identify any right-angled triangles formed by elevation is B°. What is the height of the tower?
horizontal and vertical lines since these triangles
are the easiest to use.
The situation is shown in the diagram.
(c) Pick out the relevant triangles, draw each one
If PQ represents the tower
separately and mark in the given data.
Ornae
f height h metres, then
in AAPQ: h=(x+y) tan aw
‘ Lo ae
Some three-dimensional problems reduce simply to
in ABPQ: h=y tan B. ef
the solution of plane triangles (see first i] ).
Eliminating y gives: h= (xte f )tan 1%
Other problems, although truly three dimensional, an B
still only depend on the solution of plane triangles
os _xtan Btana
(see second Li] Ne "tan B-tan a

Three-dimensional problems often involve: i] AB is a vertical tower standing :

(a) angles of elevation or depression on a horizontal plane BXY.
An angle of elevation (or depression) is always PARBH=a° ANY sp", AYX#Y,
measured upwards (or downwards) from the and XY is x metres long, show ar)
horizontal line of sight. that the height of AB is x ges g :
Angle of x sin aw sin y cosec(f+ y). YY
depression ¥
=
Let AB=h metres Figure 5

elevation
In AABX, pisses (04 i
XA
Figure 1 h
So XA =—
(b) directions given as: N50°W N sin w x B
(i) compass directions
(measured as acute angles Ww E In AXAY, XAY=180°-(B+y) Figure 6
from N or S to E or W) Sine rule gives
BA yg te Fe he
(ii) bearings sin y ~ sin(180°— (B+ y))
y))
(measured as clockwise N
But sin(180°—(B+ y))= sin(B+ y) (1\ y
angles from North and
and substituting for XA gives Fi
given as three-digit Le igure 7
numbers) h ‘ar
— = ——Sh=x sin asin y cosec(
B+ y)
Figure 3
sinawsiny sin(B+y)

Problems The solution of some three-dimensional problems Li] Find (a) the angle between an edge and a face,
involving requires the use of one or more of the following and (b) the angle between two faces of a regular
planes facts about angles and planes. tetrahedron.
y Each face angle is 60°.
A line perpendicular to a E is the midpoint of BC and so
plane is perpendicular to AE lies on the projection of VA
every line in that plane. A c¢ onto ABC. VE and AE are both
Figure 8 perpendicular to BC.
= So. VAE is the angle for (a), and
The angle between a line and H B VEA is the angle for (b).
a plane is the angle between Figure 12
the line and its projection Vv If 2/ is the side of the
in the plane. tetrahedron, then BE=/ and
Figure 9 20 VE=V3l (Pythagoras?) AE=VE
(altitudes of congruent triangles).
The angle between two planes
is the angle between two fhe CTs © Cosine rule in AVAE gives:
lines, one in each plane, Wa! Pe, 13 oo HOCHGR SAPS 1
both perpendicular to the line ©
common to the two planes.
Figure 10
2.V31.V31 3
By Aas ei 52 [hc
The line of greatest slope in te and A=V=54°44’
a plane is a line
Figure 14
perpendicular to the line of
intersection of the plane C2 .. the angle between an edge and a face is 54°44! and
and the horizontal plane. Figure 11 the angle between two faces is 70°32’.
 3-D Figures
Worked example and Exam questions

WE ABCD is a horizontal rectangle with AB=4 cm, AD=3 cm.

PA is a vertical line of length 9 cm. Calculate (i) the angle
1 An eagle, 200 metres above ground level, is observed from
two points x metres apart at ground level. From one point,
between PC and the plane ABCD, (ii) the angle between the which is due South of the eagle, the angle of elevation is
planes PBD and ABCD. 30° and from the other point, which is due East of the eagle,
the angle of elevation is 40°. Calculate the value of x.
P
*(C)
PA is a straight horizontal path; ABC is a straight path
uphill so that PABC is a vertical plane; PAB = 150°,

=a
AB=5S0 m and the angle of depression of P from B is 10°.
What must be the length of BC (to the nearest metre) if the
angle of depression of P from C is 16°? *(O & C)
9cm
A vertical tower AB of height 40 metres is observed from
two points C and D in the same horizontal plane as B, the

a
foot of the tower. The points B, Cand D lie ina straight line
and BC= CD. Given that the angle of elevation of A from
D is 60°, calculate:
(i) the distance of C from the foot of the tower; and
(ii) the angle of elevation of A from C. *(W)
To find the height of a pylon a surveyor sets up his
theodolite some distance from the pylon and finds the angle
D of elevation of the top of the pylon to be 30°. He then moves
(i) ZPCA is the required angle. 50 m nearer to the pylon and finds the angle of elevation to
Pythagoras’ Theorem in AADC gives be 45°. Find the height of the pylon given that the ground is
PNG
— SrCnls horizontal and that the instrument is 1.5 m above ground
level. *(W)
In APAC, tan ART as, Sa
AC 5 A vertical mast, OM, of height 80 m, is built in a horizontal
A field. The angles of elevation of the top, M, of the mast
from two points in the field, A and B, are 20° and 30°,
respectively. A is due South of the mast, whilst B is on a
bearing of N50°E (050°) from the mast. Calculate the
distances OA, OB and AB. Find the area of the triangle
AOB. *(S)
mf
D 4cm C ABCD is a tetrahedron in which ZBAC= ZCAD=
ZDAB=60°, AB=AD=BD=9 cm, BC=10 cm.
wee CA—60i92 Calculate ZACB, the length of the perpendicular from B
to AC, and the angle between the planes ABC and ADC.
(ii) Eison BD such that PE and AE are both perpendicular to
(O&C)
BD. In AABE, AE=AB sin LABE=4x= =" cm. A pyramid VABC has VA=VB=VC, where V is the
vertex, and its base forms an equilateral triangle ABC of
Pythagoras’ Theorem in APAD gives PD = V90 cm side 2a. The height of the pyramid is also 2a. Find, leaving
Pythagoras’ Theorem in APAB gives PB= V97 cm your answers in surd form if desired:
in) /VPEDB, cos ZPBD =
97+25-90 16 (i) the area of the triangle VAB;
2x5xV97 597 (ii) the volume of the pyramid;
(iii) the perpendicular distance from C to the face VAB;
p (iv) the cosine of the angle between the faces VAB and
VAC. (C)
io] The trapezium ABCD lies in a horizontal plane, with AD
ee SG parallel to BC, AB=p, BC=q, CD=r, DA=s, angle
ABC= 3m, and q>s. The points E, F are vertically below
C; D respectively, and A, B, E, F lie ona plane making an
angle a with the horizontal. Prove that ABEF is a
D E B trapezium, and find its area. Find also the inclination of EF
5cm to the horizontal. (OLE)

i.e. ZPBD=71.0° A plane is inclined at angle a to the horizontal and a line

PQ on the plane makes an acute angle £ with PR which is a
.. PE=PB sin ZPBD= V97 xsin 71.0°
line of greatest slope on the plane. Show that the
= 9.31 ¢m
inclination 6 of PQ to the horizontal is given by
In APEA, sin ZPEA -—, giving ZPEA=75.2° sin 9=sin a cos B. Show that the angle g between the
vertical plane through PQ and the vertical plane through
P PR is given by cos g cos 6=cos a cos f. (A)
Three points O, A, B lie on level ground. OA=OB=5m
a :9.85cm and AB=6m. A pole OT of length 6 m has its base at O
and its other end T is held above the ground by two ropes
AT and BT each of length 8 m. Find the angle that OT
A E makes with the horizontal. , (A)

45
 23 Vectors
Representation, Definitions, Addition and subtraction, Multiplication by a scalar, Position vectors,
Ratio theorem.

Representation A vector has magnitude and direction.

In print a vector is denoted by bold 1YDS €-8- a, or by
two capital letters and an arrow, e.g. A
In 2-dimensions, the vector a can be represented by
or (3i+4j+2k)
a-() or a=(xit+ yj)

Be olihn(at
where i= and j= # are called base vectors. Base vectors in 3-dimensions:

x
In 3-dimensions, a= ()or a=(xi+ yj+ zk)
z

Definitions The magnitude of a, |a|, is V(x?+y?) in 2-d Li] If a=Si—sj—2k and b=ti+ 2j—uk are equal
and V (x?+y?+2z’) in 3-d. vectors, find (a) s, t and u, (6) |a|.
A unit vector has magnitude 1. 4 is the unit vector in
the direction of a. (a) Since a=b, then 5=¢, -s=2 and —2=—u
The zero vector, 0, is any vector with zero > t=5,s=—2 andu=2
magnitude.
(b) a =Si+2j—2k
The inverse of a is —a
Two vectors xi+yj+zk and ai+bj+ck are equal, if jal =V [5?+2?—(-2)7]
=V33
and only if x=a, y=b and z=c.

© cx( (9
Addition and _ The triangle law is used to add and subtract vectors.
subtraction Addition: b Given a=| —1]andb=| 5], find
at+b=c 3
Addition is commutative, a (a) a+b (b) a—b.

wor}
i.e. at+b=bt+a a+b=c
and associative,
i.e. (a+b) +c=a+(b+c) Figure 1
Subtraction: 2

racine!
a—b=a+(—b)
a—b a

Figure 2

Multiplication A scalar is a real number, it has only magnitude.

by a scalar If k is a scalar, then ka is a vector parallel to a but
with k times the magnitude. shee) +4(1)=(~3)
If k>0, then ka is in the same direction as a. 1 1 1,
If k<0, then ka is in the opposite direction to a. ity By
Multiplication by a scalar is distributive over vector Saiaton 1}>5= saa
addition, i.e. k(a+b)=ka+tkb.

Position The position of a point ¥ P(x, y) Li] The 3-dimensional

vectors P(x, y) in the plane can . position vector O
be given by the vector can be written as
eed 5 A |
OP=r= or (xi+ yj). O x ae 2
y Figure 3 OQ=q=|5
3 “5S units
or (2i+5j+3k).
rao ) Figure 4
x
In 3-dimensions, (3 or (xi+yj+ zk).
rb

Ratio If C divides AB internally Li] if a=(2i+3j) and b=(8i+9}) are the position
- theorem in the ratio A: u, then vectors of A and B, find the position vector, c, of C
Ps Ab+pa which divides AB internally in the ratio 1:2.
A+piets Pe L(Si+
(8i+ 9j)
9j) +2(21+3j)
+2(2i j) _ 12i121+ es).
15j
If the division is external, Figure 5 is4
then c=.
A-u
 Vectors
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

; = = —
WE] In the diagram, ST=2TQ, PO =a, SR=2a and SP=b. 1 The vector p has magnitude 7 units and bearing 052°, and
(a) Find in terms ofa and b: the vector q has magnitude 12 units and bearing 163°. Draw
a diagram (which need not be to scale) showing p, q and the
(i) SO R resultant p+q. Calculate, correct to one decimal place, the
(ii) TO magnitude of p+q.
(iii) RO o 2a *(L)
(iv) PT. From an origin O the points A, B, C have position vectors
a, b, 2b respectively. The points O, A, B are not collinear.
(v) TR P 5 s The midpoint of AB is M, and the point of trisection of AC
nearer toA is 7. Draw a diagram to show O, A, B, C, M, T.
(b) What do your answers to (iv) and (v) tell you about the Find, in terms a and b, the position vectors of M and T. Use
the points P, T, R? your results to prove that O, M, T are collinear, and find
. => = — the ratio in which M divides OT.
(a) () SQ =SP+ PQ=b-+a (or a+b by commutativity)
*(L)
a eeeoak | Given that OA=a, OB=b, OP=20A and that Q is the
(ii) TQ a5 ms (a+b)
ee OS midpoint of AB, express AB and PQin terms ofaandb. PQ
is produced to meet OB produced at R, so that QR=nPQ
(iii) RO = RS + SQ=-—2a+ (at+b)
=b-—a and BR=kb. Express QR: (i) in terms of n, a and b;
(iv) PT=PS+ST (ii) in terms of k, aandb. Hence find the value of n and of k.
—_

2—= 2 = 2... = — (©)

=—b HisSQ (since ES SO mew SiO)
The position vectors of three points A, B and C relative to
an origin O are p, 3q—p, and 9q—Sp respectively. Show
=—b+= 2 (atb)=<a—=b
gel that the points A, B and Clie on the same straight line, and
ipa state the ratio AB: BC. Given that OBCD is a
parallelogram and that F is the point such that DB = 3DE,
=; (2a—b) find the position vectors of D and E relative to O.
(v) TR=TS+SR *(C)
The points A, B and C have position vectors a, b and c
= ~$ (a+b) +2a
respectively referred to an origin O.

afae
4
3
AGS3 3
(a) Given that the point X lies on AB produced so that
AB: BX =2:1, find x, the position vector of X, in terms of
a and b.
(by SincelP r=) (2a-5h) aNATR == (Ca—b), Prand TR (b) If Ylies on BC, between
Band Cso that BY: YC=1:3,
3 3 j find y, the position vector of Y, in terms of b and c.
are both multiples of the same vector (2a—b). Hence PT and (c) Given that Z is the mid-point of AC, show that X, Y
TR are parallel and T is common to both lines, so, P, T, R lie and Z are collinear.
on the same line, i.e. they are collinear. (d) Calculate XY: YZ.
— = (L)
GE) (a) OS and OT represent the vectors Ai+ yj and uit Aj where A
6 O, A and B are three non-collinear points; the position
and u are scalars and i and j are unit vectors in twa mutually
vectors of A and B with respect to O are a and b
perpendicular directions Ox and Oy. Show that |OS|=|OT].
respectively. M is the mid-point of OB, T is the point of
Given that OS and OT are two adjacent sides of a rhombus
trisection of AB nearer B, AMTX is a parallelogram and
OSUT, find the vectors represented by the diagonals OU an
OX cuts AB at Y. Find, in terms of a and b, the position
ae i a vectors of:
(b) PQ and PR are represented by the sides PQ and PR of the (a) M; (b) T; (cyPxe (d) Y.
triangle POR, Show that (O & C)
=> -2 >
PQ + PR =2PS 7 The vertices A, B and C of a triangle have position vectors
where S is the midpoint of QR. a, b andc respectively relative to an origin O. The point P is
Hence, or otherwise, find the position of the point O within the
on BC such that BP: PC=3:1; the point Q is on CA such
triangle PQR such that that CQ:QA =2:3; the point R is on BA produced such
> > >
OP +O0Q+OR=0 that BR: AR =2:1. The position vectors of P, Q and R are
(a) Use the definition of the magnitude of a vector to show p, q and r respectively. Show that q can be expressed in
that OS=OT. terms of p and r and hence or otherwise show that P, Q and
Se Se ee R are collinear. State the ratio of the lengths of the line
Sketch the thombus OSUT. Use, OU = OS + SU and segments PQ and QR.
ST =SO + OT to find the required vectors. (J)
—>. >
(b) Use the ratio theorem to express PS in terms of PQ and S The paint? -andi@ihave postion vectors p anda
PR. Hence, required result. respectively relative to an origin O, which does not lie on
Consider a point O on RT (where T is the midpoint of PQ). PQ. Three points R, S, T have respective position vectors
={p+iq, s=2p—q, t=p+3q. Show in one diagram
Write down OP ae 00 using the result just established. Hence
the positions of O, P, Q, R, S and T.
show that
OP+O0Q0+OR=0, (
where O is the point which divides RT in a certain ratio. State
what this point O is called.
el

47
 a)

24 Vectors and Geometry

Equation of a straight line, Pairs of lines, Scalar (or dot) product, Applications of the scalar
product, Equation of a plane.
S
aie SR ET ANS ES RR RS I na REO Nc Sa
Equation of a The equation of a straight line parallel to vector b Li] The equation of the straight line parallel to the
straight line through a point with position vector a is vector i+ 2j—5k through the point with position
r=a+tb vector 2i—3j+k is
where f¢ is a real parameter. r=(2i—3j+k) + t(i+ 2j—5k).
r is the position vector of any point on the line.

The equation of a straight line through two fixed Li] The equation of the straight line through two”
points with position vectors a and b is points with position vectors 2i+j—k and 3i—j—3k is
r=a+t(b-—a) r=(2i+j—k)+
¢{(3i—j —3k) — (2i+j—k)]
where ¢ is a real parameter. i.e. r=(2i+j—k)+
#4 —2j—2k).
Note: the equation is not unique.

Pairs of lines Two lines in space, r;=a,+tb; and r2=a2+sh2, i] Find the point of intersection of
intersect if: ry = (2i+ 3j) +(—i+2j) and r.=(—i+j) +5(3i—2j).
(a) T=", i.e. a1+tb;=a,+sb2, and
(b) unique values for t and s can be found. The lines intersect where r;=r2,
i.e. (2i+3j) +t(—i+2j)
=(—i+j) +s(3i-2j)
If unique values of t and s cannot be found, then the => 2-t = -1 + 3s, i.e. H+ 3s = 3
lines do not intersect and they are said to be skew.
and 3+2t = 1 — 2s,i.e.t+s= -1
giving t = —3 ands = 2.
So, the lines meet at (2i+3j) -—3(—i+2j) = Si — 3j.
So, the point of intersection is (5, —3).

Scalar The scalar (or dot) product of vectors a and b is Li] Show that the vector 3i+ 2j—k is at right angles
(or dot) a.b=|a||b|
cos 6 to the straight line r=(i+7j + 2k) + s(2i—5j—4k).
product where @ is the angle between a and b.
The direction of the straight line is parallel to the
If a and b are parallel, i.e. 2=0, a.b=|a||b|. direction of the vector (2i—5j—4k).
If the vector 3i+2j—k is at right angles to the
If a and b are perpendicular, i.e. oa a.b=0. straight line, the scalar product of the vectors
2i—5j—4k and 3i+2j—k will be zero.
If a=xit+yijt+zik and b=x2i+
y2j + z2k (2i—5j
—4k) .(3i+2j —k)=
a. b=(x1i+yij
+ 21k). (voi + yoj + z2k) (3)(2) +(—5)(2) +(—4)(-)) =0
=X1X2t Viy2t 2122 Hence, the given vector and the straight line are
since i.i=j.j=k.k=1 perpendicular.
andi.j=j.k=k.i=0.

Applications The angle 6 between vectors a and b is given by Li] Find, for the vectors a=i+2j and b=3i+j,
of the scalar ab (a) the acute angle 0 between a and b,
product cos 9=———. (b) the resolved part of a in the direction of b.

ie ohh GAN dhe ~QGB)+@2)G0)_ 1

The projection of a on b, |
| (a) cos ee ee
i.e. the resolved part of a a V5.V10 V2°
in the direction of b, is | So, 6=45°.
OP=|a| cos 0 a coe (b) The resolved part of a in the direction of b is
_a.b Figure 1 a.b_(1)(3)+Q)0)__5__
V0
|b| |b| V(37+17) Vigese2

Equation of | The equation of a plane through a point with position Li] Find the equation of the plane through the point
a plane vector a, perpendicular to a vector n, is with position vector 2i—3j+k and perpendicular to the
(r—a).n=0 vector i—j—2k.
i.e. r.n=a.n
If r is the position vector of any point lying in the
The equation of a plane through any three points plane, then the equation of the plane is
with position vectors a, b and c is r.(i—j—2k) =(2i—3j+k) . (i-j—2k)
r.(di+ej+fk)=1 =(2.1)+(-3.—-1)+(1. —2)
where d, e and f are found by =2+3-2
(a) substituting a, b and c in turn for r, i.e. r.(i-j—2k)=3
(b) solving the three simultaneous equations formed.

48
 Vectors and Geometry
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

Relative to an origin the points A, B, C, D and E shown in the

diagram have position vectors i+ 11j, 2i+8j, —i+7j, —2i+ 8j (EX) 1 Given that a= ( 3)b=(;) ande= ( 1) fina:
—3 4 = 11
and —4i+6j respectively. The lines AB and DC intersect at F.
A (i) a unit vector perpendicular to a;
(ii) the value of the constants m and n for which
ma+nb=c.
Evaluate the scalar product of a and b and hence find the
cosine of the angle between the direction of a and the
direction of b. *(C)
Find the position vector of the point of intersection of the
two lines

and
pe
()e(
4
+S
ay

Calculate: Show that this position vector is perpendicular to the first

(i) the vector equations of the lines AB and DC. line, and find its projection on the second line. Write down
(ii) the position vector of the point F. in vector form the equations of the lines parallel to the
Show that FD is perpendicular to EA and hence find given lines and passing through (0, 0), and find the exact
(iii) the position vector of the centre of the circle through E, value of the cosine of the angle between these two lines.
D and F, = (0 &C)
(i) First find AB and DC.
—_
A, B and C are the points (0,5,5), (4,1,1) and
AB = (2i+ 8j) — (i+ 11j) =i-3j, (23, 23, 23) respectively.
—

DC= (—i+7j) — (—2i+ 8j) =i-j (a) Prove that A, B and Care collinear and find the ratio in
Equation of line AB is r=i+ 11j+s(i—3j) and, equation which C divides AB.
of line DC is r= —2i+ 8j+ t(i—j). (b) O is the origin. Prove that OC bisects angle AOB.
(ii) F is the point of intersection of AB and DC. (c) Given that p, q andr are position vectors of P, QandR
AB and DC intersect where relative to the origin O and that OQ bisects angle POR
i+ 11j+s(i—3j) = —2i+
8j+ ¢(i-j) prove that
1.e.(3+s5—f)i+ (3—35s+Hj=0 Pq _ |p!
> 3+s—t=0, and 3—3s+t=0, requir (H)
giving s=3 and t=6.
Find the angle between the lines with vector equations

()()-()(}
So, the lines intersect at the point F with position r=a+tc and r=b+sd, where
vector r=i+ 11j+3(i—3j)
i.e. r=4i+2j.
—_

FD = (—2i+
8j) — (41+
2j) = 61+ 6j
EA= (i+ 11j) —(—4i+.6j)
=5i+ 5j Show that these lines intersect, and find the position vector
> lc>
FD, EA=(—6i+ 6j). (Si+5j) = —30+30=0 of P, the point of intersection. Express in thé vector form
Hence, FD and EA are perpendicular. r.n=k the equation of the plane which passes through the
point P, and which is perpendicular to the line joining the
(iii) Since FD is perpendicular to ED, the circle passing two points with position vectors a and b. (OLE)
through E, D and F must have the midpoint of EF as

woo ere)
centre. (Angle in a semicircle is a right angle). Hence, The lines L; and L> are given by the equations
position vector of the centre is
(—4i+ 6j) + (41+ 2j) _ 4j
a

(i) Calculate the angle between the directions of L;, L»;

(ii) Show that the lines do not intersect;
Leta=i—2j+k, b=2i+j—k. Given that c=Aa+ ub and thatc 1
is perpendicular to a, find the ratio of A to w. (iii) Verify that the vector a= ()is perpendicular to
Let A, B be the points with position vectors a, b respectively each of the lines. Sis
with respect to an origin O. Write down in terms of a and b, a
The point P on L, is given by t=p; the point Q on Ly, is
vector equation of the line | through A, in the plane of O, A
given by s=q. Write down the column vector representing
and B, which is perpendicular to OA.
Find the position vector of P, the point of intersection of | and PO. Hence calculate p and q so that the vectors PO and
OB. a are parallel. (J)
Since a and ¢ are perpendicular, calculate a.c=0. The point A has position vector i+ 4j—3k referred to the
Hence find ratio of A to yu. origin O. The line L has vector equation r = fi. The plane IT
Since ¢ is perpendicular to a and coplanar with a and b the contains the line L and the point A. Find:
equation of / can be written r=a+ke.
(a) a vector which is normal to the plane IT;
Write ke as t(ai+ Bj+yk) using c=Aa+pb and a and b as
given and the ratio A to u as found. Hence, equation of / is (b) a vector equation for the plane IT;
found asr=a+#(ait+fj+yk) with a, B and y determined from (c) the cosine of the acute angle between OA and the
your working. / meets OB where r=b. line L. , (L)
ae
a

49
 7)

25 Complex Numbers
Definitions, Operations, Operations with the conjugate, Roots of equations.

Definitions | A complex number, z, is a number of the form For the complex number pM ols find:
z=xtly 2 2
a) \zls Warez (c)<2%

re owe
where x and y are real numbers and i=V —1. (2) lal, (6) arg
x is called the real part of z; y the imaginary part. V/3\2 /1\2
2
Since i=V —-1
Ps—-1, Ps i= 1s. 1/2 1 1
b =t (Z| =tan-'( | =F
ps Sete ple V3/2 n/3), 6
The modulus of z is |z|=Vx?+y. :
The argument of z is arg(z)=tan“(~) Oe “9. fo"
where —a<arg(z)<z.
The conjugate of z, denoted by z* or Z, is x—iy.
: ; : Li] Find the real values of x and y if
z,=atib and z2=c+id are equal if and only if a=c
and b=d, i.e. if the real parts are equal and the (x—1)+i(y—2)=0.
imaginary parts are equal.
If (x—1)+i(y—2)=0
z=x+ly is zero if and only if x=0 and y=0. then (x—1)=0 and (y—2)=0.
So x=1 and y=2.

Operations Let z;=a+ib and z.=c+id. [i If p=—2+3i and q = 1 + 2i, express as

Addition:z;+2,=(@+ib) + (¢+id) complex numbers in the form x+iy,
=(at+c)+i(b+d) (a) p+q, (b) p—@, (¢) pq, (4) p=4.

Subtraction: z;— z.=(a+ib) —(c+id) (a) p+q=(—2+4+3i)

+(142i) =—-14+5i.
=(a-—c)+i(b-d) (b) p—q=(—2+3i) —(1+2i)=—-3 +i.

Multiplication: z;z.=(a+ib)(c +id) (c) pq=(—2+3i)(1+2i)

=ac+i?bd+iad + ibc =—2+
61+ 3i—4i
=(ac—bd)+i(ad+bc) = DO ek,

+i +i —id ta On SHB) (Os22

pivicibn: fee, Se cr id) (d) pet EN) Ae
(ct+id) (ct+id)(c—id) (1+ 22)" “CL 27CT =25)

= (oe) +i () =(=**)+(=*) 323

+d? +d? 1+4 1+4 55

Operations Addition: z+z* =(x + iy) + (x—iy)=2x [i] If z=3+4i, evaluate:

with the , i :
conjugate (a) 2+2z* (b) 2—z® (e)"ee""G yee
Subtraction: z—z* =(x + iy) — (x—iy)
=2iy

Multiplication: zz* =(x + iy)(x—iy)=x’?+y? (a) z+z*=(3+4i)+(3—4i) =6.

ry : S
Division: = Ce) (b) z—z*=(3+
ae ke
41)(2—(3— 41)AEN =8i.Ro
(x-iy) (x-iy)(x +iy) (c) zz*=(3+4i)(3—4i)=9+16=25.

nc x+y? x+y? (a) peor te

3-41
Ee).
(3-4i)(3+4i)
(2)
\25
24).
(55):
Roots of If the complex number ptig is a root of a i] If (2+3i) is a root of a quadratic equation with
equations polynomial equation with real coefficients then its real coefficients, find the equation.
conjugate, p—iq, is also a root.
Since (2+3/) is a root, (2—3i) is the other root.
The required equation is
[x—(2+3i)] [x —(2—37)] =0
i.e. x°—[(2 +33) + (2-31) ]x +(2 +31) (2 -3i) =0
ie
iors
x°—4x%+13=0
esis nasssesSsssassiosissosonsssnssensssenssasasiainssseaos
= ,”””DUTdmud mudd
50
 Complex Numbers
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WE Yea Given that z,=2—3i and z,=3+4i find 5 Find the real values of aand b such that (a+ ib)” =i. Hence,
(i) 2422, or otherwise, solve the equation z*+2zi+1—i=0, giving
erp your solutions in the form z=p+iq.
(ii) cz in the form p+iq where p and q are real. (OLE)
2
(b) Given that 2+3i is a root of the equation 6 Let z=x+iy be any non-zero complex number.
2—627+21z-26= 0, find the other two roots. By ;
Express — in the form u+iv.
Zz
(a)
Given that z we k with k real, prove that either
= (6+12) + i(-9+8) FA
=18-i y=0orx’+y?=1. Show
Gi 2 _ 2-31 (i) that if y=0 then |k|>2,
22 3+4i
(ii) that if x*+y?=1 then lid<2. (VJ)
_ (2-3i)(3—4i) 7 (a) Given that z=x+iy, where x and y are real numbers,
~ 3+4i)(3—-4)) find z* in terms of x and y. Hence, or otherwise, find both
square roots of i.
_ (6-12) +i(-9-8) (b) One root of a quadratic equation with real coefficients
9+16 is (7—24i)/5. State the other root of this equation, and
find the equation in its simplest form.
Spelt
25 25 (A)
(b) z7—6z*+21z—26=0 8 The roots of the quadratic equation z7+pz+q=0 are 1+i
We are given that 2+3i is a root of this equation. Since the and 4+3i. Find the complex numbers p and q. It is given
coefficients of the equation are real, 2—3i is also a root. that 1+ is also a root of the equation
2? +(a+2i)z+5+ib=0, where a and b are real.
Hence z—(2+3i) and z—(2—3i) are factors of the equation.
Determine the values of a and b. (J)
The product of these factors is
[z— (2-31) |[z=@—30)] 9 Obtain a quadratic function: f(z) = z*+az+b, where a and
= 7z?—47+13 b are real constants such that f(—1—2i) =0.
Dividing the LHS of the original equation by z7—4z+ 13 L)
gives z—2. 10 Show that 1+/is a root of the equation x4+3x?—6x+ nt=0.
Hence z*—6z*+21z—26=0 can be written as Hence write down one quadratic factor of x*+3x?—6x+10,
(z—2)[z — (2+31)][z — (2—31)] =9, and find all the roots of the equation.
giving the other two required roots as z=2 and z=2—3i. (OLE)
11 Given that a=1+3/ is a root of the equation
GE) (i) Express the square roots of —2i in the form +(a+ib) z’ —(p+2i)z + q(1+i) =0, and that p and q are real,
where a and b are real numbers. determine p, q and the other root of the equation.
(ii) Solve the equation
2? —3(1+i)z+5i=0
VY)
giving your answers in the form at+ib. Hence or otherwise 12 Given that (x+iy)*=a+tib, where x,y,a,b are real, prove
solve the equation that 4x*—4ax*—b?=0. Hence, or otherwise, find the
2?—3(1—-i)z—Si=0
values of (5+12i)”. What are the values of (5—12i)”?
Solve the equation z? — (7+ 4i)z +(7+11i) =0. State the
(i) Let (a+ib)* =—2i. Work out (a+ib)*. Equate real and
imaginary parts. Find a and b. Hence roots are +(a+ib). roots of z*—(7—4i)z + (7—11i) =0. [Give all your
(ii) Let z=a+ib. Work out LHS. Equate real and imaginary answers in the form u+iv where u, v are real.]
parts. Find a and b. Hence roots are a+ib. Second
equation is obtained from first by replacing i by —i. Hence
(0&0)
the roots are a—ib. 13 In the quadratic equation x” + (p +igq)x + 3i=0, p and q are
real. Given that the sum of the squares of the roots is 8, find
all possible pairs of values of p and q.
1 Express (6+5i)(7 + 21) in the form a+ib. Write down
(6—31))—2i) ini a similar form. Hence find the prime
V)
factors of 32°+47’. () 14 Given that w denotes either one of the non-real roots of the
equation: z= 1, show that: (i) 1+@+@?=0; and
2 Expand z=(1+ic)° in powers of c and find the five real

Ce
(ii) the other non-real root is w*. Show that the non-real
finite values of c for which z is real. (J) roots of the equation
3 If (1+é)z-iwt+i=iz+(1—-)w— 3i=6, find the complex
numbers z, w, expressing each in the form a+ bi where
a, b are real. (O & C) can be expressed in the form Aw and Bw’, where A and B
are real numbers, and find A and B.
1+i\
4 (a) Express = : in the form a+ib, where a and b are
=l=1V 5 V)
real numbers.
(b) Find the quadratic equation whose roots are —3+ 4i
and —3—4i, expressing your answer in the form
x?+px+q=0, where p and q are real numbers. (C)

51
 26 Complex Numbers and Graphs
Argand diagram, Polar form, Multiplication and division in polar form, Geometric representation
of operations, Loci.

Argand Any complex number z=x+iy may be represented imaginary Fic EWA
diagram on an Argand diagram by axis Iz=VQ? ty’)
either (a) the point P(x, y), iege se
or _ (b) the position vector OP. =tan |(2)
The modulus of z, |z|, is the length of OP. x
The argument of z, arg z, is the angle 6 between OP
and the positive real axis, where —17< 0S 27. Figure 1 real axis

Polar form The polar form of a iJ Express the complex number V3-i in polar
(also called complex number is form and illustrate it on an Argand diagram.
modulus- z=r(cos 0+isin 6),
argument where r=OP and 0=xOP. Let V3—i=r(cos 6+isin 6).
form)
O x =rcos8 x ae
Figure 2 = Hever (—1)) =?

6=argz ae :
|z|=r, where r=0. 4 A edt
=tan"( =.)=-2 2 |
arg z= 0, where —17< 052
Vv3/ 6 P4/3,-1)
. Figure 4
=r(cos 6—isin 8) So, in polar form V3-i is
=r(cos(— 6) + i sin(—6)) 2(cos(—2/6) +i sin(—2/6))
Figure 3
|z*|=r and arg z*=—0@.

Multipli- Let z1=r:(cos 0+isin @) and z2=r,(cos P+isin ?). Li] If z1=4(cos 2/3 +isin 7/3) and
Soy ate ioe 22=2(cos 2/6+i sin 1/6), evaluate:
and division multiplication: z,z.=rr2[cos(@+ p) +i sin(@+ $)] (yeciad (aye ee
in polar form 142 Lee
|21Z2|=|z:||z2| and arg(ziz2)=arg zi +arg z2 (a) z1Z2=4(cos 2/3 +i sin 2/3) x 2(cos 2/6+ isin 7/6)
ae ee are =8[cos(7/3 + 2/6) + i sin(2/3 + 2/6)]
division: sizek [cos(@— p) +i sin(O— d)]} =8(cos 7/2 + isin 2/2)

a heen ) Zee
4 +isi
= el |and are (2
‘)== arg Z1—arg Z2 2(cos 2/6
+i sin 2/6)
fer aes =2[cos(z/3— 2/6) +i sin(2/3—2/6)]
=2(cos 2/6+isin 7/6)
Geometric addition subtraction multiplication division
represen- aise 21-22 AE: Z1+22
tation
of operations 5
1

te
ra
7
/

Wi —22

Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8

Loci If z is a variable complex number, represented by the position vector OZ, then the locus of Z under certain
conditions can be sketched. Four common loci are illustrated below.

The locus of Z when The locus of Z when 4 locus of Z

|z|= arg z= a, (—™< aS)
is a circle, centre O is a half line from 0, Z
radius a. at an angle @ with the
real axis. ie) Figure 11 x

The locus of Z when ‘ ofz The locus of Z when

|z—p|=a, Sere) are ay
: where p and q are
where p is a fixed ZO fi
complex number, is a OS xed complex numbers,
A is a half line from P,
circle, centre P, parallel to OQ.
radius a. Figure 10
Figure 12
52
 Complex Numbers and Graphs
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WE] (a) Indicate on an Argand diagram the region in which z lies if 1

2 Express ———— in the form r(cos 0+/ sin 6) where
(z—24-3i|<2, P 1+iV3
+1
(b) If the real part of cai is zero, show that the locus of the
r>0 and -—7< 0&7.
V)
point representing z in the Argand plane is a circle and write
Given that z= V3+i, find the modulus and argument of
down its centre and radius.

(a) |z—2+3i|<2 can be

(a) 2, (o) +2
rewritten as lz = (2—3i)|<2. Show in an Argand diagram the points representing the
This says that the distance 1
between the fixed point 2—3i complex numbers z, z* and -.
and the variable point z in the bs (L)
Argand plane must always be
You are given that z=cos 6+i sin 6 (0<@<3m). Draw an
less than or equal to 2.
Argand diagram to illustrate the relative positions of the
i.e. the region in which z lies is
points representing z, z+1, z—1. Hence, or otherwise,
the circular disc, centre 2—3i
(a) determine the modulus and argument of each of these
and radius 2, shown‘in the
three complex numbers;
Argand diagram.
p=
(b) prove that the real part of zt+1 is Zero. (0&0)
(b) Let z=x+iy,
thenzt 2—2t9t1
Shade in an Argand diagram the region of the z-plane in
Beet) al which one or the other, but not both, of the following
inequalities is satisfied: (i) |z|<1, (ii) |z—1—i)/<2. Your
_1@+1)+y][@-1)- iy] diagram should show clearly which parts of the boundary
[(~—1)
+ y][@—-1) -sy] are included. (J)
2 Gar lty)+i-2y) (a) The points P and Q in an Argand diagram represent
» aE = te ty the complex numbers 7 —i and 12 + 4i respectively, and O is
the origin. Prove that the triangle OPQ is isosceles, and
If the real part of = 0, calculate to the nearest degree the size of angle OPQ.
hi

(b) Identify the locus of the point representing the

then x?-1+y?=0 complex number z in each of the following cases:
= may = 1, (i) z—+dl=1; i) |z-11=|z+d; (iii) arg (2-1) =i.
Hence the locus of z is a circle, centre (0,0), radius 1.
(C)
[e3 2rress the complex numbers z= V2+iV2 and Sketch on the same Argand diagram the loci of z and w,
where |z|=|z—4i| and |w+2|=1. State (i) the minimum
w=-—3+i3V3 in modulus-argument form and hence write value of |z—w}; (ii) the cartesian form of z for which
down the modulus and argument of each of the following:
arg 8g 7=—re
Pe Ry oy ar Ga (A)
Z w
If z=5+5i and w=7+i, find (a) z—w, (b) 1/(z+w),
Show in an Argand diagram the points representing the complex expressing each in the form x+iy, where x and y are real.
1 eZ Verify that the real part of (z—w)/(z+w) is zero. If, in the
numbers —, zw, —. Argand diagram, P represents the position of z—w and Q
4 w
the position of z+w, what does the result imply about
Let z=r(cos @+i sin 0) = V2+iV2, and find r and 6. POQ? (O & C)
Hence z can be written in modulus-argument form.
In an Argand diagram, the point P represents the complex
Do the same for w= —3+23V3. number z, where z=x+iy. Given that z+2=Ai(z+8),
(i) Bee) (cos 6—i sin @) where J is a real parameter, find the Cartesian equation of
eg the locus of P as A varies.
(ii) To find zw, multiply the moduli and add the arguments. If also z=u(4+3i), where wis real, prove that there is only
one possible position for P. (J)
(iii) To find =, divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.
w 10 Find the modulus and argument of the complex number
Having written down (i), (ii) and (iii), the points representing
these complex numbers can easily be shown in an Argand = i Show that, as the real number ¢ varies, the point
diagram. gern iondi fore :
representing kG in the Argand diagram moves round a
i
(EX) 1 (a) The complex number z, = 2i. Find the values of a and b
such that: (a+ib)* =z. circle, and write down the radius and centre of the circle.
If these two resulting complex numbers are z2 and 23, (OLE)
express Z;, Z2 and z3 in modulus-argument form and display
all three on the same Argand diagram. 11 Indicate on an Argand diagram the region in which z lies,
(b) The complex number z4= V3+i. Find (z,)’. given that both |z—(3+i)|<3 and 7<arelz -—(1+i)] aS
Express z, and (z,)” in modulus-argument form and display
them on the same Argand diagram. Deduce a further are satisfied. (J)
complex number z; such that: (zs) =(z,)’. *(S)
qeanee annaeeeeeeee eee ener eee eeeeeeeeereener reer eee

53
 27 Ditferentiation
Notation, Standard results, Rules, Higher derivatives.

Notation Differentiation is the process of finding the derivative of a function. ;

The derivative of a function is also called its derived function and also its differential coefficient.
d aek:
The derivative of y with respect to x is usually written as = or y’ Ory.
Xx
: d
The derivative of f(x) with respect to x is usually written as f’(x) or Fe: [f(x)].
%

2
algebraic constant 0 inverse
x mt trigonometrical

trigonometrical sin x cos x

(x in radians) cos x —sin x
tan x sec? x
cosec x —cosec x cot x
Sec X sec x tan x
cot x —cosec? x logarithmic and
exponential

Rules 1. Sum i] If y=x?+cos x—-Inx+4

A sum of terms can be differentiated term by term. d 1
Dae
SS= ESte SS
x
2. Product [i] If y=7x*
(a) If y=au, where ais a constant and dy /
wis a function of x, ee 7(4x°)
then Dzy gu
dria de = 28x?
(b) If y=uv, where u and v are functions of x. [i] If y=xe*
letu=x andv =e*
dy du dv du dv
den SS tl then —— iand=——e
dx dx dx dx dx

Using ya ony =
dx dx
=e tt. ee
=e*(1+x)

3. Quotient i] If issin x

If y =" where u and v are functions of x, ' x

v let u=sinx and v=x?
du dv d
d Nest PES then =
—=cosx dv
and—=2x
then Jee dx dx

B du dv
——i,—
Using oe dx
v2

_ x’. cosx—sin
x.2x
oe
WX COSX UES
Piers Zs se

Higher If the derivative of a function of x is differentiated Li] |, |_ ey yuo 3

derivatives with respect to x, the 2nd derivative of the function is april ane
obtained. If the 2nd derivative is differentiated, the +i 3
3rd derivative is obtained, and so on. adip agSead py Hee peace
The 2nd, 3rd, . . . , nth derivatives of y with respect Sei ideiet
dy dy d’y Cee 6 Ame
to x are usually written as he de de re em ey second derivative

The
i aausual fuas
ncti -tation
aoe for these derivations
ivati d° =120x3 oei
a3 cas third
he derivaune
eee
54
 Differentiation
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

SE a ae AIT II LVEN 8p DSI a eat i a RN I RITA LES. i I

WE KooDifferentiate with respect to x. (a) (i) A product, so use product rule with u = e* and o=sinx.
(ii) A quotient, so use quotient rule with u=x* and
(i) 43-3242 vb=1+sec x.
Xx
(b) x° In x is a product so use product rule with u=x° and
(ii) (2x°-1) sin x ‘v=In x. Then differentiate cos x. Add the derivatives
together to get the final result.

1 +)
Ve x+1
2.
values of x for which
ee is zero. *(S)
2 Differentiate with respect to x: (a) (2x—1)(3x+2);
(a)
(b) x* ~ 244+ (c) Cae
a
(i) Let v = 43-3242, *(A)
ps

ie. y=4x>—3x745x7? 3 Prove that ae (tan x—x)=tan? x.

dx +1
Now a4, 3x? —3. 2x+5. (—2)x73
4 Differentiate with respect to x: (a) x ?; (b) 2x? (x+1)+2;
=12x?- Ses bs=3;
x
(c)
(ii) Let y=(2x°—1) sin x, a product,
so let u=2x°—1 and v =sin x *(O & C)
du 2 dv 5 (a) Differentiate with respect to x
Now Sy and —=cos x
dx dx (i) x*(x+1),
dv a (x° 1a =2)
Using <(ut)=v
= +u A’

as=sin x. 6x?+ (2x?—1). cos x (b) Ifx= - and y =f, express y in terms of x and hence, or
dx
=2x° cos x+ 6x? sin x—cos x. otherwise, calculate the value of 2 when x=8.
X
*(A)
iB at ‘
(ii) Let y= , a quotient,
x
so let u=7x—4 and v =In x. 6 Given that: y= pen ila al show that ay=i +y’.
sin x+cos x dx
Now —=7 es! dy.
GLOM Se Prove that —; is zero only when y=0.
dx
du dt
es (J)
: ; : 3 1+cos x
7 Differentiate with respect to x: (a) x” In x. (b) ————.
1
In x. 7—(7x—4).-
x (L)
[In x]? : oes 1¥ dy
8 Given that y= jirel Y and state the set of values of
_ 7x (Inx-1)+4 241 dx
es efor
x for which ayis positive.
(b) y=xt—x°+4x-1 dx
Find the greatest and least values of y for O<x<1.
ay = 43-377? +4
dx (L)

ae 12x? — 6x 2_x—4 a
9 Given that y STE find and simplify 2.Find also
dx = Mc
(on (Veil). the greatest and least values of y for -1<x<1.
d? (A)
=() when x =0 or 3,
ey Cen ay. Hs
2 10 (a) Given that y= —, show that —~=1-y’.
e*+e * dx
sO, a: zero for{x:x=0 or }.
dx? (b) The equation of a curve is y=cot x—8 cos x,
(0<x <7). Find the coordinates of the points on the curve
|GEY@ Differentiate with respect to x where a0. Sketch the curve.
ra x
ny eA Sinse (i) (C)
@) Ge Aig
rd
(b) Given that y=x In x+cos x, find os

55
 283 Methods of Differentiation
Chain rule, Implicit differentiation, Parametric differentiation, Logarithmic differentiation.

Chain rule If y is a function of u and u is a function of x, then y Li] Differentiate y=(3x*—5)’ with respect to x.
is called a function of a function of x. i e i :
y is a function (i.e. the 7th power) of (3x*—5), which
This can be differentiated using the chain rule is a function of x. :
So y is a function of a function of x.
dy dy du
Vie Ae Let y=u’ where u=(3x*—5)

It is useful to remember that, by the chain rule, so dy _ 416 and du _ 12x3

du dx
d d dy d
<(y*) =2y.> Wau :
dx dx dx du dx
d.3 =3y*.=
—(y) 2 dy =7u°, : 12x°
ax?” a dx gee = 84x3(3x4 —5)°

Implicit An implicit function in two variables, x and y say, is fi] Find ad when x°+ y?=3xy
differen- one in which neither variable can be easily expressed dx
tiation in terms of the other.

To differentiate such an implicit function x?+y?=3xy is an implicit function.

(a) Differentiate it term by term to give an equation
dy Differentiating term by term gives
in —, x and y.
dx Bat ay?, Tag way hee
ay dx dx
(b) Make oe the subject of the equation. product rule

To obtain the second derivative

(a)
sat a
Differentiate the
dy
#5 equation’
|
to obtain an
d
dx
=(y—2)
(?-2)
y dys (yx)
equation for re dx (y?—x)

; dy.
(b) Substitute for oe if necessary.

Repeat the procedure for higher derivatives.

Parametric If x and y are each expressed in terms of a third i] The parametric equation of an ellipse is
differen- variable, t say, called the parameter, then x=f(t) and x=acos 0, y=bsin 6, where a and b are constants.
tiation y=g(t) give the parametric form of the equation aya as a function of 0.
relating x and y. Find

To differentiate such a parametric form of an x=acos @ y =bsin@

equation ,
at dy ==-asin@ 2=bcos@
(a) Find ae and Py,separately. Do not attempt dé

limi
to eliminate the parameter. Using dye guide
dx dee
dy dy dt
(b) Use ae. hee =b cos

—asin 0
To obtain the second derivative
=——cot 0
(a) Find “(2). a
dt\dx
dy d (2) “(2) dt
B) Use a ee ee
(0) dx? dx\dx/ dt\dx/ dx

Logarithmic _To differentiate a function of the form y =[f(x)]* Lil Differentiate x* with respect to x.
differen- (a) Take logarithms of the given function. Let y=x”
pane (b) Differentiate the new function as usual.
so In y=2x Inx
This method is useful when differentiating 1 dy
complicated products and quotients. Wha we * eis

aye 2y(In x +1)

dx
= 2 (in ee 1)
eee
56
 Methods of Differentiation
Worked example and Exam questions

(a) alla with respect to x dy _(¢+3).3—3t.1 _ indhiyennneciann

(i) x’ sin 3x "dt (t+3)? ~ (43)? ra
aoe
In d
(ii) ; Using P= Be we have,

(b) Giventhat x’ —3xy+2y?—2x =4, find the value of fs aye 9 (t+2)

at the point (1, aN A dx
(t+3) < 4
se 4 3t dy Dies
(c)
(c) IfIfx=——~
aD and and yy=—,,
7 find the value
find the val Cire
— int (2
At the point (=, i).
—). ¢= is

at the point (2.;). so as pa bay (+2)

3 4 "dx (+3) 4
(a) = a
(i) Let y=x’ sin 3x, a product, 64
so let u=x’ and v=sin 3x
d (EX) 1 Balser with respect to x: (i) (2x7-1)(° +4)
Now a =7x° and = =3 cos 3x (chain rule) P1 ih ( M Me
a Pe
d du dv 05 ia (:
Using —(uv) =v — +u—
dx dx dx’ (iv) sin ~5 cos? x, (v) tan* 2x.
=sin 3x. 7x°+x’. 3 cos 3x
= 3x’ cos 3x+7x° sin 3x. *(O&C)
(ii) Let y= In (Sz) a quotient, 2 (i) Differentiate with respect to x:
x (a) (x?+1)?; (b) sin* 3x; (c) x(2x+1)?. X
so let u=In oy and v=x?.
PY Wh (ii) Ify See find wiand simplify your answer
Now —=5. —= (hain rule) and —=2x. i dx
dx Sx 7 dx as much as possible.
coe EL: (OLE)
d(u ayers
Using t=) = 7 : x+1
dx\v v “) 3 (a) Differentiate f(x) = with respect to x.
ol Pee: ee Vx
ie In (Sx). 2x ny 19" é (b) Given that f(x) =sin*x—cos*x, prove that
os ioe eee f' (x) =2sin 2x.
dx a (A)
1—2 In (5x)
= ce 4 Differentiate the following expressions with respect to x,
giving your answers in as simple a form as possible:
(b) x*—3xy+2y*—2x =4 is an implicit function. , iB aoedl
ifferentiati _ wi ith me tt O x gives
Differentia i (i ) e*log.x;
(i) x’ cos 3x; (ii) e* log.x; (ili)
(iii + +2); (iv) Vora)
2)- Gv) ———.
2:-3.(y+x2) Pe ae 2=0. . *(W)
——" Se,

ees ey
and chain rule
ae 5 Differentiate with respect to x: (i) tan‘ 2x; bien
- 2 2x — a
ay (iii) x“log.x.
Factorise to find ie explicitly, (S)
: wee, dy.
ay in
na (4y-3x)2 S19 —95-£3y 6 Given that x and y are related by x°+y~ =3xy, find BE
terms of x and y.
es dy _2—2x+ 3y (L)
dx 4y —3x
At the point (1, —1) 7 Given that x= 0-—sin 0, y=1—cos 6,

dy _2-2x1+3 (—1) show rate cop aaa typ ee.

dx 4(-1)-3 Cr aak dv y ()
3 8 The co-ordinates of a point on a curve are given
vi parametrically by x= a(t—sin?t), y= a(1—cos ft). Find dy/dx
c) x and y are expressed in parametric form. in terms of ¢t. Deduce that the tangent at: the point on
( the
(c) of P Z curve where t= T makes an angle 37 with the y-axis.
_ te Hence, or otherwise, sketch the curve in the
t+2’ neighbourhood of the origin.
A
Oo,odpe 2h 5 (using quotient rule). (4)
dt (ee) (t+2)
peu
t+3
ee
S7
 :

29 Applications of Differentiation
Gradient, tangent and normal, Velocity and acceleration.

RR ARSE LTT BDI I PT RS eR a ES

dy gradient
Gradient, The gradient of a curve at any point is the gradient of Li] Gradient of tangent ee
tangent and the tangent to the curve at that point.
normal Its value is given by the derivative at the point.
The normal to a curve at a point is perpendicular to
the tangent at that point.
Tangent and
normal are
perpendicular, so mym2=—1.
Figure 1
Consider a curve y=f(x) and a point P(x1, y:) on it. Li] Find the gradient and the equations of the
tangent and normal to y=5x?—7x?+3x+2 at (1, 3).
1. To find the gradient m of the curve at P(x, y:)
(a) Differentiate to find . The gradient of the curve is given by

(b) Substitute x, and y; into the derived function. Wax +3

dx
2. To find the equation of the tangent at P(x:, y:)
(a) Find the gradient m at P(x, yi). At (1, 3), m=15(1)?—14(1) +3
(b) Substitute x:, y: and m in the equation

y-yi=m(x —x1). The equation of the tangent at (1, 3) is

3. To find the equation of the normal at P(x, y:) y-3=4x-1)

(a) Find the gradient m at P(x, y:). i.e. y=4x-1
(b) Since the normal is perpendicular to the tangent,
The gradient of the tangent at (1, 3) is 4, so the
the gradient of the normal is ——. gradient of the normal at (1, 3) is —4 since
m WE=—L
Substitute x;, y; and m in the equation
The equation of the normal at (1, 3) is
1
¥>yi=——(x—X)).
m y33s 41)
ie. 4y+x=13

Velocity and Consider a particle which is moving in a straight line Li] A particle moves in a straight line so that its
acceleration such that its displacement from a fixed point is s after distance from a fixed point O after t seconds is s
time ¢. metres where s=3 —$f+2t. Show that the particle is
at rest at two different times and find these times. Find
Velocity v is the rate of change of displacement s with the acceleration of the particle at these times and
respect to time f¢, interpret the results.
, ds s=}P—3P+2t
cena =)
dt
If v=0, the particle is at rest. So velocity v -<- P—3t+2
t
Ifv <0, the particle is moving in the opposite
direction to that in which s is measured. The particle is at rest when v=0,
i.e. when 2—3t+2=0
Acceleration a is the rate of change of velocity v with or (t—1)(t—2) =0
respect to time f, Therefore t=1 second and t=2 seconds.
: dv So the particle is at rest at two different times.
Le. =,
dt

But v ea S quads
a Adee When t=1 second, a=—1ms~’,
i.e. the particle is being retarded (slowing down).
dt ds dt ds ds When t=2 seconds, a=1ms~°,
i.e. the particle is being accelerated (speeding up).
So acceleration may be written as
dv a's dv
A Paes ecoye

If a=0, the velocity of the particle is constant.

If a>0, the particle is accelerating.
If a<0, the particle is being retarded.

58
 Applications of Differentiation
Worked examples, Guided example and Exam questions

A particle P moves ina straight line such that its distance s m (EX) 1 A particle P moves in a straight line so that its velocity v m/s
froma fixed point O at time ts, where t>0, is given by at time t seconds, where t>0, is given by v= 12t—S?.
s=9f—20. Whatis the velocity and acceleration of P when Calculate:
t= 3s? Find also the distance of P from O whent=4s and show (a) the value of twhen the acceleration of P is zero;
that it is then moving towards O. (b) the distance covered by P between the instants when
t=Oandt=2. *(L)

The velocity of P at time ts is given by De: 18t—6¢. A particle moves in a straight line so that its velocity, v m/s,
is given by v= 12t—f, where f is the time, in seconds,
At time t=3 s, the velocity of P is 18x3—6x3*=0 m/s measured from the start of the motion.
i.e. P is stationary. Find:
The acceleration of P at time fs is (i) the acceleration when t= 20;
(ii) the values of t at which the particle is stationary,
as _ 18—12t (iii) the value of t when the particle is again at its starting
dt” ‘ point. *(C)
At t=3 s, the acceleration of P is 18— 123 =—18 m/s?.
When t=4s, s=9x4*-2x44=16m Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y =3x°—x at
the point where x =3. Find also the equation of the
and & =18x4—6x4?= —24 m/s. tangent at the point where x =3.

Hence at t=4 s, P is 16 m from O and moving towards O.

“(0 & C)
(a) Differentiate (3x+ Vx)* with respect to x.
(b) Find the x coordinates of the points on the curve
2
Xa)
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola y= at which the gradient of the curve is 5.
x? = 4y at the point (6,9).
*(C)
y=
Differentiating with respect to x gives Show that the normal to the curve y = tan x at the point P
ay Dy : 1 ;
ee whose co-ordinates are (2.i)meets the x-axis at the

At the point (6, 9) the gradient of the curve is given by the

point A (HS 0),
value Tygetwhen x=6.
4 *(L)
dx A curve has the equation y = x sin 2x. Find the gradient of
the curve at x=7/3.
i.e. when x=6, D236 5.
dx ()
So the gradient of the tangent to the curve at (6, 9) is 3 and the
A curve is defined by the parametric equations
gradient of the normal to the curve at this point is —3.
x=60-sin 0, y=1-—cos 0, 0<@<2z.
The equation of the tangent at (6, 9) is Show that dy/dx=cot 6/2, and find the equation of the
y—9=3(x—6) tangent and of the normal to the curve at the point where
Le. yosns?. 6= 1/2.
The equation of the normal at (6, 9) is
VY)
y-9=—Kx—6)
Pewoy k= 55- (i) Differentiate tan? 3x with respect to x;
(ii) If x=te! and y=fe', find dy/dx in terms of f;
(iii) Determine the slope of the curve x°+x’y+y*=3 at
the point (1, 1).
GEY. particle moves along the x-axis, Ox, such that its distance x m
(O&C)
from O at the time ts is given by x= f—6f+9t. Calculate the
(a) times at which the particle is stationary, Using implicit differentiation, or otherwise, find an
(b) distance of P from O at these times, expression for the slope of the tangent at the point (xo, yo)
(c) acceleration of P at these times, on the curve x*+xy+y?—x-y=0.
(d) velocity of P when its acceleration is zero. Find:
(a) the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point
(a) Calculate < (the velocity) and equate this to zero. Solve (3, 3),
t (b) the coordinates of the points at which the tangents to
the resulting equation and find the two times (values of f) the curve are parallel to the x-axis;
at which the particle is stationary. (c) the maximum and minimum values of y, distinguishing
(b) Use the two values oftfrom (a) to find the two values ofx. between them;

(c) Calculate exdt— (the acceleration). Substitute the two values (d) the coordinates of the points at which the tangents to
the curve are parallel to the y-axis.
(O & C)
of ¢t from (a) to find the two accelerations.
2
(d) Put aa 0. Find the value of t. Use this in the expression
dt
for a to find the necessary velocity.

ee

59
 30 Changes
Rates of change, Small changes.

eae ue en ea I Sp Ee AS
Rates of Rates of change can be expressed using differentials. i] For a sphere, volume V, radius r
change Rates of increase are positive. QV is the ‘rate of change of volume V
Rates of decrease are negative. rps ae dt with respect to time f’
They are often, but not always, rates of change ‘wit av ete change of volume V
respect to time. d ; tue
However, by convention j with respect to ra Bey 4
‘the rate of change of a quantity Q’ means ar is the ‘rate of change of radius r
‘the rate of change of Q with respect to time’ dt with respect to time ¢

1, Gx dQ
dt
This use of differentials has important applications in
science.

Rates of change can be related by the chain rule Li] An inverted right circular cone of semi-vertical
sia a angle 45° is collecting water from a tap at a steady rate
Deli Se of 18 cm? s~'. Find the rate at which the depth h of
dx du dx water is rising when h=3 cm.
It enables us to find the rate of change of y with ; :
respect to x, if y is a function of u and the rate of Given h and the rate of increase of the water volume
change of u with respect to x is known. V, we must write V as a function of h and find the
rate of increase of h.
This is useful when solving problems concerning rates Volume of a cone V=harh.
of change of physical quantities. Since the semi-vertical angle
is 45°, r=h.
So V=4nh'
r

and a mth’.
45°
.dV_dV dh
Sing
dt dh dt :
th Figure 1
= sth? Ore =e
dt
ay 2 av
dt zh’ dt

When h=3 cm and Ace 182cm?s',

dh_ 1 ;
ek -18%cms!=2cms"!

So the depth of water is rising at a rate of 2cms"!.

Small ee (2) _dy Li] The radius r of a circle is 5 cm. Find the increase
changes &—>0\dx/ dx in the area A of the circle when the radius expands by
then — =— when dx is small. ,
One dy Let the small increase in A be 6A
So eyes: dy bx and the small increase in r be 6r.
dx A=a2r
This approximation can be used to estimate the small dA
dy and ra 2ar
change dy in y, if a can be found and the small
change ox in x is given. Using 6A 2s or
dr
It can also be used to estimate percentage changes.
If x is increased by P%, =2nr. or
When r=Scm, 6r=0.01 cm
then ES i
100 6A ~2(5)(0.01) cm?
and the approximate percentage increase in y is ~0.314 cm?
So the required increase in area~0.314 cm’.
® 100%.
y

60
 Changes
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

A hemispherical bowl of radius 6 cm contains water which is 3 The radius of a circular oil slick is increasing at 1.5 m/s.
flowing into it at a constant rate. When the height of the water Taking 7 to be 3.14, find, to 2 significant figures, the rate at
is h cm the volume V of water in the bowl is given by which the area of the slick is increasing when its radius is
V=1(6h?—3h>) cm*. Find the rate at which the water level is 300 m.
rising when h=3, given that the time taken to fill the bowl is *(L)
1 minute.
(a) The radius of a circular disc is increasing at a constant
We know V=7(6h?—4h*) is the volume of water in the bowl rate of 0.003 cm/s. Find the rate at which the area is
when the height of the water is h cm. increasing when the radius is 20 cm.
(b) The area of another circular disc increases from 1007 to
Differentiating, - =1(12h—h?). 1017 cm. Use calculus to find the corresponding increase
in the radius.
dV
Tg
When h=3, *(©)
Wicks
We are told that the water is flowing into the bowl at a constant nn A spherical balloon is inflated by gas being pumped in at
the constant rate of 200 cm? per second. What is the rate of
a dV
rate, i.e. one k (a constant). increase of the surface area of the balloon when its radius is
100 cm?
So, V=kt (since V=0 when t=0).
(Surface area of sphere = 477’, volume of sphere =Sar?2
Volume of the bowl V=7(6 x 6*—4 6°) (since h=radius=6),
i.e. V=1447 cm? (S)
So, k= 144m cm?/min i.e. o- 1447 cm?/min. The area of the region enclosed between two concentric "
circles of radii x and y (x >y) is denoted by A. Given thatx
We need to find the rate at which h is increasing when h=3, is increasing at the rate of 2ms7', y is increasing at the rate
of 3 ms‘ and, when t=0, x=4 metres and y=1 metre,
i.e. a when h=3. find:
dt
(i) the rate of increase of A when t=0;
oa
Use —= x ee (chain rule) (ii) the ratio of x to y when A begins to decrease,
ate SiN ahs (iii) the time at which A is zero. (J)

- a. X 1447 cm/min
270 Two variables u and v are connected by the relation
= ss cm/min z ara = where fis aconstant. Given that u and v both vary
27 ueov

= “edcm/s. Sle & : e duaay

with time, ¢, find an equation connecting 7H a uand v.
45

Given also that u is-decreasing at a rate of 2 cm per second

|GE period T of a simple pendulum is calculated using the
and that f= 10 cm, calculate the rate of increase of v when
u=50 cm. (C)
formula T= 27 u where | is the length of the pendulum and g
&
is a constant. Find the percentage change in the period if the
pendulum is lengthened by 2%. A hemispherical bowl of radius a cm is initially full of
water. The water runs out of a small hole at the bottom of
the bow] at a constant rate which is such that it would empty
Calculate - Find 6/ as a percentage of I. the bowl in 24 s. Given that, when the depth of the water is
x cm, the volume of water is $7x?(3a—x) cm, prove that
Use sT~2 xOl to find OT. the depth is decreasing at a rate of a°/{36x(2a—x)} cm/s.
Find after what time the depth of water is $a cm, and the
rate at which the water level is then decreasing.
Percentage change = rx 100%. (0&0)
Apply the small increment formula f(x + 6x) — f(x) = 6xf’(x),
(EX) 1 The volume of a sphere is given by V=4nr. An elastic to tan x to find an approximate value of
spherical balloon is being blown up so that the radius is (eat) 7
' increasing at the rate of 1 cm per second. Calculate the rate n |————} —tan -.
400 4
at which the volume of the balloon is increasing when the
radius is 5 cm. (L)
aiW) 10 Fluid enters a leaky vessel through a valve. The valve
admits fluid at a rate proportional to the volume of fluid
2 An elastic sphere filled with water has a small hole from
already in the vessel, and the rate of leakage is proportional
which the water leaks. When the water leaks away at the
to the square of the volume already in the vessel. There is a
rate of 167 cm?/s, the radius is decreasing at the rate of
balance between inflow and outflow when the volume in
1 cm/s. Assuming that the spherical shape is preserved as
the vessel is Vo. Initially there is a volume {Vp in the
the water leaks away, calculate, at the instant given by the
vessel, and the volume increases to }V in time T. Find the
above data, (a) the radius, (b) the rate at which the surface
time taken for the volume to increase from 4Vo to 3Vo.
area is decreasing.
*(O & C) (O)
manne reer eee ee re errr

61
 31 Special Points
Local maxima and minima, Points of inflexion, Tests for points, Applications.

local local minimum

Local At a point of local maximum a function has a greater admaximum
maxima value than at points immediately on either side of it. Ls f'(x) <0 f'(x) > 0
and minima At a point of local minimum a function has a smaller
value than at points immediately on either side of it. P
f(x) >0 NF'(x) <0 f(x) =0
Local maxima and minima are also called turning Figure 1 Figure 2
points.
A function may have more than one turning point. maximum greatest
The local maxima and minima are not necessarily the maximum
greatest or least values of a function in a given range. = minimum
least minimum
Figure 3

Points of At a point of inflexion, the graph of a function

inflexion changes the direction in which it is curving. : ’ '
horizontal points of inflexion general points of inflexion

f(x) >0

f'’(x) =0 f" (x) =0

f' (x) <0
Figure 4 Figure 5

Tests for A stationary point is a point at which f'(x)=0. i] Find the stationary points of f(x)=3x* —2x*+3x
points Local maxima, minima and horizontal points of and identify their nature.
inflexion are stationary points.
To test for stationary points f(x) =4x? —2x?+3x
(a) Find f’(x) and f"(x). f' (x) =x?-4x43
(b) Put f’(x)=0 and solve the resulting equation to f"(x)=2x-4
find the x-coordinate(s) of the point(s).
(c) Find f"(x) at the stationary point(s). At stationary points f’(x)=0,
(i) If f"(x)<0, the point is a local maximum. i.e. x*?-—4x+3=0
(ii) If f"(x)>0, the point is a local minimum. (x -—3)(x-1) =0
(iii) If f’(x)=0, find the sign of f’(x) for a value p= sande
of x just to the left and just to the right of
the point. When x=3, f"(x) =2(3) —4>0, i.e. a minimum.

Sign to left | sign to right | type of point Therefore (3, 0) is a local minimum.

EEDiets | |whenx=1,/")=20=4<0, ie maxim,

Therefore (1, $) is a local maximum.
+ it |point of
— — inflexion [i] Find any points of inflexion of
f(x) =4h8= 243.
To test te a: points of inflexion Gear i] above: f"(x)=2x—4
(a) Find fC). ; ; At a general point of inflexion f"(x)=0,
(b) Put f’(x)=0 and solve the resulting equation to i.e. 2x—4=0>x=2
find
; the possible
;
x-coordinate(s).
a
at a . ae
For x=2*, f"(x)>0|i.e.f"(x) changes
(c) Find the sign of f"(x) for a value of x just to the Forxao5 7"
: : 2 x=2°,f"(x)<0 sign
left and just to the right of the point. If f’(x) meee F .
changes sign, the point is a point of inflexion. So (2, —4) is a general point of inflexion.

Applications The above methods can be applied to practical Lil] A rectangle has perimeter 28m. What is its
problems in which the maximum or minimum value maximum area?
of a quantity is required. The procedure is
(a) write an expression for the required quantity, Let x and y metres be the sides of the rectangle.
(b) use the given conditions to rewrite it in terms of Its perimeter =2x + 2y =28Sy=14—x.
a single variable, Its area A=xy =x(14—x).
(c) find the turning point(s) and their type(s). dA
—=14-2r,
It is often obvious from the problem itself dx
whether a maximum or minimum has been
obtained. When A is a maximum, <0, e+ 14 —2x=0Sx=7
x
When x=7, y=14-—x=7.
So the maximum area xy is 7* m?=49 m?.
eeeSSS SSS SSS)
62
 Special Points
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WE] The lengths of the sides of a rectangular sheet of metal are 8 cm 2 Thecurve y=x*+ax+bhasa turning point at (1,3). Finda
and 3 cm. A square of side x cm is cut from each corner of the and b. *(S)
sheet and the remaining piece is folded to make an open box.
(a) Show that the volume V of the box is given by 3 An open rectangular box is made of very thin sheet metal.
V = 4x3 —22x7 +.24x cm?. Its volume is 128 cm?, its width is x cm, and its length is
(b) Find the value of x for which the volume of the box is a 4x cm. Obtain an expression for its depth in terms of x.
maximum. Calculate the maximum volume. Show that the total surface area of its base, its ends and its

(a) ; . X cm sides is equal to (++ =) cm’. Calculate the dimensions

x
of the box for which the surface area is a minimum; explain
why your answer gives a minimum rather than a maximum.
*(W)
eS = 2x) Ce

Mewes
4 Differentiate the function ai Sia with respect to x. Find

the value of x at which the function has a stationary value

= 8 cm and determine the nature of the stationary value.

The volume of the box V=(8—2x)(3—2x)x cm?

i.e. V=4x3—22x7+24x cm?. (1) 5 (a) The function f is defined by: f(x) Cae
(b) Differentiating (1) with respect to x gives sey geari
3x(x +4)
Show that f’(x) = —
OVE po 44r +94 (x-2)?(4+1)?"
dx Find the local maxima and minima of f, and sketch its
graph.
For a maximum (or minimum) value of V, ~ =0, (b) Show that the expression sin +2 cos 6, where
0<6@<3z, has a maximum value equal to V5.
i.e. 12x7—44x+24=0
=>)" 43x—=2)(x—=3)=0
(W)
i.e. t= *s OFS. 6 The parametric equations of a curve are x= log, (1+4),
Clearlyxcannot be 3 cm since the width of the sheet initially is 2
only 3 cm. So x=§ cm. y= e’ for t>—1. Find o and csin terms of t. Prove that
&
Differentiating again gives,
the curve has only one turning point and that it must be a
minimum. (A)

ete ; : : 7 Find the maximum point on the curve y=—————

When x =3, eo i.e. V is a maximum. x°+2x+4
and show that there are points of inflexion at (0, 4) and
So the maximum volume is given by subtituting x = 3 in (1) (=2, a):
giving (S)
8 Investigate the nature of the turning points of the curve
y =(x—1)(x—a)’ in the cases of (i) a>1, (ii) a<1. Sketch
on separate diagrams the curves y = (x—1)(x—a)”? when
[rina the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve a> 1 and when 0<a<1.
y =x*—4x3. Show that the curve has a point of inflexion at x=2. (L)
Calculate a Equate this to zero to find the two values of x 9 State the derivatives of sin x and cos x, and use these results
S to show that the derivative of tan x is sec? x.
where these stationary points occur. Show further that

—Cag Fete
5
d Z
; : (tan = ;
Next calculate wy and use it to find the nature of the dx ( n) 1+x?
A vertical rod AB of length 3 units is held with its lower end
stationary points. (This check fails for one value of x SO it
B at a distance 1 unit vertically above a point O. The angle
is necessary to find the type of stationary point by considering
subtended by AB at a variable point P on the horizontal
d : tes
the gradient = on each side of this point.)
plane through O is 6. Show that 0 = tan” ‘x—tan™ 1 Awhere
To show the curve has a point of inflexion at x = 2, show that
2. x= OP. Prove that, as x varies, 0 is a maximum when
os is zero at x =2 and the sign of the gradient of the curve on x =2, and that the maximum value of 0 can be expressed as
43)
each side of the point is the same. tan
ee —_ 4 VJ)
d 10 A right circular cone with semivertical angle 6 is inscribed
(EX) 1 The curve for which faea(x—p)(x—q), where a, p and q in asphere of radius a, with its vertex and the rim of its base
are constants, has turning-points at (2, 0) and (1, 1). on the surface of the sphere. Prove that its volume is
(i) State the value of p and q. ‘7a cos‘ @ sin’ @. If a is fixed and 6 varies, find the limits
(ii) Using these values, determine the value of a. within which this volume must lie.
*(C) (On@)
ee

63
 fe

32 Curve Sketching
Known curves, Unknown curves.

Known A sketch of a curve shows its basic shape and main Lil From this sketch of y=cosx,
curves features. It is not an accurate drawing of the curve. sketch: (a) y=cosx+2,
(b) y=cos(x— 7),
The student should be able to sketch the graphs of (c) y=2 cosx,
the basic functions considered elsewhere in this book, (d) y =cos(2x). Figure 1
e.g. trigonometrical, exponential functions, etc.
(a)
y =cosx +2 (c) y =2 cos x 2
y
The graphs of simple transformations of a known
curve y=f(x) can be easily sketched too.
The graph of:
y=f(x)+c is y=f(x) translated a distance c, parallel
to the y-axis,
y=f(x—c) is y=f(x) translated to the right a distance
c, parallel to the x-axis,
y=cf(x) is y=f(x) stretched by a scale factor c, Figure 2 Figure 3
parallel to the y-axis, y
1 (b) y = cos (x—7)
(d) y = cos (2x)
y=f(cx) is y=f(x) stretched by a scale factor a.
parallel to the x-axis.

Figure 4

a!
Unknown Sketching a graph of an unknown curve y=f(x) is Lil Sketch the graph of ages
curves like building up an identikit picture. In general, the
important features can be built up by answering the (a) Since (x—2)? is the
following questions (as appropriate) and denominator of the function,
systematically adding the findings to a pair of axes.
there is a discontinuity at 0
(a) What is the domain of the function? x=2. So x=2 is an asymptote.
If f(x) is a polynomial, then the domain is the set The domain is the set of ‘real
of real numbers. numbers, excluding x =2.
If f(x) is a rational function, say P(x)/Q(x), then (b) When x=0, y=—}. Figure ----Np-----
@
the values of x for which Q(x)=0 will give Flot (0; —4):
discontinuities, i.e. the curve will have
asymptotes at these values of x. (c) When y=0, x=}.
Plot (3, 0)
(b) Does the curve cut the y-axis?
If possible, let x=0 and find the corresponding (d) No symmetry since
value of y. f(x) #f(—x)
(c) Does the curve cut the x-axis? and f(—x)# —f(x). =Ape
ree
———
ee

Let y=0 and, if possible, find the corresponding 2-1, 2¢-1

value(s) of x. (e) y=
(x-2)? x*-4x+4
(d) Does the curve have symmetry?
If f(x)=f(—x), then x=0 is an axis of symmetry. Dividing numerator and
If f(—x)=—f(x), then the part of the graph for denominator by x (the
which x<0 is a half-turn about the origin of the highest power of x in the
part of the graph for which x>0. numerator) gives
(e) How does the curve behave as x» +? po=e
If f(x) is a rational function, say P(x)/Q(x), then
divide P(x) and Q(x) by the highest power of x a yA!
in P(x) to find how f(x) behaves as x> +. As x, y>0*.
(f) How does the curve behave near any asymptotes? AS x>-— ©, y>0"”
If x; is a discontinuity, then look at the curve as:
(f) There is a discontinuity
(i) x—x7, i.e. values of x just less than x1,
(ii) x—>x7, i.e. values of x just greater than x). at x=2.
(g) Has the curve any special points (maximum, AS x27, yot+o,
minimum or inflexion)? (See Special Points, p. AS x->2*, yot+o,
62.) a(e- Det)
(h) Are there any regions of the xy-plane where the (g) y’=
(x—2)?
curve does not exist?
If f(x) is a rational function, then rewrite y=f(x) When y’=0, x=~1, i.e. (-1, =3)
as a quadratic in x. For real x, the quadratic’s is a stationary point.
discriminant=0 (see Quadratics, p. 6). This gives
the regions of the plane where the curve does » _(@—2)?(2x
+5)
exist. (x—2)°
When x=~—1, y">0, i.e. a
local minimum.
(h) Obviously the curve does not ee
exist below (—1, —4). 0
 Curve Sketching
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

EN
Ve Ak Se ee TN ee a re ee

WE] Sketch the curve y= oe (EX) 1 Sketch the curve y pei J

Ke xe
" (5)
(a) Since x(x + 6) is the denominator of the function, there are
discontinuities at x=0 and x= —6. 2 Given that flz)=x-14——, x real, x#—1, find the
So, x=0 and x = —6 are asymptotes. x
The domain of the function is the set of real numbers excluding values of x for which f’(x) =0. Sketch the graph of f,
x=0 and x=—6. showing the co-ordinates of the turning points and
(b) Since x=0 is a discontinuity, the curve does not cut the indicating clearly the form of the graph when |x| becomes
y-axis. large. (J)
(c) When y=0, x=2. Plot (2, 0).
(d) No symmetry. 6 3 Sketch, on separate diagrams, the graphs of:
(i) y=x°(1—x); (ii) y = (x+1)/(x +2).
Gt x7>+6x
aoe E:
x+6 (0 & C)
Asx > +, y > 0* 4 Given that y= Ae eUl
x°+x4+1
Asx—> —®, y>0°.
(i) state the limiting value of y: (a) as x tends to ;,.
(f) Discontinuity at x =0.
(b) as x tends to —,
Asx > 0°, y—> +2.
(ii) show that y is finite for all real values of x,
As x > 07, yo +a,
(iii) determine the set of values which y must take for real
Discontinuity at x = —6.
values of x,
Asx— -6 ,y— —®,
(iv) determine the values of x for which y has a stationary
As x— —6*, y> —~,
value. Sketch the curve which represents the given
—3(x?—4x-12) —3(x+2)(x-6) equation. (A)
(g) y’=
x*(x+6)? x*(x+6)?
5 Sketch (on separate diagrams) the graphs of:
So, y’=0 when x= —2 or 6.
As we pass through x = —2, y’ goes —ve, 0, +ve, (a) y=x—xy (b)'y=1—e*, (c) y=1/d—e*).
so x= —2 is a point of local minimum. You are only asked for rough sketches; details of maxima
As we pass through x=6, y’ goes +ve, 0, —ve and minima are not required but you should indicate the
so x =6 is a point of local maximum. behaviour of the curves for numerically large and small
values of x. (O&C)
(h) Rewrite y= 3(x—2) as yx* + 3(2y—1)x + 6=0.
x(x+6) 6 Find the turning points on the curve y=e’sin x for
For real x, Sy 1)?>4.y.6. 0<x<2z. Sketch the curve over this interval. (A)
ie. 12y?—20y+3>0.

>y
1 3
5 orry y2-.
S-
7 The function f is defined by f(x) 2 Show that f(x)
cannot take values between —4 and —1. Sketch the graph
So, for -<y<5, the curve does not exist. of the function showing clearly the behaviour of fas x > +1
and as x > +0.
y
(W)
8 If y=2x4—x?+1, find a and deduce the three values of x

for which 20. Find the corresponding values of y.

Distinguish between maximum and minimum values of y

; d fae
either by considering the signs of = or by considering
LLL
a Hence sketch the curve for values of x from —1

to +k (O & C)
=i1
9 (Throughout this question, —37<sin™" x<}7.)
(ee es 5
(i) Prove that, for —1<x<1, — (sin7! x) =(1—x?)“.
{= 23
(ii) Given that poe la (-—1<x<1, x #0), prove
¥
GE) Sketch the curve y?=x(x—3)°.
that 2 is always negative, and sketch the graph of y.
First sketch the graph of f(x) = x(x—3)’.
Since y= +V(f(x)) = +(x—3) Vx, notice, (iii) Given that z=(1—x’)' sin“! x, (-1<x<1), find=
(a) y?=x(x—3) is symmetrical about the x-axis,
(b) for x<0, y is non-real, i.e. graph does not exist, Using your sketch in (ii), or otherwise, determine how
(c) (0, 0) and (3, 0) lie on the graph, many turning points there are on the graph of z.
(iv) Sketch the graph of z. (No co-ordinates of turning
(d) for 0<f(x)<1, ly|>f(x), since Vif) > fle), points are required.)
(e) for f(x)>1, lyl<f().
Hence sketch the curve y?=x(x—3)’. (C)
Henne
eee eee eee eee eee SS —

65
 _- gor | |
33 Integration
Definition, Standard integral, Definite integral, Recognising derivatives, Trigonometrical
integrands.

Definition Integration is the inverse of differentiation. It is the process of finding a function given its derivative.
If y is the derivative of f(x) with respect to x, then the indefinite integral of y with respect to x 1s:
|ydx=f(x)+c where c is a constant of integration. The function to be integrated, y, is the integrand.

Standard
integrals : :
function integral function integral

algebraic constant k kx-c¢ inverse

rat trigonometrical
x"(n#—1) re
n+1

trigonometrical sin x —cos x +c

(x in radians) COS x sin x+c logarithmic
tan x In|sec x| +c and exponential
cosec x In|tan $x|+c
sec x In|secx + tanx|+c
cot x In|sin x|+c

Definite The definite integral from a to b of f(x) is: [i] 6] E

.
integral b b 2x
—dx=| In x y
Ifeyax=| Fy where F(x) = [roa
a a = In 6 = In Z,

| = F(b) - F(a) we
a and b are called the limits of integration. 2
Note: The constant c is eliminated in the subtraction. Are

Recognising An integrand may be recognised as the result of Li] |cos 2x dx =} sin2x +c

derivatives differentiation by the chain rule.
since if f(x)=sin 2x, then f’(x)=2 cos 2x.
Look for products of the form f(x)[g(x)]".
If f(x) is a multiple of the derivative of g(x), then the
integrand is of this type, f(x) and g(x) are usually fi |x(x’+1)?dx =x? +1)?
+c y ;
polynomials or trigonometrical functions. Here g(x)=(x2+1) and g'(x)=2x=2f(x). . Yer”

A special case is an integrand of the form £@) . [i] x ;

f(x) 5 dx =4 In|3+x?|+c
} f'(x) 34x
In this case: oe In| f(x)| + c.
f(x) Here f(x)=3+.2? and f'(x)=2x.

Trigono- 1. Even powers of sin x or cos x Li] | 2 =| “i

metrical The integrand is rewritten using the double angle cosas = |e
integrands formulae (see Trigonometrical Identities p. 40). =$x+4 sin2dx+c

2. Odd powers of sin x or cos x li] [cos'x dx=|cos? x cos x dx |

If the integrand is an odd power of:
(a) sin x, rewrite it as (even power of sin x) sin x, = |(sin?) cos x dx
(b) cos x, rewrite it as (even power of cos x) cos x.
Then use cos? x+sin? x=1 to rewrite the: =|cos x dx—|sin®xcos x dx
(a) (even power of sin x) in terms of cos x, =sinx—4 sin’x+c
(b) (even power of cos x) in terms of sin x.

3. Powers of tan x
Li] |tantx= |(sec? x-1) de
The identity 1+ tan? x=sec” x may be used to rewrite
the power of tan x. =tanx—x+c

4. Products of the form sin mx cos nx

i] |sin 3x cos xdx= |3(sin 4x + sin 2x) dx
The integrand may be rewritten as a sum or
difference using the factor formulae (see =—§cos
4x — fcos2x. +c
Trigonometrical Identities p. 40).

66
 Integration
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

Died
WE arco each of the following integrals: (EX) 1 Evaluate: | a =) dx
43 5 1 fae *(S)
(a) | (2-vi) dx (c) iG+e)(2+e*) dx 1\2
i 0 2 (a) Given that f(x) = (2-5) , x #0, find f’(x).

w |ri sin 3x dx d [Pe

(d) =a. ‘s (b) Evaluate ii(¥e+ 35) x “(H)
4 /2 2 4 9 6 -
(a) | (2
ox vi) AR -| (3-41) ax 3 (a) Integrate with respect to x:
1 le Nes OE (i) (2—x?)?; (ii) (x +1)x7?.
4
= = 2
= i(Sea = Ghatx)dx (b) Evaluate Ix(x—2)(x+1) dx. *(A)
Ox! 6x? x2 |4 4 (i) Integrate with respect to x:
2 oe arid
oe Oe en.
ee Oe
nae

9 1
= (-2-24+8)- (-9-12+3) (ii) Evaluate:
=Soe21. :
(a) |x’ (1—x)* dx;
2
(b) |sin 2x dx;
Z 0 0
(b) ieee |
- g cos 2x A
2 0 (c) isec” 2x dx. *(OrdG)
1 1 1 4
= (-5cos z)= (—400s0) 5 Evaluate each of the following:
e

=3 (i) |(e*+5)
x
Hepa i1 (742)
x
A.

(c) |(3+e*)(2+e%) dx -| (6+3e-%+2e"+1) dx (iii) |(cos x+sin x)* dx. *(W)

0 0 0
= [7x+(—1)3e"*
+2e*]} 6 (a) ee the value of each of the following definite
integrals:
= (7—3e *+2e) — (—3+2) 2 2”
digi Son 7 (i) i (+ I)x—3)idxes (a) \ V (3x) dx;
e 2 °
4 cos ;
(4) i — [5 In x! (iii) [sn (37x) dx. Aorta e
pe:
{ (b) Draw a sketch of the part of the curve y= V(x?—9) |
= (5 In 4)—G In 2) between x =3 and x=6. Without attempting to evaluate |
4 6
=Sin\7 2 the integral, deduce that 4< |F V(x?—9) dx<3V3,
=51n2. \_explaining your reasoning. *(OLE) J

7 Integrate the following with respect to x:

[e]3 calculate the values of these integrals. - (i) x°(x*-3)°; (ii) tan x; (iii) ree (S)

(a) 1 |he (3-

ee dx ‘Sh edi
(c) iL 8 Find
Find | sin
| sin x(1+cos?
x(1+cos* x)dx dx.
x) (C)

bi af 9 Determine the values of p and q for which

ae (d) Dees x°—4x+5=(x—p)’+q and hence evaluate
0 1+x 0 w4+1 3 1
\ |tyes dx.
(a)Rewrite the expression remembering that nil and : ne ees
% 4
1 Calculate also [=
spot alas dx and deduce, or find
ea “4. Integrate term by term. 2— Ax +5
Xs
(b) This is a standard a otherwise, the value of [a3 dx.

(c) Use the identity sin* x _— —cos 2x). (Your answers need not be given as decimals.) _—_(/)

(d) Use < (In x) ot 10 Given that a>1 and |(3x?—2x —4)dx = 10, find a.
x x 1 (H)

67
 a)

34 Methods of Integration
Use of partial fractions, Substitution, Parts.

Use of partial An integrand may be a rational function, not of the

fractions f'@)
type F(x) :

If it is a proper fraction, then express it in terms of 3x?+2x+4

——— Ss =
i————
3 +
1
partial fractions if possible (see Rational Functions (2x+1)(1+x?) (2x+1) (1+x?)
p.4). The solutions of the resulting integrals are often
log and/or inverse trig functions. =$ In|2x+1|+tan
x+c
If it is an improper fraction, then divide to obtain a i] [paz
quotient and proper fraction, which can then be (—3)(e+3)
expressed in partial fractions if necessary.
1 2
= || x+2+——_-——_| d
IE EE WE)
=4$x?+2x4+In|x—3|—2In|x
+3|+c

Substitution Some integrals may be found more easily by using a Li] Using the substitution x=tan 6, find re ry
substitution, i.e. changing the variable, and evaluating
the transformed integral. Let x=tan 0 Limits: x| 0
dx
If the evaluation of |f(x)dx requires a 16 sec’@ 1 | 2/4
0| 0
substitution, then there are two basic methods.
ps ib ep
1. Let x=g(6) 0 (1+x’)? Jo (1+tan’6)?
han
(a) Find =. -[? sec'O ip _ [i 1
(b) Replace x by g(6) in f(x) to give F(6). 0 secé 0 sec’d
(0) Use [fayar=| Fo Hae dx
= [* costaao=1[¥ (1+c0s20a6
0
i
0

2. Let u=h(x) =|5+7sin 264% Le!

du dx jes 4
(a) Find
Fi —re and hence
nce =
—.

(b) Change f(x) to F(u). a et

By a suitable substitution, find |ves
(c) Use |f(x)dx= |F(u) & du.

When evaluating an indefinite integral by substitution, Letu=V(x—3), so aa —3) ~ Ax —3)!

the answer must be transformed back to a function de
of x. re Wee 8) =2u
u
When evaluating a definite integral by substitution, and x=u?+3.
change the limits of integration to the corresponding ,
limits for the new variable and find the answer in this iee aes ee i(u*+3) Oe. |(u2+3) du
form. V(x -3) to
=§ue+6ut+c
=4[ V(x-3)}>+6V(x-3)+c

Parts The integration of some products require integration Li] Evaluate |x sinx dx.
by parts using
do.
[u2.de=wo- |vax Let u=x and —=sinx
dx
—_—= 1
ee Xe) v=—cos x
The product is usually of a ‘power of x’ and either a dx
logarithmic, trigonometrical or exponential function.
Care must be taken in the choice of the factor to be: |xsinx dx=x. (—cosx)— (—cosx).1.de
u (the one to be differentiated)
d =-xeosx+ |cosx dx
and (the one to be integrated).
=—xcosx+sinx+c
du v
v— must be simpler to integrate than u —.
dx dx
If it is not, make the other factor u.

68
 Methods of Integration
Worked examples, Guided example and Exam questions

SAS A EIN IY BT SRR RL ERT BTTatOS RNS ORSINI

WE Jae the following integrals. an integral of the form {xe* dx. This now requires integrating
2 2x? +2x+3
(a) [> In x dx (b) [es
De +3)" by parts. For this integral let u=x and 2 =e*. Complete the

integration.
(a) This requires integration by parts. (b) Notice the integrand is a rational function with numerator
and denominator of equal degree. This cannot be expressed in
Let u=In x, so Gaeae
dx x
>
partial fractions immediately. Divide out the integrand first,
and express in partial fractions. Now integrate.
dv ii
and — =x’, so v=— x°. (c) Use the substitution x =tan u (since 1+tan? u = sec” u).
dx ee Now integrate the function and substitute for u=tan™'x at °
the end.
Now [inxdx= (nx) (4°) - hte
3 Slop=an.s 2
(EX) 1 Evaluate Ix(2—x)’ dx. (L)
Eis [vdx 1
3 3
2 Evaluate, correct to two decimal places, [(1—x) sin x dx.
0
See hele
3 9 VJ)
3 Evaluate:
(b) Notice that the integrand can be written in partial 4 (vz 1\3
fractions. +=] ax;
2x? +2x+3 1 x
(see unit 5)
2 J ae i)
2
a Ew ER EE
(x+2)(x°+3) x42 x°+3
24 wees (b) | cos 2x sin 4x dx;
fa SuL alent raat 0
(2) Ga--3) ¥+2 +3 3
* ilas
=In |x+2|+4 In (x!+3)+c c ooo
=k In |(x+2) V(x? +3)I — o (x+1)(x*+1) (L)

4 Given that y= es
WE) Using the substitution u= V (5x +1), evaluate Gime)
(i) express y in partial fractions;
|,
2xV(5x+1) dx. 4
(ii) evaluate iy dx. (A)
3 1
u-—1 6 e
If u= V(5x+1) then x=
5 (a) Evaluate (i) |tan 2x dx; (ii) Ix* In x dx.
0 1
ener Limits: x| u {Logarithms and powers of e need not be evaluated.]
dike SS: —Vx
25) Gt
(b) Find
'
|e ede. es
0} 1

6 Evaluate the integrals

1
Hence |aVisx+1)dr= [2
=(u?—1).u. = du idx FPA
by pe
IVa—4r) J, V4)
7 Evaluate the indefinite integrals:
1 2 x ~ =
DS a; SonneLL KS as oe
i) iV(2x +1) (it) |pceiar (ait |4—e*
(You may find the substitution e* =¢ helpful in (iii).)

(5-5)-G-3)] (O & C)
8 (a) Using the substitution y = x + 1, or otherwise, evaluate:
pete bia *
=) 0 +2410
(b) Find |2xe™ dx.

GE) Find the following integrals

1
©)c) Find
Bnd[Fae
ey Se
(w)
—<—_————— dx
(a) [xe
e* dx (b) ES
ME lye +x?)
9 Express f(x) 2 see in partial fractions. Hence find
(a) Since the integrand is a product use integration by parts. ae Gesell)
[reas for x>0. (A)
Let u=x? ae *. After first application, you will get
dx

69
 7)

35 Applications of Integration
Areas, Volumes of revolution, Mean value.

Areas Before calculating areas, sketch the curve. Li] Find the area enclosed by y=x°—4x?+3x and the
x-axis between x=0 and x=3.
1. Area between a curve and the x-axis y=P—4x2+3x
The area bounded by y y = f(x) ey x(x —4¢-F 3 3)
the curve y=f(x), =x(x—1)(x—3)
the x-axis and the
lines x=a, x=b So the curve cuts the
is given by x-axis at x=0,
: 0 o : x=1 and x=3. :
igure 1 Figure 4
[yee Area ye) (x3 — 4x? + 3x) dx
+ 0

This is positive if the — SS xo 43 3x21

area is above the x-axis = = —-
and negative if below. Figure 2 4 3 20
If the curve cuts the x-axis between the given limits A (lad 5 3)36
(a) find areas above and below the x-axis separately, “RA 3 2
(b) add their numerical values. 5
=— square units
2. Area between a curve and the y-axis 12
The area bounded by 3
the curve x=g(y), Y x=gly) Area B=| (x?—4x?+3x) dx
the y-axis and the d E
lines y=c, y=d =
is given by " ee ae eS

['xay, : ~(®1_108,27)
(5)
d

; Figure 3 45.5 Sty 2 12

pase dic
12-12
3. Area between two curves a
To find the HE between two curves, calculate = —=" square units
(a) the x-coordinates of the points of intersection of 12
ehescurves to; givethe Tunits of pategtation, The negative sign confirms that B is below the x-axis.
(b) the area under each curve separately,
(c) the difference between the areas. Total BE PE ae) square units
12° 12 giz

Volumes of | Before calculating volumes, sketch the curve. Li] Find the volume of the solid formed when the
revolution 1. Rotation about the x-axis area between the x-axis, the lines x=2 and x=4 and
The area bounded by y the curve y=x° is rotated once about the x-axis. Leave
the curve y=f(x), your answer as a multiple of x.
the x-axis and the Vol f ae
iwi tare olume of revolution y aoa
rotated once about Seed d
the x-axis. eee
b
The volume of the solid formed is given by i my? dx. = iEu(x’)? dx
z 0 2 4 x
2. Rotation about the y-axis al 4 dx Figure 7
The area bounded by , chs
the curve x=g(y),
the y-axis and the Lae 4 45-95
lines y=c, y=d is mrs ha )
rotated once about
the y-axis. == (1024-32)
Figure6 5
‘ Ewsite fi os 992 an
The volume of the solid formed is given by | 2x* dy. ae zccubic units

Mean value The mean value of y=f(x) over a closed interval i] Find the mean value of y=sin x over the interval
asxxb is defined to be 0 to 1:
1 x
dx. Mean value -_| sin x eee x|é
b —. Q |
Ya 2 —(0 40 a

=*-(-)-[-a@p=2
70
 Applications of Integration
Worked examples, Guided example and Exam questions

ESD A a AE A TSR INE I ee ON TS BRN STREETS

WE) GE)A bowl is formed by rotating about the y-axis the area contained
between that part of the curve 2y =x fromx = 0 to x = 4, the line
x=4 and the x-axis. Calculate (a) the maximum volume of
water the bowl could hold (b) the volume of material forming
the bowl.

First sketch the required area.

To find the volume of water the bowl could hold evaluate the
8
integral imx” dy.
0
To find the volume of material forming the bowl, calculate the
P volume of a circular cylinder of radius 4 and height 8 units.
Calculate the shaded area shown between the curve y = A Subtract the first volume from this to give the required volume
2Sgad of material.
and the straight line y+3x =9.
6
The curve y = rari 3 and the line y+3x =9 intersect at x =2 :
1 Calculate the area enclosed between the curve y =a3x°+2,
the lines x =1, x =3 and the x-axis. *(A)

yea 2 Gi)i Sketchch the

the curve curve yy== (x—1)(x—2)(x—3),
(eI) 22), deatin
indicating
ea calculate Area, between y+3x =9,x =2,x =3 and the eel the co-ordinates of the points where it cuts
: the axes.
Since the shape formed is a trapezium, (ii) Find the area, above the x-axis, bounded by the curve
1 2) and the axis of x. *(W)
Area, =— [(9—3X2)+ 0]. 1== square units.
2 2 3 A function f(x) is defined by the formula f(x) =2x*+2x°,
Area, between the curve, x =2, x =3 and the x-axis is x € R, where R is the set of real numbers.
3h 6 (a) Find the stationary points of f(x) and determine their
Areaz = | (—- 3)dx nature, justifying your answers.
7S ea (b) Find where the graph of f(x) meets the x and y axes and
3 make a rough sketch of the graph.
= EIn |x-1|- ar| (c) Calculate the finite area bounded by the x-axis and the
2 graph of f(x). (H)
= (6 In 2—9)
—(6 In 1-6)
= (6 In 2—3) square units. 4 Sketch the curve: y=1 ai The region R is bounded by
Required area = Area, — Area i
4
2 the curve y= 1—-—,, the x-axis and the lines x =) aunts|
=——(6 In 2-3) is
= x=1. Find the volume generated when R is rotated
a (3—4 In 2) square units. completely about the x-axis, leaving your answer as a
2 multiple of 7. *(S)

WE] Sketch, on the same axes, those parts of the curve y = 16—x? and 5 Sketch the graphs of y?=16x and y=x—5. Find
the line y =6x which lie in the same quadrant. Shade the area (i) the co-ordinates of their points of intersection;
which satisfies y<16—x°, y=6x and x>0. Find the volume (ii) the area of the finite region enclosed between the
generated when this area is rotated completely about the x-axis, graphs. (A)
leaving your answer as a multiple of 1. ; 5
6 Draw a rough sketch of the circle x*+y*= 100, and the
The required volume is curve 9y = 2x’; find the co-ordinates of the points A and B
obtained by rotating the area 1 where they meet. Calculate the area bounded by the minor
below the curve and between arc AB of the circle and the other curve, and the volume
the lines x = 0 and x = 2 and the obtained by rotating this area about the axis Oy.
x-axis around the x-axis and OLE)
7 The region R in the first quadrant is bounded by the y-axis,
then subtracting the volume
obtained by rotating the
the x-axis, the line x =3 and the curve y*=4—x.
(i) Draw a sketch showing the region R and calculate
triangle
; with baseet2 and height
4 its area. :
pron Ihe tans : A ‘ (ii) Calculate the volume formed when R is rotated
2 2 about the y-axis through one revolution. (C)
So, volume required = im(16—x?)” dx — |m(6x)” dx
2
% 8 The function
F
g is defined by g(x) = V1 —x*). Find the area
y Be lah EY ae of the region bounded by the graph of g, the lines x =0,
isIarea eg ae x =4 and the x-axis, by using the substitution x =sin 0, or
2 otherwise, to evaluate the integral. (W)
= 256—68x*+x*) dx
A i( dis? 9 The area bounded by the curve y = tan x, the x-axis and the
683,00 |7 . 7. é
=| 256x——
vr + — ordinate x a is rotated about the x axis. Calculate the
0
= n[(512—68.8+¥) — (0)] volume of the solid of revolution so formed. (Give your
answer to 3 significant figures.) (S)
= 3377 cubic units.
eee eeee a eee ee ere eee ——————eEEE————eeeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEE——G307uoueet

ch|
 36 Differential Equations
Definitions, Solution, Formation.

sgepa.geos eo a m e a O

Definitions A differential equation is an equation which contains fi] dy =3x is a first order differential equation
at least one differential coefficient. dx
Only first order differential equations will be ‘ ee:
considered here. because the only differential coefficient is a

The solution of a differential equation is an equation Its general solution is y=$x?+c.

relating the variables involved but containing no
differential coefficients. If x=0 when y=1, then c=1. ;
The general solution contains an arbitrary constant. So a particular solution is y=#x’ +1.
A particular solution may be obtained if an ‘x value’
and a corresponding ‘y value’ are given. These values
are called boundary conditions or initial conditions
and enable the constant to be calculated.

Graphically a differential equation describes a

property of a family of curves. Its general solution is
the equation of any member of that family. Its
particular solution is the equation of one particular
member of that family.

Figure 1

; dy _
Solution 1. Equations of the form a=F(x) Lil Solve ra
1
Integrate directly so that y = |f(x) dx. V= a dx

y=lIn |x |+ c

2. Equations of the form wer y) d

: dx [i] Solve a 7 cose y

(a) Rewrite the equation in the form atheDey: Lay

fy’ dx cosecy
a
dx
: 1
(b) Integrate directly |fo)” a dx. |sin y.dy= |dx
—cosy =x+c

3. Equations in which the variables are separable i] Solve y(1+x?) 2~2(1+y?)=0.

i.e. of the form By Ie) or f(x). g(y)

dx g(y) ’ y dy 2
; Separate the variables as ate 5
(a) Separate the variables and rewrite in the form Ey); ae ee)
dy _ t t | ¥ a | 2
ay). 7 =f@). Tnteptate (+790 aie
(b) Integrate each side separately tIn|(1+y*)|=2 tan“'(1 +x’) +c

[200) ay= |FO) ax

Formation Many situations in science and nature are concerned
with the rate at which a quantity changes. These can Li] 1. The rate of decay of the nuclei of radioactive
be expressed mathematically as differential equations substances is proportional to the number x of nuclei
which can then be solved. remaining. Ps
Remember that Rate of decay of x is ae
t
‘rate of decrease’ = —‘rate of increase’ dx dx
oO ry or r kx (where k is a constant)

2. Suppose that the velocity v of a particle is

proportional to the square of its displacement s.
This gives vxs?
i.e. v=ks* (where k is a constant).

But 5 so —=ks?.
dt dt

72
 Differential Equations
Worked examples, Guided example and Exam questions

Lea a aa ST eS NTE IN ATT ENT A I EI II

“12 Separate the variables and integrate both sides. Include an
WE] Solve the differential equation a = = = given that y= 1 when arbitrary constant of integration. Use the conditions y = 4
y
x=0. when x= 1 to find the constant of integration.

dy sin’ x. ' d =y(y+1) and y=4 when

ae= - is a variables separable differential equation. (EX) 1 Findy in terms ofxgiven that x

It can be rewritten as x2
2 dy. 2 x. (L)
Yd—=sin* ; . ; ; cates
2 Find the solution of the differential equation os=xy Inx
Integrating, iy’ dy= |sin’ x dx
which satisfies the initial conditions x = 1, y= 1, giving In y
oe, y> 1 in terms of x.
giving, aS (1—cos 2x) dx (O&C)

3 Find the solution of the differential equation

1.e Ya Hx St) +c
xe Be 5D ® 2 2xe~*” +e*” for which y=0 when x=0.
[Since sin? x= (1—cos 2x)]
(S)
Since y= 1 when x=0,
4 Solve the differential equation (1 +e” 2 =e” cos’ x, given
i s( =)
eed
Sees
Qa2 |e that y=0 when x=0.
1 (A)
> c= 3"
5 Solve the differential equation
So the solution is
3 (1+x) a 1—sin? y for which yaa when x =0.
Y=
Oy sin 2x)+4,
Ba 4 3
or 4y?=3(2x—sin 2x) +4.
6 Find y in terms of x given that a y(1—y) and that y =3
Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate at which a body, at
when x =0.
T°C above the temperature of its surroundings, cools is
proportional to T. (C)
A body at 68°C is placed in a room at 16°C and after 5 minutes
it has cooled to 55°C. What will be its temperature after a further 7 During a chemical reaction two substances A and B
decompose. The number of grams, x, of substance A
5 minutes?

' dT : present at time f is given by x= ae

Newton’s law gives ae —kT, where k is a constant to be (1+)
t
determined. There are y grams of B present at time ¢ and o is directly

proportional to the product of x and y. Given that y = 20

Integrating, |¢- | 1a
and Das —40 when t=0, show that a8 aoe
1c: In T= c—Kt, cis the constant of integration. dt dt {141
So, T=e'.e™. Hence determine y as a function of ¢t. Determine the
When t=0, T=68—16=52>e°=52 amount of substance B remaining when the reaction is
essentially complete.
oo a= 52e"
(A)
When t=5, T=55—-16=39
39 3 8 A plant grows ina pot which contains a volume Vof soil. At
39= Sler > ext= — ee time ¢ the mass of the plant is m and the volume of soil
Ne ea utilised by the roots is am, where a is a constant. The rate
After a further 5 minutes, i.e. t= 10, of increase of the mass of the plant is proportional to the
T=52e°™ mass of the plant times the volume of soil not yet utilised by
H52(E Fy the roots. Obtain a differential equation for m, and verify
that it can be written in the form
= 52(4)"
= 294 vB Lt IE , where # is a constant.
dm m V-am
The temperature of the body is therefore 16 +293 = 457°C.
The mass of the plant is initially x Find, in terms of V and
d a
[3 rina the solution of the differential equation (x+1) sone B, the time taken for the plant to double its mass. Find also
given that y=4 when x=1. the mass of the plant at time tf.

Rewrite the differential equation in the form of dy _flx) J)

dx g(y)
ee
73
 : fe

37 Numerical Solution of Equations

Introduction, Initial values, Iterative methods.

r
Ge Se a Re eaN

Introduction Many equations cannot be solved exactly, but various methods of finding approximate numerical solutions
exist. The most commonly used methods have two main parts: é
(a) finding an initial approximate value (b) improving this value by an iterative process.

Initial values The roots of f(x)=0 can be located approximately by [il Locate an approximate value for the root of
either a graphical or an algebraic method. f(x)=x+e7=0.
Graphical method G(x) = e*
Either (a) Plot (or sketch) the graph of y=f(x). The F(x) =-x
real roots are at the points where the curve Graphical method
cuts the x-axis. Rewrite f(x)=0 as e*=—x.
or (b) Rewrite f(x)=0 in the form F(x)= G(x). Let F(x)=—x and G(x)=e’.
Plot (or sketch) y=F(x) and y=G(x). The Sketch F(x) and G(x)
real roots are at the points where these
graphs intersect. When x=0, G(x) >F(x)
Figure 1
Algebraic method x=—1, G(x)<F(x)
Find two values a and b such that f(a) and f(b) have . f(x)
=0 has a root between —1 and 0.
different signs. At least one root must lie between a
and b if f(x) is continuous. Algebraic method
If more than one root is suspected between a and b, f(x)=xt+e*
sketch a graph of y=f(x). f(4)=1+e'=3.72
f(0)=0+e°=1
f(-1)=-1+e!=—0.63 |different signs
. f(x) =0 has a root between —1 and 0.

Iterative All iterative methods follow the same basic pattern.

methods A sequence of approximations x1, X2, 3, X4,. . . is found, each one closer to the root @ of f(x) =0.
Each approximation is found from the one before it using a specified method.
The process is continued until the required accuracy is reached.
General iteration method Newton-Raphson method
Rewrite the equation f(x)=0 in the form x=g(x). If x; is an approximation to a root a@ of f(x)=0, then
If the initial approximation is x; a better approximation x2 is given by
then calculate x.=g(x1) Ha) pak f(x)
x3=8(X2) Se)
x4= 8 (Xs)
andsoon... Repeat this process as required.

This method fails if |g’(x)|>1 near the root. This method fails if (a) f’(a) is near to zero,
or (b) f”(a) is very large.

Li] Find the solution of f(x) =x+e* near x = —1 to three decimal places.

General iteration method Newton-Raphson method

Write the given equation as x= —e*. f(x)=x+e*
Br =il
So f’(x)=1+e*
x.2=-e! =-—0.368
x=-1
x3 =—e °38= —0,692
x4 =—e °?= —0,500
ste 3. eee
Xs =—e = —0.607 A) ee — 0.538
Xe =—e 9-7 = —0.545 (1+e7) 1.368
x7 =—e 94 =—0,580
Xg =—e °° = —0,560
x3>
2 TOSS Ti
(—0.538
+670 538)a_—0.567
aigeeaay
Xp =—e 90 = —0,571
Xx10= —€ 0.571 = —Q) 565
Mis me 0.565 = _() 568
me (—0.567
deme + 670557)es
reper _

The required solution is x = —0.567.

Note: In this example although the Newton-Raphson method involves fewer steps, the calculation by the
general iteration method is so simple that there is not much difference in the calculation time of each method.

74
 Numerical Solution of Equations
Worked examples and Exam questions

RES A Ii nae Ea eae enmea ERI aCe maT csMON ENS

Show that the equation x°+x—6=0 has a root between 1 and 2. obtained. Using a suitable integer as first approximation to
Using Newton’s approximation with starting point 1.6 deter- another root 6 of the equation, find a second
mine, by means of two iterations, an approximation to this root, approximation to #, again giving three significant figures in
giving your answer to two decimal places. your answer and showing clearly how this answer has been
Tet faye 9 6 determined.
(C)
fi) =14+1-6=-4<0
f(2)=8+2-6= 4>0 3 Use Newton’s method once, starting with the
.. f(x) =0 between x=1 and x=2 approximation x = 2, to obtain a second approximation x;
i.e. x°+x—6=0 between x=1 and x=2
for a root of the equation x° =x°+25.
What does it mean to claim that x, is correct to two decimal
“. °+x—-6=0 has a root between x=1 and x=2. places? State briefly how you would prove this (no detailed
f(1) working is expected).
Let x. =x,-— : where f’ x)=3x7+1
f'() ( (O &C)
3 2,
Feieeul oe Ae eo) using x, = 1.6 4 Show that the equation x(x?+2) — 4 =0 has only one real
3X 1:6°+1 root, and that this root lies between 1 and 1.5. Taking 1.2
= 1.6 —(—0.0350) = 1.6350 as a first approximation to this root, use Newton’s method
3 st to obtain a second approximation, giving your result to two
x3 = 1.6350 — se eae places of decimals (or to six places if you use a machine).
3X 1.6350° +1 (J)
= 1.6350 — (0.0006) = 1.6344
“. to two decimal places the root is 1.63. 5 Show, by means of a sketch graph, or otherwise, that the
equation e*+4x—5=0 has only one real root, and that
this root lies between 0 and 1. Starting with the value 0.5 as
Show that x°+3x—12=0 has only one real root a, and that a first approximation to this root, use the
1<a<2. Use linear interpolation to determine the number k, Newton—Raphson method to evaluate successive
expressed to one decimal place, such that k<a<k+0.1. approximations, showing the stages of your work and
ending when two successive approximations give answers
Given that a is a root of x°+3x—12=0 which, when rounded to two decimal places, agree.
Then (x—a) is a factor of x°+3x—12 (GC)
Dividi —a) into x°+3x—12 gives th dratic fact
ee ersBsee Ol ae dae ecco 6 Find, by any method, the solution of the equation
: A 5 x’ +20 In x = 400, giving your answer correct to 3 significant
bak toe —12=(x—a)[x-+-0x4+ Gta )|=0 figures.
The factor x7+ax+(3+a’) does not give rise to real roots (0 &C)
because its discriminant is negative.
“. x=a is the only real root of x7+3x—12=0 7 Given that y=e*, copy and complete the following table,
fQG)=14+3-12=—-8<0 giving the two required values of y to 2 decimal places.
f(2)=8+6-12= 2>0
Che ae 2 | x 0 | 0.5 1 125 Zi | 25 |
From the similar triangles
shown in the diagram | y 1 | 1.65 | 2.72 |12.18 |
ee, i.e. 8—8x=2x On graph paper draw the graph of y=e* for O<x<2.5.
3eat I 3 ‘Using the same axes, draw a straight line graph and hence
erat) 8 obtain an estimate to the root of the equation e* = 5(1—x).
2
Evaluate |(e*-—2) dx. (You may leave your answer in
1
Let k=& 1.8, f.9)=
f(1.8) is= —0.768<0
0.559>0
ECAIDSO free) :
On your graph show, by shading, a region whose area is

“.Pag if kK=1.8 then 1.8<a<1.8+0.1=1.9

Ee Haagen anel |2 (etl) ae
1
1 Show graphically, or otherwise, that the equation (L)
In x = 4—x has only one real root and prove that this root
lies between 2.9 and 3. By taking 2.9 as a first
approximation to this root and applying the
Newton—Raphson process once to the equation
In x—4+x=0, or otherwise, find a second approximation,
giving your answer to 3 significant figures.
(L)
2 Give, on the same diagram, a sketch of the graph of
y =3e and of the graph y=4x+6. State the number of
roots of the equation 3e% = 4x +6. Taking 4 as a first
approximation to one root a of this equation, find a second
approximation to a, giving three significant figures in your
answer and showing clearly how this answer has been ;
ee
75
 38 Numerical Integration
Introduction, Trapezium rule, Simpson’s rule.

RLS EY I eS SIE IES

Introduction Sometimes it is impossible to evaluate the integral Y y = f(x)

b
f(x) dx exactly. Since this integral gives the area
a

bounded by the curve y=f(x), the x-axis and the

lines x=a and x=b, an approximate value for the
integral can be found by estimating this area by
another method.
Two common methods are the trapezium rule and
Simpson’s rule.
em ai Ca a ea a a a a
Trapezium —_— This method divides the area into n trapezia, each of
rule width h.
Area under curve~sum of areas of trapezia.
This gives
[te de~Z((yot yn) +2 yrty24. +yn-1)}

‘where h=——.
n

Simpson’s This method divides the area into an even number of parallel strips n, of width h, and approximates the area
rule of pairs of strips using parabolas.
This gives

[te de~Z (Yat yn) +4(yrtys+. Yn) +2(yotyat! oy 7-2}

Note: the number of strips must be even.

9
Evaluate [ loge x dx using 8 strips (a) by the trapezium rule (b) by Simpson’s rule.
1
y

The integration interval (b—a)=9—1=8 units

a) '
The values of x at which y is calculated are: O
Le Ana oa i ga IA Seg Figure 3
(a) Trapezium rule (b) By Simpson’s rule
Tabulating the results as follows helps the final The working can be arranged as follows to aid
calculation: calculation:

x y | First and last |Remaining

ordinates ordinates

1 0
2 Z
3 3
4 4
) 3)
6 6
af 7 j
8 8 yin
9 2.197 9 Ys pal Bi

2.197 10.604 Totals 2.197 5.950 4.654

9 1 9

logex dx~= {(yot ya) +2(yit... +y7)} | logexdx

1

=ad5{2.197 +2(10.604)} 1
~ 3 ot ys) +4(i +. +y7) +2(y2t... +y9)}
1
= 11.703 =] (2.197 + 4(5.950) +2(4.654)}

= 11.768

It can be shown by exact methods that the integral is 11.775021...

————$—$———
e —— ee
76
 Numerical Integration
Worked examples and Exam questions

A ASRS Ee YS SR SA
WE esa to two decimal places, the values of the expression show that an improved estimate of / is given by (87>— 7,)/7
V1+x? at unit intervals from x=2 to x=7 inclusive. and evaluate this expression correct to three decimal
Use these values to find an estimate by the trapezoidal rule of the places. Given that y= 1—x? is the equation of the circle
mean value of the expression for 2<x <7. whose centre is the origin and whose radius is 1 unit, show
that /= i:7+4V3. Hence calculate an estimate for the
x 2 3 4 5 6 Gi value of 7. (C)
2 am ob = So
fx) V5 |V10% ie V1 | V26 | V37_| ~V50 w Use Simpson’s rule with five ordinates to estimate
= =a = oh 2 = SS ae 2m
9
PDA 3416 Cea? | 5.10 ace 7.07 | logio (cos x) dx
0
Yo yi y2 y3 V4 Ys giving your answer to 3 decimal places. (A)

Using the trapezium rule with six ordinates and h=1 gives > Use Simpson’s Rule with five ordinates (i.e. 4 strips of
equal width), working to four significant figures, to obtain
|has bites | Ce aew Gea eRe
7
an approximate value for
f 90
sin ae dx.
no |V14x2 dx~4[(2.2447.07) 0 180
2 + 2(3.16+4.12+5.10+6.08)] Evaluate the integral directly. (J)
=4(9.314+2x 18.46)
=I230115 wn By considering suitable areas, or otherwise, show that, for
3 any n>0, 1

“. mean value==t | V14+x2 dx i<| (1+x”")! dx<1.

0

When n = 4, find a value (to three significant figures) for the

~2X23.115= 4.62 (2 d.p.) integral, using Simpson’s rule with five ordinates.
(O &C)
Values of a continuous function f were found
Use Simpson’s rule with 7 ordinates (6 strips) to find an experimentally as given below.
approximate value of 6 :
|Ker Gr
0 t 0 0.3 | 0.6 OOS 2 et, he es
Give the answer correct to two decimal places. Py 22S. 00 HeSed2 4.06 | 4.48 | 4.95

x 0 it 2 3 4 5 6 Use linear interpolation to estimate f(0.9). Then use

— a bonne — 2 £_|
Simpson’s rule with seven ordinates to estimate
fix) 0 CR th Dero isere elder lesen" 6e=° | 1.8
——— 4 — = = = [——= = ——— = —_——— - —

f(t) dt, tabulating your working and giving your answer

0 0.368 | 0.271 .149 | 0.073 | 0.034 | 0.015 0
Sk, (E es, | 2) ae
to two places of decimals. (J)
y.o v1 { Vy2 ‘« éVe ya Ys2s Yoee
Tabulate, to three places of decimals, the values of
Simpson’s rule with seven ordinates and h=1 gives (1+x*)! for x =0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8. Using Simpson’s rule
with five ordinates, estimate, to 3 significant figures, the
6
|xe * dx~3[(yotys)+ 401+ y3 + ys) + 2(y2 + ya)] value of 0.8
0 (1+x*)! dx.
0
“ ae dx = }[(0+0.015) + 4(0.368+ 0.149 +.0.034) By expanding (1+.x*)! in powers of x as far as and
0 + 2(0.271 +0.073)] including the term in x®, obtain, to 3 significant figures, a
=3(0.015+40.551+2 x 0.344) second estimate for the value of this integral. (L)
= (0.015 +2.204 + 0.688) The region defined by the inequalities
=().969 =0.97 (2 d.p.) 0<x<z7, 0<y<logjo(1+sin x) is rotated
completely about the x-axis. Using any appropriate
1 Use Simpson’s rule with three ordinates to find an rule for approximate integration with five ordinates,
approximate value of 3 find the volume of the solid of revolution formed, giving
your answer to 3 significant figures. (A)
[2dx.
1x (L) . _— 2 —_

Given that x>4, show that e-” <e~~ and hence show
1 that 8 Z
2
2 The integral | V(1—x’) dx is denoted by /. The value of |e » dx<0.0002.
4
0
Lis to be estimated by using the trapezoidal rule, and T,, Tz [Take e~® to be 0.0003.]
denote the estimates obtained when one and two strips Use Simpson’s rule with 5 ordinates to estimate the value
4 8
respectively are used. Calculate 7, and 7), giving your
answers correct to three decimal places. Assuming that the of | e}* dx and hence obtain an estimate of | eo dx.
0 -8
error when the trapezoidal rule is used is approximately
proportional to h°, where h denotes the width of a strip, - V)
deere rere e eee eee eee een eee eer ae

a
 39 Functions
Definitions, Graphs, Inverse function, Composite function, Even and odd functions

Definitions A function f from set A to set B, written f: AB, is i] x°+1 is the function value at x of the function
a rule which associates with each element xE A, one which ‘squares x and adds 1’.
and only one element in B. This element of B is We sometimes write ‘the function f(x)=x*+1’.
usually denoted by f(x). Strictly f(x) is not the function but the value of the
function at x. However this f(x) notation is the most
f(x) is called the image of x, under f, or, more common way of identifying a function.
commonly, the value of f at x.

Set A is called the domain of the function and set B

the image set of the function. It is not necessary for
all the elements of B to be the image of some xE A
under f.

The range of the function is that subset of the image domain image set
set B which consists of all the possible images under f many-one
of all the elements of the domain A. It is denoted by A B
f(A).
The function f is called one-one if the images of
distinct points of A, under f, are distinct points of B. one-one

Functions can be many-one or one-one relations. Figure 1

Graphs The graph of a function is usually represented by Li] The graph of the
using rectangular cartesian coordinates and plotting function f(x)=x*—-2x+3,
f(x) against x. x real, O<x<3,
is shown. range
To find the range for a given domain and function, it
is safer to sketch the cartesian graph of the function From the graph it is
over its domain. clear that the range X<=-NwWAOOD
Note: The end points of the domain do not of f(x) is oO 1 2 SX
necessarily give the end points of the range. {y:2<x<6}
domain
Figure 2

Inverse If a function f is one-one A f B i] Let f(x) =x i.e. y=x? so x=y?.

function and maps an element x in the Then the inverse function is f~'(y)=y’.
domain to an element y in the {2
range, then the function
that maps y back to x is
domain range
the inverse of f, f~'.
Figure 3

It can be seen from the graph of a function whether

its inverse function exists, since one and only one
value of x must correspond to any one value of y.
The graph of f~'(x) is the reflection of the graph of
f(x) in the line y=x. So if the graph of f(x) is known,
Figure 4 Figure 5
then the graph of f~'(x) can be sketched easily.

Composite To find the composite function, fg(x), of two Li] If f(x) =x? and g(x) =x’, find gf(x).
function functions f and g acting on suitably defined sets:
(or ‘function first find the image of x under g, i.e. g(x), f(x) =g(x°)=x This is expected since g=f~' and so
of a then find the image of g(x) under f. maps y back to x.
function’) Note: The order of a composite function is
important.
Alternative notation for fg(x) is fg or fog. Li] f(x)=Sx+4 and g(x)=3x—2,
find fog and gof
fog =5(3x-2)+4=15x —6 |
The inverse of fg is (fg) '=g"'f"!. Note:
gof =3(5x+4)-2=15x+10) fog#gof
Even and An even function f is one for which f(—x) =f(x), for Li] y=x? yx
3
odd all values of x. an even function an odd function
functions The graph of an even function is symmetrical about y y
the y-axis.
An odd function f is one for which f(—x) = —f(x), for
0 x
all values of x.
The graph of an odd function is symmetrical about
the origin. 0 x
Figure 6 Figure 7

78
 Functions
Worked examples and Exam questions

SB
MN a
| 3 The functions f and g are defined by 3 The function f is defined by
| f:x—5x+4, a
g:x—6x—-k, f MKS
where x © IR and k is a constant. where x € R and x#2.
(a) Find the value of k for which fg = gf (a) Define in a similar way the inverse function f~' and
(b) Prove that fff:x— 125x+124 state its domain;
(b) Evaluate (i) ff(3); (ii) f-'(3). *(L)
(a) fg:x—>5(6x—k) +4=30x—5k+4
Bf:x—> 6(Sx+4) —k=30x+24—k
4 Sketch:
(i) y= |x| for the domain —5<x<5;
If fg =gf then 30x—5k+4=30x+24—k
k=-5 (ii) y>=x+1 for the domain —1<x <3;
(iii) y = [x] for the domain 0<x <5, where [x] denotes the
(b) f:x—Sx+4 greatest integer less than x. ;
ff:x— S(5x+4)+4=25x+24
fff:x— S(25x +24) + 4=125x+124, 5 Let f(n) =9°"—5", where n is a non-negative integer.
as required. (a) Evaluate f(0) and f(1).
(b) Write down the value of f(n+1).
+ (c) Prove that f(n+1)—25f(n) = 56(9").
WE zagf(x) Se = 4 where x, P, gq, rare real and x#+r. (d) Hence, using induction, prove that f() is always
Keke I
divisible by 7.
Find the condition for f to be an even function. Deduce that if fis
an even function then f(x) must reduce to the form f(x)=k, 6 Functions f and g are defined by
where k is constant.
f:x—log,x, (x € IR,, a>1),
If f(x) is an even function then f(—x) =f(x)
ate (x € R,).
es eed ae aan x
(Sie)arir eae State the ranges of f and g, and show that if h denotes the
composite function fog, then h(x)+f(x) =0.
(x+r)(—px
+q)= (r—x)(px
+4) Explain briefly why the composite function gof cannot be
—px*+qx—rpx+rq=rpxt+rq—px?—9qx properly defined unless the domain is restricted to a subset
2qx —2rpx =0 of IR, , and state a possible subset which would be suitable.
1.e. 2x(q—rp)=0 Define fully the inverses of fand g, and determine whether
i.e. g=rp, since x is generally non-zero. or not h71(x)+f-'(x) =0. (C)

lf q="p, PETIT etry: 7 The function ¢ is defined by g(x) =x°+2x—1, and the
inverse function gy! is denoted by w. Find the values of
fe)= xr (x+r) -
y(2) and y'(2). (W)
which is of the form f(x)=k, k a constant.
8 The functions f and g are defined by:
A function f isdefined by f(x) =4x?+5 where x € IR* and g is f:x—sin 2x; x eR;
the inverse function of f. g:ix—cotx; «eR, x#km (kEZ).
Obtain a formula for g(x). State the periods of fand g. Find the period of the function
Show [(g'ef)(1)| x[f’(1)]=1 feg. On separate axes, sketch the graphs of f, g and
f.g for the interval {x:—a7<x<z, x #0}. Find the range
Let y=4x?+5, then x= Ryeam Ea of the function f.g. (J)
4 2
; V v=) 9 The functions f, g are defined for x>0 by;
i.e. g:y—>
: 2 é ; = 3,
ee g:x— log, x.
.. the inverse function of f is g where g(x) = 5 Sketch and label the graphs of g, fog and g~' on the same
1 axes, using the same scale. (A)
Ver
& (x)
Aya(x 5) ) 4Vx—5
10 A function f is defined on the set S, where
f' (x) = 8x
3x+b
(b#-9).
WD)
=Far ee3 br S={x:x € R, x #3}, by f:x— = a.
a
(i) Show that the inverse of f is f;
me (e+ 5and f'(1)=8 (ii) Determine the range of values of b for which there are
two invariant values of x and find these values of x
“. [(g'of)()] x [f(]=_%8= 1, as required. when b=5S.
A function g is defined on the set T, where T= {x:x € R},
by g:x—>x+2. Determine whether the functions f and g are
1 The function
fisdefined by f:x>4—2x—x’, where x € R. commutative under composition of functions on the set
(a) Find the maximum value of f(x). : V, where V={x:x E SOT, x#1}. (A)
(b) State the range of f. (L)
11 The functions f and g, each with domain D, where
2 Express in terms of the functions f:x—> Vx and g:x—>x+5: D= {x:x € Rand0<x Sz}, are defined by f:x—> cos xand
(i) x Vx45; (iv) x—> Vx+10; g:x—>x-—4m. Write down and simplify an expression for
(ii) x>x—5; (v) xx? +5. / flg(x)], giving its domain of definition. Sketch the graph of
(iii) x>x+10; (C) y=flg(x)]. (L)
eee eee eee ee ee eee eee ee eee eee

79
 AQ Matrices
Definitions, Operations, Transformation of points, Transformation of lines.

e
RES Rec ee a ee S 2 cE

Definitions A matrix may be considered as a rectangular array of numbers. The entries in a matrix are called elements.
The order of a matrix is the number of rows X the number of columns.
A row matrix has only one row of elements. A column matrix has only one column of elements.
A square matrix has the same number of rows as columns, i.e. its order is of the form (Xz).
Matrices are equal if and only if they are of the same order and corresponding elements are equal.
A zero or null matrix, 0, is a matrix in which every element is zero.
The identity or unit matrix, J, is a square matrix in which each element in the leading diagonal is 1 and every
other element is zero.
ae
The determinant of a 22 matrix A= & “|is the number det A= |
r =ad-—be.
d
If det A=0, then A is called a singular matrix.
Every non-singular n Xn matrix A has an inverse A~! such that AA"'=A~'A=I.
By at er = om
ita-(° 3) then ero ter aN

Operations Matrices may be added (or subtracted) if and only if i] oh eats 0 il 3

they are of the same order. Add (or subtract) If A= ¢ 7 ) and B -(3 2 or,, then
corresponding elements.
Matrix addition is commutative and associative. ae sa Gres
A+B=( )and a~B=(
To multiply a matrix by a scalar, multiply each Yate, pM 5+, Weess
element of the matrix by the scalar.
Two matrices A and B may be multiplied together if i] 5 —3 6 15 -9 18
and only if they are compatible, i.e. if the number of Jib6 0 ) -(5 0 is
columns of A equals the number of rows of B. Each
element of AB comes from a row in A and a column
ee) oe : abe Bea ap+br+ct aq+bs+cu
In general, matrix; multiplication is not commutative.
in B. ( ys -( Pe ee
However, it is associative. dpt+er+ft dqt+es+fu

(2 x3 matrix) x (3 X 2 matrix)—>(2 x 2 matrix)

Transform- Transformations in the plane, other than translations, my ia re ea ee a ot

ations of can be produced and described using 2 x2 matrices. Hi lf M= (st 0)’ a reflection in y= —x, then
points : '
Any point (x, y) can be mapped to (x1, y1) using a (2, 3) is mapped to (—3, —2) by M, since
2x2 matrix M, where ("")-u(*).
y atfy Siete
USNS -(~5)
soe?

To find the matrix describing a given transformation, [i] For rotation of +90° about 0,
(a) find the image of P(1, 0), say Pi(a, b), P(1, 0)—>P,(0, 1) Creare
(b) find the image of Q(0, 1), say Q,(c, d), Q(0, 1)>Q,(-1, 0). “a \
Ee G.. =t
(c) the required matrix is polple The matrix is M= CF "1‘
Figure 1
If M is the matrix which represents a transformation [j] y—(9 —1)\ 04 eae Oo
in the plane and det M40, then M“! is the matrix Loe nO Ape Ohi
which represents the inverse transformation. M1 is airdtationiok 490 aboandl:

If M and N are two matrices representing two il NM = & 4é 5)= (; a

transformations for which the origin is an invariant OM oO 1 0
point, then NM is the matrix which represents the M, a reflection in y=x, followed by N, a reflection in
result M followed by N. x=0, is equivalent to a rotation of +90° about 0.

Transform- _The linear transformation T of the plane defined by Li] Find the image of y=3x under the mapping
ations of x i 23
lines (F)or(y ), (Ne ),
a b Let any point on y=3x be (A, 3A), where A is a
where T= i 4 and ad—bc#0, parameter. The image of (A, 3A) is given by
maps any line in the plane to a line in the plane. (; si(3) -(")

This is the position vector of any point on 1ly=7x.

So lly=7x is the required image of y=3x.

80
 Matrices
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

SSSR SAS A SSE A IEA A a nr ee Ue cara NN

(a) A transformation T is equivalent to a shear parallel to the Since T maps /(m2) onto [(m,), write down a corresponding
x-axis (the invariant line) which takes (1, 2) to (7, 2), followed equation to that obtained. Use the two equations to establish
by a reflection in the line y =x. Find the matrix which defines T. at+d=0.
(b) A linear transformation P of the plane maps the points Evaluate T’, remembering a+d=0. Hence obtain the
(1, 3), (—2, —3) to the points (2, 4), (—3, —11), respectively. required result and give k in terms of a,b,c.
Find the matrix of this transformation.
“= voyfliee ¥2 (EX) 1 G) IfM= G a; find the values of M?, M° and M“?.
(a) The matrix 0 ‘) represents a shear parallel to the x-axis 1 3

(the invariant line). Find x and y, given that M (*)= (?)

Since (1, 2)>(7, 2), we have “ 2
PMR 142k 7 (ii) A transformation T is equivalent to an enlargement
( )( = ( = ()>n- 3} with centre at the origin, scale factor 2, followed by a
0 1/\2 2 2 reflection in the line x+y =0. What matrix defines T? If T
pes maps a point P onto (6, 2), what are the coordinates of P?
So $= an defines the shear. *(O&C)

The matrix R which defines reflection in y =x is ts i) 2 A transformation M is represented by the matrix M where

Hence, the matrix which represents the shear followed by the M= (; a

pileesbe OM T\ Tr 3 Ort ; ‘ : ; ,
reflection is RS= ior \go ames ai (i) Find the image of the point (—2, 5) under M.
: (ii) Find the inverse of M.
a : (iii) Given that the point (11, 13) is the image of the point
(ymiee. (? ’)PALL ACLS RES Dals2 AOC SN (a, b) under M, find the value of a and of b.
(iv) Find, in terms of a, the image of the point (a, a)
Niky (: °)(3) . ed) . ({): ONE
Gt id}. Sa et3d 4 (v) State the equation of the invariant line under M.

and
‘ +)es = oe =
(ff: 1)
e GH es —20—3d =i oe | 1
So, a+3b=2, 3IfA=|1 0 1]andB={ O O -ij}, find
and 2a+3b=3, Oe AG nC pe oat!
>a=1, b=}. (a) AB;
Also, c+3d=4, (b) a matrix X such that AX+B=A.
and 2c+3d=11, (O & C)
>c=7,d=-1.
|agha 3 ; 4 Let A= inert
Hence , { is the matrix which defines P. Oma
— a The e plane
plane i mapped d onto itself
is itself byby ththe map under
d
GE)ye eathernape of tiéiplane, defined. by. which the point P of co-ordinates (x;, y,) is mapped to the
: ; x x
(*)-(: ’) (*).where ad—bc#0, maps any line in the point Q of co-ordinates (x2, y2), where (”)= a(*!),
c
plane to a line in the plane. eM! x : =
If the line I(m,) of slope m, through the origin is mapped onto By Opens mxt+c)’ Bae oaks Wey rere
pe eave) eh eae tig
plane ve ia is mapped onto a line of slope m2, determining m, in terms
1 oot Hie p 5 5

Given that there is a pair of distinct lines (mj), I(m2)such that T of yi Hence or otherwise determine WRether any uu
through the origin is mapped onto itself, and find any such
maps I(m;) onto I(m2) and maps (m2) onto I(m;) where line
#M2, ; : :
(a)prove that a+d=0 «© (b) Prove that there is no non-singular matrix P such that
b) prove that T?=KkI, giving k in terms of a,b,c.
(0) P es y P 'AP= tj } for real k,, ko.
Let
A
toe_ .)be the
“
position vector of any point on y = mx +n.
0 kp (O &C)

Find (: °)( A apuF easter ta ipanle 1G (*) ae 5 The transformation with matrix T, where T= G se
c d/\mi+n 6d Me a
yr: maps the point (x, y) into the point (x’, y’) so that
Write down two equations in A and eliminate A. Hence get
Y=f(X), the equation of a straight line. T (*)= (*))

Let (Es be the position vector of any point on /(m)).

: Find the equation of the image of the line y = 3x under this
Find ic ")( A a (*) say transformation. Find also the equations of the lines
d]\m aA bon through the origin which are turned through a right angle
Since (a, f) lies on (mz), B =mza. Use this to obtain the about the origin under this transformation.
required equation. V)

81
 41 Force Diagrams
Definitions, Types of forces, Drawing force diagrams.

Definitions Mechanics is concerned with the action of forces on bodies.

In mechanics a body is any object to which a force can be applied.
A rigid body is a body whose shape is unaltered by any force applied to it.
A particle is a body whose dimensions, except mass, are negligible.
A lamina is a flat body having area but negligible thickness.
A hollow body is a three-dimensional shell having negligible thickness.

Types of Forces occur in mechanics in various ways. Some of the most common are described below.
forces Weight W Friction F
The weight of a body is the Friction is a force which —
force with which the earth acts on a body in contact
attracts the body. It acts at with a rough surface. It acts
the body’s centre of gravity tangentially between the two F
and is always vertically Ww surfaces and in a direction MMMM
downwards. Figure 1 to resist the motion of the Figure 4
body.

A light body is considered to be weightless. Smooth surfaces are considered to be frictionless.

Air resistance is ignored unless stated otherwise.
Push and pull P
Pushes and pulls are forces P Tension T
which act on a body at the The tension in a string is a
point(s) where they are 5 force which acts on a body T
applied. ; to which the string is
creed attached. Tensions can also
come from springs, rods, etc.
Figure 5

Normal reaction R R
A normal reaction is a force
which acts on a body in Thrust S ;
contact with a surface. It The thrust from a spring or
oe snare tonuret mph rod is similar to a tension
angles to the surfaces in but acts in the opposite
CONES f direction.
Figure 3
Figure 6

Drawing Drawing a clear force diagram is an essential first Li] Some simple force diagrams illustrate these
force step in the solution of any problem in mechanics points.
diagrams which is concerned with the action of forces on a
body. (a) Forces acting on a
The following are important points to remember block on a smooth
when drawing such a force diagram. horizontal plane:
1. Make the diagram large enough to show clearly all W - weight
the forces acting on the body and to enable any (vertically down)
necessary geometry and trigonometry to be done. R —normal reaction
(at right angles to
2. Show only forces which are acting on the body the surfaces in contact) Figure 7
being considered. A common fault is including forces
which the body is applying to its surroundings (b) Forces acting on a ‘ F
(including other bodies). block at rest on a
3. Weight always acts on a body unless the body is rough inclined plane:
described as light. W - weight
4. Contact with another object or surface gives rise R —normal reaction
to a normal reaction and sometimes friction. F — friction W
(acting to resist motion) Figure 8
5. Attachment to another object (by a string, spring,
hinge, etc.) gives rise to a force on the body at the (c) Forces acting on a x
point of attachment. block being pulled (by a
6. Forces acting on a particle act at the same point. string) along a rough Ls
Forces acting on other bodies may act at different horizontal plane:
points. W - weight F
7. Check that no forces have been omitted or
R —normal reaction 7
F — friction
included more than once.
T — tension in string Ww
(acting away from body) Figure 9

82
 Force Diagrams
Exercises

The drawing of force diagrams is a skill it is essential to acquire 7 Draw a sketch showing the
during the study of mechanics. Although it does not appear by forces acting on a car
itself as an examination question it is often the first step in the which is being driven up
solution of problems in this subject. an incline at steady speed.
The following questions provide practice in this important
skill.
8 This diagram shows a car travelling at steady speed on a
EX) In this exercise, identify clearly each type of force marked on level road and pulling a caravan.

eT Go.
your force diagrams.
1 Draw a diagram to show
the force acting on a Draw diagrams to show the forces acting on,
uniform ladder resting on (a) the car,
horizontal rough ground (b) the caravan.
and leaning against a
smooth vertical wall. waste
9 A particle is suspended
from a fixed point by a
2 The sketch shows a uniform light inextensible string.
ladder resting on rough Draw a force diagram
horizontal ground and showing the forces acting
leaning against a rough on the particle when it is
vertical wall with a man moving with steady speed
standing one quarter the in a horizontal circle
way up the ladder. below the fixed point.
Draw diagrams to show
the forces,
(a) on the ladder, 10 This sketch shows a rough
(b) on the man. V: rod resting against a
rough cylinder with its
lower end on rough ground.
3 This diagram shows a bead Draw diagrams showing
resting on a rough inclined the forces acting on:
plane being acted on by the (a) the rod;
force P which is about to (b) the cylinder. Z
move it up the plane.
Sketch the diagram and
show all the forces acting cage 11 A stone is thrown through the air. Draw a force diagram,
on the bead. (a) if air resistance is ignored,
(b) if air resistance is present.

4 This diagram shows a bead

resting on a rough inclined 12 Two housebricks, one resting exactly on top of the other,
plane and just being stand on horizontal ground. Draw sketches to show the
prevented from moving Q ::
forces acting on,
down the plane by the force (a) the top brick, (b) the bottom brick.
Q. Sketch the diagram and
show all the forces acting on
the bead. 13 A man is standing alone in a moving lift. Draw diagrams
to show the forces acting on,
(a) the man, (b) the lift, when the lift is:
5 This sketch shows a large (i) accelerating upwards,
smooth sphere of weight W (ii) travelling at steady speed,
resting inside a smooth (iii) accelerating downwards.
cylinder and being held
in place by a small smooth
sphere of weight w. 14 A railway engine is pulling a train up an incline against
Draw diagrams to show frictional resistances. If the combined engine and train is
the forces acting on, experiencing a retardation, draw diagrams showing the
(a) the large sphere, forces acting on,
(b) the small sphere. (a) the engine, (b) the train.

6 Draw two diagrams

showing the forces acting
on a block of wood which is
(a) sliding down a rough
inclined plane at steady
speed,
(b) accelerating down a
-ough inclined plane.

83
 42 1-D Kinematics
Definitions, Motion in one dimension, Equations for uniform acceleration, Vertical motion
under gravity.

Definitions Kinematics is the study of displacement, velocity and acceleration.

Displacement is the position of a point relative to an origin O. It is a vector.

SI unit is the metre (m). Other metric units are centimetre (cm), kilometre (km).
Distance is the magnitude of the displacement. It is a scalar.

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. It is a vector.

SI unit: metre per second (ms! or m/s). Other metric units: cm s-' or cm/s, km h™! or km/h.
Speed is the magnitude of the velocity. It is a scalar.
Uniform velocity is constant speed in a fixed direction.
. change in displacement ._ total distance travelled
Average velocity is ies lee see : Average:speed 1S ae
time taken time taken
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. It is a vector.
SI unit: metre per second squared (m s~2 or m/s”). Other metric units: cm s~? or cm/s”, km h~? or km/h?.
Negative acceleration is sometimes called retardation.
Uniform acceleration is constant acceleration in a fixed direction.

Motion in When a particle moves in one dimension, i.e. along a Li] mts
one straight line, it has only two possible directions in + ~ * der i
dimension which to move. Positive and negative signs are used ee
to identify the two directions 6 ~+ Hom
i left +
- + “3 =

Figure 1

Equations The equations for uniform acceleration in a straight Li] A particle moves in a straight line with constant
for uniform _ line are: acceleration. Its initial velocity is 6ms™ and its
acceleration x velocity after 8s is 10ms~'. Find the acceleration and
v=urat ; z
the displacement of the particle after 16s.
s=3(ut+v)t
as 24 9as . . .
v=u Assume the motion is horizontal.
s=ut+tat’ Choose the direction of motion as positive.
nee used is: ae Ist stage
s — displacement; t— time; u — initial velocity; f=) mr f=86, ua6ms oe Ome eee
v — velocity at time t; a — acceleration.
Units
:
must be consistent, e.g. if s 3is in metres
a
and; ¢ sce
se v=u+at
in seconds, then u and v must be in ms‘ and a in
mise. 10=6+a(8)
a=0.5ms”
To solve problems using these equations of motion: So the uniform acceleration is 0.5 ms~?.
(a) Choose the positive direction.
(b) List the five quantities (s, t, u, v, a), fill in 2nd stage
known values and mark which are to be found. s=?m, t=16s, u=6ms"', v=?ms', a=0.5ms”.
(c) Use the appropriate equation(s) to find the
required unknown(s). If any three of the Use s=ut+ at?
quantities are known, then the other two can = (6)(16) +3(0.5)(16)?
always be found. =
=160m
Note: These equations do not apply to acceleration So the displacement after 16s is 160m.
which is not uniform.
Problems about non-uniform acceleration must be
solved by graphical methods or by calculus.

Vertical The motion of a body thrown vertically upward or Li] A body is thrown vertically upward.
motion under falling freely downward (ignoring air resistance) is a
gravity special case of uniform acceleration in a straight line. ee Taking up as positive,
This uniform acceleration is due to gravity and acts v=0 0S a8:
vertically downwards towards the centre of the earth. At highest point H
It is denoted by g and common approximate values PY, pyv=—u s ismaximum, v=0.
are 10ms” and 9.8ms?.
At point of projection P
s=0, v=+u.
Figure 2
 1-D Kinematics
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

INA
TSE HA SY S
a A nT enYA UT a nea

NE A stone is projected vertically upwards from the top of a cliff

20 m high. After a time of 3 s it passes the edge of the cliff on
3 Acar is moving along a straight horizontal road at constant
speed 18 m/s. At the instant when the car passes a lay-by, a
its way down. Calculate motor-cyclist leaves the lay-by, starting from rest, and
(a) the speed of projection, moves with constant acceleration 2-5 m/s” in pursuit of the
(b) the speed when it hits the ground, car. Given that the motor-cyclist overtakes the car
(c) the times when it is 10 m above the top of the cliff, T seconds after leaving the lay-by, calculate:
(d) the time when it is 5 m above the ground. (a) the value of T;
(b) the speed of the motor-cyclist at the instant of passing
Take up as positive. the car. *(L)
(a) s=0, t=3s, u=?, v=?, a=-10 ms 7
Two points A and B lie on a horizontal plane. A particle is
Use s =ut+ at?
projected vertically upwards from A with an initial speed of
so, 0=u.3+4(—10) 3 20 m/s. One second later another particle is projected
> f=15 ms & vertically upwards from B with an initial speed of 17-5 m/s.
(6) s=—20 m, t=?, u=15ms,v=?,a=-10ms~ Calculate, at the instant at which the two particles are at the
Use v? =u? +2as same vertical height above the plane:
so, v?=15°+2 (—10)(—20) (a) the time which has elapsed since the first particle was
= 625 projected from A;
> v=-—25ms | — particle is moving downwards with (b) the speeds of the two particles. *(A)
speed 25ms_!.
A balloon is ascending at a constant speed of 3 m/s. The
(ey 5 10m f=2 - = loans ho = 2, a= = 10 ms” 2 crew release some gas and as a result the balloon
Use s=ut+ial experiences a constant downward acceleration of
so, 10 = 15t+4(—10)? 0-25 m/s*. How much farther will the balloon ascend, and
i.e. ?—3t+2=0 how long will it be before the balloon returns to its original
> t=1sort=2s—the two times when it is 10 m above the top height? If this height is 80 m above the ground and the
of the cliff. balloon continues to descend with the same acceleration,
how much longer will it be before the balloon strikes the
Qs 45 mi — 15m. sa. U=?, a= 10 ms ground and what will be its velocity at impact? , (O
Use s=ut+hat?
so, —15=15t+4(—-10)? A particle moves in a straight line with uniform
i.e.’ —3t—3=0 acceleration a. Its initial velocity was u. Prove that the
distance x travelled in time ¢ is given by x=ut+4at. A
MBE V[9-4.1.(—3)] mks V21
Vinee motor-car is timed between three successive points X, Y
2 2 and Z, where XY = YZ=2 km. It takes 100 seconds to
> t~3.7s (discounting the negative root). travel from X to Y and 150 seconds to travel from Y to Z.
Given that the retardation of the car is uniform from the
point X onwards, calculate the value of this retardation.
A stone is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 20ms~'. A Find also how far the car travels beyond Z before it stops.
second stone is thrown vertically upwards from the same point *

and with the same initial speed 20 ms‘ but 2s later than the first A particle X is projected vertically upwards from the mw)
one. Show that the two stones collide at a distance of 15 m above ground with a velocity of 80 m/s. Calculate the maximum
the point of projection. height reached by X. A particle Y is held at a height of
300 m above the ground. At the moment when X has
Take up as positive. Let s=h m be the displacement of each dropped 80 m from its maximum height, Y is projected
stone when they collide. downwards with a velocity of v m/s. The particles reach the
For first stone, s=h m, t= T's (say), u=20 ms‘, v=?, ground at the same time. Calculate the value of v. , (C)
a=-10ms °.
For second stone, s=h m, t=(T—2) s, u=20 ms 1
, v=?, (a) A particle moves in a straight line with uniform
a=-10ms”. acceleration a. Given that its initial velocity was u and its
Use s=ut+4at’ for each stone. Equate the two expressions velocity after it had travelled for time t was v, derive an
for h and so find T. Use formula again with value for T expression for v in terms of u, a@ and ¢.
found to calculate h. (b) The driver of an express travelling at uniform speed u
suddenly sees ahead of him, on the same track, a train at
rest. He immediately applies the brakes, thus giving his

EX 1 A train is uniformly retarded from 35 m/s to 21 m/s over a

distance of 350 m. Calculate:
train a retardation of f,. At the same instant the stationary
train starts to move away from the express with an
(a) the retardation; acceleration of f>.
(b) the total time taken under this retardation to come to Given that the two trains were originally x apart, find
rest from a speed of 35 m/s. (i) the distance the two trains are apart after time ¢
(measured from the instant the driver of the express
*(L) applied his brakes),
(ii) the speeds of the two trains after time f,
2 Two particles, X and Y, are moving in the same direction (iii) the value of x in terms of u, f, and f, if a collision is just
on parallel horizontal tracks. At a certain point O, the averted.
particle X, travelling with a speed of 16 m/s and retarding Given that u=60 ms~', f,=6ms 7 and f;=8 ms’, find the
uniformly at 6 m/s”, overtakes Y, which is travelling at 8 m/s value of x in metres. Calculate the speeds of the two trains at
and accelerating uniformly at 2 m/s”. Calculate: the moment of ‘near-collision’. :
(i) the distance of Y from O when the velocities of X and Y
are equal; . —2 .

(ii) the velocity of X when Y overtakes X. n these questions assume g = 10 ms “ unless an alternative
value is stated.
*(©)
pe
85
 43 Graphs in Kinematics
Displacement-time graph, Velocity-time graph, Acceleration-time graph.

Displacement A displacement-time graph (or s-¢ graph) for a body Li] The s-t graph below shows the displacement s of
-time graph moving in a straight line shows its displacement s a car from its starting point at given instants ¢.
from a fixed point on the line plotted against time t.
The velocity v of the body at time ¢ is given by the
: : ds
gradient of the s-t graph at f, since Limeis
The s-t graph for a body moving with constant
velocity is a straight line. The velocity v of the body
is given by the gradient of the line.

(m)
displacement

Figure 1
time (s)

Figure 2
The s-t graph for a body moving with variable
velocity is a curve.
To estimate the velocity of the car after 5s, draw the
The velocity at any time may be estimated from the tangent to the graph at t=5s.
gradient of the tangent to the curve at that time.
The average velocity between two times may be 25
estimated from the gradient of the chord joining a velocity
ity after
after 5s 5s~ sia =—=6ms"'.
a ms
them.

Velocity-time A velocity-time graph (or v-t graph) for a body i] The velocity-time graph for a moving vehicle is
graph moving in a straight line shows its velocity v plotted shown below.
-against time f.
The acceleration a of the body at time fis given by 40
the gradient of the v-t graph at ¢, since ae 30

The displacement s in a time interval is given by the 20

area under the v-t graph for that time interval, since 10
(kmh?)
velocity
s=[ vat
Fe ta oe oe time (h)
The v-t graph for a body moving with uniform Figure4
acceleration is a straight line. The acceleration a of
the body is given by the gradient of the line.
constant Use the graph to calculate:
velocity (a) the acceleration during the first two minutes,
(b) the retardation during the last minute,
(c) the total displacement of the vehicle.

Figure 3 (a) The acceleration during the first two minutes

= change in velocity + time taken
The total displacement s of a body can be found from 2
= 40+=1200 kmh”
a v-t graph of the above type by calculating the area 60 m
of the trapezium.
The v-t graph for a body moving with variable (b) The retardation during the last minute
acceleration is a curve. = change in velocity + time taken
The acceleration a of the body at any time may be 1
= 40+—=2400 kmm h~?
estimated from the gradient of the tangent to the 60

curve at that time.

The displacement s of the body in a given time (c) The total displacement of the vehicle is given by
interval may be estimated by finding the area under the area under the graph. This area is a
the v-t graph in that interval by a numerical method trapezium.
(see Numerical Integration p. 76). . ‘jas eG
Total displacement = (ots). 40= .
: 2\60 60 ae
Acceleration- An acceleration-time graph for a body moving in a Li] Use the trapezium rule, —
time graph straight line shows its acceleration a plotted against with intervals of 1s,
N

time f. to verify from this é

The velocity v of the body in a time interval is given graph that the velocity <
by the area under the acceleration-time graph for that after 4s is 8.1ms' .
approximately. s
time interval, since v=] adt.
8
Velocity = 3{(3.4+2.8)+(2.8+2.2) time(s)
al a 1.4)+(1:4+0)} Figure 5
=F <6— Sal mse
See
86
 Graphs in Kinematics
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

FSR TS ES SD TS an Rm INLRINT aare,

WE Jazepoints P and Q are xmetres apart in the same straight line. (EX) 1 A train travels between two stations, 3.9 km apart, in
A particle starts from rest at P and moves directly towards Q 6 minutes, starting and finishing at rest. During the first
with an acceleration am s * until it acquires a speed of Vms"'. ? minute the acceleration is uniform, for the next
It maintains this speed for a time T seconds and is then brought 7 minutes the speed is constant and for the remainder of
to rest at QO under a retardation a m s~*. Prove that the journey the train is retarded uniformly. Sketch a
speed-time graph of the journey and hence, or otherwise,
ee calculate:
V -a
Let t; and t, be the times for which the particle is accelerating (i) the maximum speed, in km/h, attained by the train;
and being retarded respectively. (ii) the acceleration of the train during the first }minute,
stating the units. *(A)
Sketch the velocity—time graph.
2 A motorist starting a car from rest accelerates uniformly to
a speed of v m/s in 9 seconds. He maintains this speed for
another 50 seconds and then applies the brakes and
S Vv decelerates uniformly to rest. His deceleration is
=oO numerically equal to three times his previous acceleration.
Ae) (i) Sketch a velocity-time graph.
®
> (ii) Calculate the time during which deceleration takes
place.
(iii) Given that the total distance moved is 840 m calculate
the value of v.
(iv) Calculate the initial acceleration. *(C)
Oo < —> < 7 > >

a time (t) fo
Using the definitions of acceleration and retardation, 3
V V * 90
aut
ty
sakea :
(1) a
Se72
SG
V V E
and a=—>t,=— [2]
ue}
o
b a o
[ox
ep)

We know that the total distance travelled between P and Q is O 4 10 13 16

x m and this is represented by the area under the graph. Time in minutes
Sonn aVty aT VT+3Vb
The figure, not drawn to scale, shows the speed/time
Using the values of ¢, and ¢, from [1] and [2] we have, diagram for a train journey taking 16 minutes. The train
V2 2
reaches a speed of 72 km h”! after 4 minutes and
Rae gree 90 km h7! after a further 6 minutes. The train maintains a
2a 2a
steady speed for the next 3 minutes and then decelerates to
ie ee rest in the last 3 minutes. Calculate:
a (i) the accelerations in m s 7 during those parts of the
Vi journey corresponding to OP and PQ;
1V=x—— (ii) the total length of the journey;
a
(iii) the average speed for the whole journey in km h7!.
pu Ve (O&C)
Vena
4 Trials are being undertaken on a horizontal road to test the
performance of an electrically powered car. The car has a
Two cars, C and D, travel equal distances of 9 km in the same top speed V. In a test run the car moves from rest with
time of 18 minutes, finishing at rest. Car C starts from rest, uniform acceleration a and is brought to rest with uniform
accelerates uniformly to a speed of 45 km/h, travels steadily at retardation r.
this speed and is then brought to rest with uniform retardation. (i) If the car is to achieve top speed during a test run, by
Car D moves at a constant speed for the first 3.6 km and is then using a velocity—time sketch, or otherwise, show that
brought to rest with uniform retardation. Sketch speed—time the length of the test run must be at least
graphs for the motion of each car and hence, or otherwise,
V-(atr)
calculate
(a) the distance, in km C travels at steady speed, ahs
(b) the initial speed in km/h of D, (ii) Find the least time taken for a test run of length
(c) the retardation of D, stating the units.
Sketch the two graphs. (Remember to change km/h to m/s, (2) VHD
2V-(atr
Sar
wy) MO)
2V-(a+r
3ar
km to m, minutes to seconds, etc,)
(iii) Find, in terms of V, the average speed of the car for
(a) Let T (say) be the time for which C travels at constant the test run described in (ii) (b). (A)
speed. Work out the area under the graph (a trapezium) put it
equal to 9 km (=9x 10° m) the distance gone. Hence T.
5 Starting from rest at the point A, a particle moves, in a
(b) Let V m/s (say) be the initial speed of D and T; seconds be straight line, with constant acceleration until it reaches the
the time for which D travels at V m/s. Then VT, =3-6 x 10° — point B. The particle then moves with constant retardation
the distance travelled at V m/s. Work out the total area under until it comes to rest at C, where AB =3BC. The time taken
the graph (a trapezium) and get a second equation connecting to travel from A to B is T and the speed at B is V. Find, in
V and 7. Solve the two equations for V.
terms of V and T;
(c) Now find 7, from (b). (i) the time taken for the whole journey from A to C;
Retardation is V+ (18 x60—T;) m/s’. (ii) the distance AC. (C)
ee ee EEE
87
 44 Relative Motion
Velocity triangle, Relative velocity, Problem solving.

Velocity When an aircraft flies through the air, its motion over [i] A river, 0.4km wide,
W flows from E to W ata
triangle the ground is affected by the way the air is moving. steady speed of 1kmh™'. A swimmer, whose speed in
‘ ; E still water is 2kmh"', starts from the-S bank and
To describe the motion of an aircraft we need: heads N across the river. Find his speed over the river
ground-speed (GS) — speed of aircraft over ground, bed and how far downstream he is when he reaches
track (7) — direction in which aircraft moves, the N bank.
airspeed (AS) — speed of aircraft through air,
course (C) — direction in which aircraft points, For swimmer: speed in still water 2 kmh™', course N.
wind-speed (WS) — speed of wind, For river: speed 1kmh"', direction E.
wind direction (WD) — direction in which wind blows. Velocity ne N
These give three vectors (psc) We need to find GS and T ikmh f
connected by the law of for the swimmer. x hells
vector addition: tana=$ (GS,T)
(GS, T)=(AS, C)+(WS, WD) > a~26.6°. ;
This gives the velocity triangle. Poured Figure 2
i =V = = =
Similarly, when a body travels through water, its Speed over river bed = V2?+1?= V5=2.24 kmh.
motion is affected by the way the water is moving. , :
Instead of wind speed and direction, there is the sis SL cengam ee ee
speed and direction of the flow of water. The speed =0.4 tan a
of the body in still water replaces the airspeed. 0.4 kmip =0.2 km

Figure 3
. . -1

Relative When we say that A is moving with constant velocity Li] To a motor-cyclist travelling due N at 50 kmh
velocity va we mean that A is moving with constant velocity the wind appears to come from NW ‘ 60 kmh™.
va relative to a fixed observer on earth. What is the true velocity of the wind!
i i j Velocity triangle

gna scletes 04 2 the motor-cyclis. Oe

It fae B ie ae Imagine yourself to be . N
vp respectively, then, to In the velocity triangle:
an observer on B, A will aes U,
have a velocity 4vz, ee aay yale >
where: Figure 4 The magnitudes of wUc and Uc are we Sd
AUB=U,A—UB. wlc = 60 km hy

aUgz is Often called the velocity of A relative to B. Yc=50 km h mbt ; Figure 5

; 5 : th i le, vw = 60° + 50°—2.60.50 45°
: B may be two bodies, e.g. ships, aircraft, cars,
A and Ey he Crees>vw~43.1 ee kmh —1 =
cyclists, etc. or one of them could be one of the : : :
elements, e.g. rain, wind, etc. By the sine rule, —— > 9~79.9°
Note: On the diagrams the magnitudes of the vectors are :
given. The arrows show the directions of the vectors. .. true wind velocity is 43.1 km h7! from $79.9°W.

Problem Two bodies A and B, moving with constant velocities Li] A dinghy in distress is 6 km S 50° W of a
solving va and vz respectively, will reach either a position of lifeboat and drifting S 20° E at 5 km h7'. In what
interception or of closest approach. direction should the lifeboat travel to reach the dinghy
When solving such relative motion problems: as quickly as possible if the maximum speed of the
1. Draw an initial sketch using the given information. lifeboat is 35 kmh7!?
2. Imagine yourself to be on one of the bodies, B Initial sketch
say. Imagine yourself on the
In an interception problem, B should be the body dinghy D. The lifeboat will
being intercepted. appear to travel directly
3. State the relative velocity rule, i.e. zvg=v4—Dvz. towards you, i.e. ,vp will be
4. Draw the correct velocity triangle for avz. in a direction S 50° W.
5. To find the magnitude and direction of 4vg, use
the trigonometry of the velocity triangle.
Figure 7
If it is an ‘interception’ problem:
the time, ft, at which interception occurs is given by In the velocity triangle:
Velocity triangle LUp = DL— Up
siinitial distance apart
The magnitudes of vo,
AUB and vp are:
If it is a ‘closest approach’ problem: vp =35 kmh"!
Vp=5 km Het.
(a) draw a displacement ot A
diagram showing the initial i, . By the sine rule:
positions Ao and Boy of A and 2 sin
@_ sin 110°
B respectively and yvz,. Figure 6
(b) find d, the shortest distance between A and B
St (eae
Figure 8
during motion, by trigonometry or scale drawing. > 6=7.7°
So a~50°—7.7°=42.3°.
.. the lifeboat must travel S 42.3° W.
88
 Relative Motion
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

RS RS or ET ac
Two straight roads, one running North-South and the other Make an initial sketch. The problem is best solved by viewing
running East-West, intersect ata crossroads O. Two men A and the interception from the submarine. The battleship appears
Bare cycling at steady speeds towards O. Atacertain instant, A to come directly towards you with a velocity g0s= Ug— Ds.
is 20 m from O and travelling due North at3 ms‘ and B is 20m You know the direction of gUs is 045°. You know also the
from O and cycling due West at4ms~'. Calculate the shortest speed and direction of vs and the speed vz.
distance apart of the two cyclists and the time which elapses (a), Draw the velocity triangle.
before this is attained. (b) Use the sine rule to calculate the direction in which the
battleship must be steered.
(c) Calculate gus. The battleship covers the 15 nm distance
Initial sketch (situation seen by fixed observer) to intercept the submarine at a speed of gus. Hence find the
time taken to meet.
(d) At 1215 hours, the battleship has travelled for 15 minutes
at a speed of gus. Find the distance covered in this time and
subtract it from the initial separation of 15 nm. This gives their
distance apart at 1215 hours.

1 To a cyclist riding due North at 3 ms~! the wind appears to

be blowing from the East. If the cyclist doubles his speed,
but does not change his direction, the wind appears to be
We view the situation from A, i.e. we need ppg. blowing from N60°E. Find, by drawing or calculation, the
true wind speed and direction. The cyclist now turns
In this velocity triangle the magniture of pva is:
around and cycles due South at 3 m s~'. Calculate the
Velocity triangle pvUa=5 ms _! (from 3:4:5 A) apparent wind direction. (S)
4 ms” 1
The direction of gv, is given by 6
pete where: 2 A ship A, steaming in a direction 030° with a steady speed
3ms! of 12 knots, sights a ship B. The relative velocity of B to A
> B On tan 0= 4
37 is 10 knots in a direction 270°. Find the magnitude and
direction of the velocity of B. A changes direction but the
so sin real magnitude of its velocity does not change so that the
5 relative velocity of A to B is in the direction due North.
Find the new direction of A. (O & C)
and cos oes
5
Displacement diagram (as seen from A) 3
B

A sees B travelling along the nN 45°

direction BC. -1

The cyclists are closest

Ww E 500km Sank
Wind
together when A sees B to be 45°
at a position C, where AC is S
perpendicular to BC.
The shortest distance apart is,
A
therefore, AC.

Three cities A, B and C are at the vertices of an isosceles

Using this displacement diagram, triangle. Bis 500 km due north of A, and Cis due south-east
in AOBD, OD=20 cot 6=15 m. from B and due north-east from A. A steady wind blows
Since OA =20 m and OD=15 m, AD=5 m. from East to West at a speed of 80 km h7! (see diagram).
In AACD, AC=AD sin 0=4 m. An aircraft, whose speed in still air is 200 km h~’, flies
Hence the shortest distance between the cyclists is 4 m. direct from A to B then from B to C and then from C to A.
To find the time taken to reach the ‘closest position’ we Using a graphical method, or otherwise, find the time taken
first calculate the distance BC. for each part of the journey, giving each answer in hours, to
BC=BD+DC one place of decimals. (a)
= 20 cosec 6+5 cos 6
=25+3=28 m. 4 A ship P is travelling due East at 30 kilometres per hour
A sees B travelling along BC at ppa=Sms!.
and a ship Q is travelling due. South at 40 kilometres per
So the time taken to travel the 28 m is 28+5=53 s. hour. Both ships keep constant speed and course. At noon
Hence, the cyclists are at the ‘closest position’ after 55 s. they are each 10 km from the point of intersection, O, of
their courses, and moving towards O.
Find the co-ordinates, with respect to axes Ox eastwards
At 12 noon a battleship, whose maximum speed is 30 knots, and Oy northwards, of P and Q at time ¢t hours past noon,
sights a submarine which is moving due North at 10 knots. and find the distance PQ at this time. Find the time at which
When first sighted, the submarine is 15 nautical miles North- P and Q are closest to one another. Find the magnitude and
East of the battleship. Calculate, direction of the velocity of Q relative to P, indicating the
(a) the direction in which the battleship must be steered in direction ona diagram. Show that, at the position of closest
order to intercept the submarine as quickly as possible, approach, the bearing of Q from P is 6° South of East,
where tan 6° =.
(b) the time at which they meet,
(c) their distance apart at 1215 hours. V)
89
 a)

45 1-D Particle Dynamics

Force, Mass and weight, Newton’s laws of motion, Problem solving.

Force A force is necessary to cause a body to accelerate. More than one force may act on a body. If the forces on a
body are in equilibrium, i.e. balance out, then the body may be at rest or moving in a straight line at constant
speed.
If there is a resultant force on the body, then the body will accelerate.
Force is a vector, i.e. it has magnitude and direction.
SI unit of force is the newton (N).
2
1 newton is the force needed to give a body of mass 1 kg an acceleration of lms ~.

Mass and Mass and weight are different.

weight The mass of a body is a measure of the matter contained in the body. A massive body will need a large force
to change its motion. The mass of a body may be considered to be constant, whatever the position of the
body, provided that none of the body is destroyed or changed.
Mass is a scalar, i.e. it has magnitude only.
SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
The weight of a body is the force with which the earth attracts it. It is dependent upon the body’s distance
from the earth, so a body ‘weighs’ less at the top of Everest than it does at sea level.
Weight is a vector, since it is a force.
SI unit of weight is the newton (N).
The weight W, in newtons, and mass m, in kilograms, of a body are connected by the relation W=mg, where
g is the acceleration due to gravity, in ms~*. Common approximate values for g are 10 ms * and 9.8ms ’.

Newton’s Newton’s three laws of motion are the fundamental basis of the study of mechanics at this level. Although
laws there is no direct proof of these laws, predictions made using them agree very closely with observations.
of motion
statement consequence(s)

Ist law (a) If a body has an acceleration, then there must

Every body will remain at rest or continue to move be a force acting on it.
in a straight line at constant speed unless an (b) If a body has no acceleration, then the forces
external force acts on it. acting on it must be in equilibrium.

2nd law (a) The basic equation of motion for constant mass
The rate of change of momentum of a moving body is:
is proportional to the external force acting on it and Force = mass X acceleration
takes place in the direction of that force. (inN) (inkg) (inms~)
So when an external force acts on a body of :
; (b) The force and acceleration of the body are both
constant mass, the force produces an acceleration . Sige
bran” Sas ; in the same direction.
which is directly proportional to the force. :
(c) A constant force on a constant mass gives a
constant acceleration.

3rd law These forces between bodies are often called

If a body A exerts a force on a body B, then B reactions. In a rigid body the internal forces occur
exerts an equal and opposite force on A. as equal and opposite pairs and the net effect is
zero. So only external forces need to be considered.

Problem The following are important points to remember Li] Body at rest on a rough inclined plane.
solving when solving problems using Newton’s laws of
motion. No acceleration so forces
1. Draw a clear force diagram (see Force Diagrams balance:
p. 82). ||to plane > F=mg sin w
Figure 1 1 to plane > R = mg cos a.
2. If there is no acceleration, i.e. the body is either
at rest or moving with uniform velocity, then the Body sliding down rough plane at constant speed.
forces balance in each direction.
: F
3. If there is an acceleration: :; No acceleration so forces
balance:
(a) mark it on the diagram using ——>"
||to plane > F = mg sin a
(b) write down, if possible, an expression for the
resultant force, Figure 2 1 to plane > R = mg cos a.
(c) use Newton’s 2nd law, i.e. write the equation of
Body sliding down rough plane with acceleration.
motion:
force = mass X acceleration
No ‘a’ 1 to plane
> R = mg cos a.
Resultant force down plane is
mg sin aw — F. 5
2nd law > mg sin w — F = ma.
ee
90
 1-D Particle Dynamics
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

34 train of total mass 300 tonnes is travelling along a straight (EX) 1 State Newton’s Laws of Motion. A miniature engine of
horizontal track at a constant speed of 54 km/h. The resistances mass 110 kg is coupled to and pulls a miniature carriage of
to the motion are 50 newtons per tonne. The rear coach of mass mass 30 kg along a horizontal track. The resistance to the
50 tonnes becomes detached but the tractive force of the engine
: oral . . ;
remains the same. Calculate motion of the engine is 100 of its weight; the resistance to
(a) the acceleration of the rest of the train
the motion of the carriage is 150 of its weight. Given
(b) the distance the rear coach travels, after becoming
detached, before it stops. that the whole tractive force exerted by the engine is
Force diagram for complete train. equal to the weight of 3 kg, find the tension in the
coupling.
x300 *(W)
50 as q 300 x 10° k i ; ‘
(resistive force) i ESE a 2 A constant force of 35 N, always acting in the same
horizontal direction, causes a particle of mass 2 kg to move
Since speed is constant, T=50300 N over a rough horizontal plane. The particle passes two
i.e: T=15 000 N. points X and Y, 4m apart, with speeds of 5 m/s and 10 m/s
respectively. The frictional resistance to motion is
Force diagram for remainder of train. constant. Calculate:
(i) the acceleration of the particle;
(ii) the magnitude of the frictional resistance;
50 x 250 < 250
x 10° kg > T= 15000 (iii) the distance of the particle from X, 4 s after it has
passed X.
*(A)
Resultant accelerating force = 15 000—50 x 250 N A water skier of mass 95 kg is towed by a horizontal rope
= 2500 N behind a boat. His body is straight, and the thrust of the
Using Newton’s 2nd law: water acts along the line of his body. When moving with
Accelerating force = mass X acceleration uniform velocity, he is leaning back at 10° from the vertical.
2500 = (250.x 10°) xa Find the tension in the rope. The boat begins to accelerate,
a=(.01 ms’, the acceleration. and the skier leans back at 15°. The tension in the rope now
becomes 500 N. Find the acceleration of the boat.
The only force acting on the rear coach when it becomes *(OLE)
detached is the resistance force.
A breakdown truck of mass 2000 kg is towing a car of mass
1000 kg by means of a rope, up an incline of 1 in 20. The
Force diagram for rear coach:
resistances due to friction on each vehicle are proportional
to the masses of the vehicles. The engine of the truck exerts
a tractive force of 3600 N when moving up the hill at a
steady speed of 18 km/h. Show that the tension in the rope
Take right as positive.
is 1200 N. The rope breaks and the two vehicles continue to
move up the hill. Calculate:
Let f be the acceleration of the coach. (i) how much time elapses before the car comes
Newton’s 2nd law gives: momentarily to rest;
(—50
x 50) = (50x 10°)
xf (ii) how far the car travels in this time.
= f=—0.05 m s* i.e. a retardation. *(OLE)
5 I ea- A lift, which is initially at rest, ascends for 10 s with a
Now
= en = 54 — ms. f= 7, o=0: a=—0:05 ms uniform acceleration until a speed of 2 ms7! is reached. It
Using v? = u*+2as continues to ascend for 5 s at this constant speed before
decelerating to rest over a further 5 s. Calculate:
0 = 15?+2(—0.05) s
(i) the initial acceleration of the lift;
= S250 mn (ii) the total distance travelled by the lift.
So the coach travel 2250 m before it stops. A man of mass 60 kg is travelling in the lift. Calculate the
reaction between the man and the floor of the lift over each
A lift of mass 500 kg is descending with an acceleration of stage of the three-stage journey.
1.5 ms *. A man of mass 80 kg is inside the lift. Calculate *(S)
(a) the tension in the cable connected to the lift, A heavy particle is suspended by a spring balance from the
(b) the force between the man and the floor of the lift. ceiling of a lift. When the lift moves up with constant
acceleration f m/s* the balance shows a reading 1.8 kg.
First consider the man and lift to be one mass subject to forces
When the lift descends with constant acceleration 4f m/s*
of T upwards (the tension in the cable) and the weight force the balance shows 'a reading 1 kg. Find the mass of the
downwards. Write down the equation of motion downwards. ; j f
. ; ; particle and the value of f.
Next consider the force between the man’s feet and the floor as (L)
(say), F. This force can be considered to be acting on either the
man’s feet upwards (if you consider forces on the man), or on 7 When pulled by a horizontal force of 16 N, a particle of
the floor ofthe lift downwards (if you consider forces acting on mass 2 kg moving on a rough horizontal plane has an
the lift). Choose one of these only. Draw a force diagram for acceleration of 4 ms”. Find the coefficient of friction.
either the man or the lift and then write down the appropriate When the same plane is inclined at 23° to the horizontal and
equation of motion. Hence find F. the force of 16 N no longer acts, the particle slides down
with an acceleration of ams °. Find a.
(O&C)

91
 : te

46 Connected Particles
Problem solving, Common situations.

Problem Two particles connected by a light inextensible string Li] Two particles
res mass
Mm m, and
é m2,: with Jm,>mz, are
solving which passes over a fixed light smooth frictionless connected by a light inextensible string which passes
pulley are called connected particles. over a fixed light smooth frictionless pulley. Find the
The tension in the string is the same throughout its common acceleration, a, of each mass and the —
length, so each particle is acted upon by the same tension, T, in the string when the system is moving
tension. freely.

Problems concerned with connected particles usually

involve finding the acceleration of the system and the ~
tension in the string. f
To solve problems of this type:
1. Draw a clear diagram showing the forces on each Figure 1
particle and the common acceleration.
2. Write down the equation of motion, For m,, with acceleration a (| ), the equation of
i.e. force = mass X acceleration motion, i.e. force =mass x acceleration
for each particle separately. '
3. Solve the two equations to find the common 1S mg—T=m,a (1)
acceleration, a, and/or the tension, T, in the string. For m, with acceleration a ( } ), the equation of motion
is T-—m,g=m,a (2)
Adding (1) and (2) to eliminate T:

m-m
ies Asc),
(m,+m2)
Substituting for ain (1):
m—-m
mg-T=m (mi —m2)
(m,+m2)
Rearranging gives:
oN
(m,+m2)

Common The simplest situation in which connected particles occur is illustrated above. There are several other
situations situations in which the motion of connected particles is considered. The most common are shown below.

One particle on a smooth horizontal table as shown. One particle on a rough horizontal table as shown.
—s

Figure 2 M29
Figure 4 mg
For m: For m;:
Resolving 1 to table: R=mg Resolving | to table: R=mg
Equation of motion: T=ma Equation of motion: T-— F=mya
For m2: For m2:
Equation of motion: mg —- T=m2a Equation of motion: m.g—-T=myza

One particle on a smooth inclined plane as shown. One particle on a rough inclined plane as shown.

Figure 3 W/ mg Figure 5

For m:
For m;:
Resolving 1 to plane: R=mg cos w
Resolving to plane: R=mig cos w
Equation of motion: T—mg sin w=mya
Equation of motion: T— F—mig sin w=mya
For m2:
For m2:
Equation of motion: mg- T=mz2a
Equation of motion: mg- T=mz2a

92
 Connected Particles
Worked example and Exam questions

WEY smooth plane and a rough plane, both inclined at 45° to the 2 Two particles X and Y, of mass 150 g and 100 g respectively,
horizontal, intersect in a fixed horizontal ridge. A particle P of are attached to the ends of a light inextensible string. The
mass 1 kg is held on the smooth plane by a light inextensible particle X is held on a rough horizontal table, with the
string which passes over a small frictionless pulley A on the string passing along the table and over a small smooth
ridge and is attached to a particle Q of mass 3 kg which rests on pulley which is fixed on the edge of the table. The string is in
the rough plane. The plane containing P, Q and A is perpen- a plane perpendicular to the edge of the table and Y hangs
dicular to the ridge. The system is released from rest with the freely. The coefficient of friction between X and the table is
string taut. Given that the acceleration of each particle is of 3. The particle X is released and after 12 s, before X
magnitude V2 m s~’, find reaches the edge of the table, the string breaks. Calculate:
(a) the tension in the string, (a) the acceleration with which X moves before the string
(b) the coefficient of friction between Q and the rough plane, breaks;
(b) the speed attained by X at the instant the string breaks;
(c) the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the
(c) the total distance X¥ moves before coming to rest,
string on the pulley. [Take the value ofg to be 10 ms *]
A
assuming it still has not reached the edge of the table.
*(A)
3 Two particles A and B, of masses 0-4 kg and 0-3 kg
respectively, are connected by a light inextensible string.
The particle A is placed near the bottom of a smooth plane
inclined at 30° to the horizontal. The string passes over a
small smooth light pulley which is fixed at the top of the
inclined plane and B hangs freely. The system is released
from rest, with each portion of the string taut and in the
same vertical plane as a line of greatest slope of the inclined
Let T be the tension in the string, plane. Calculate:
and F be the frictional force on Q.
(a) the common acceleration, in m/s’, of the two particles;
Let R, and R, be the normal reactions on P and Q respectively.
(b) the tension, in N, in the string.
Given that A has not reached the pulley, find:
For P
at ent eiotion (c) the time taken for B to fall 6-3 m from rest;
hes sateen (d) the speed that B has then acquired.
T—10 cos 45°=1x V2 [Take the value of g to be 9.8 ms ~’]

i.e. T=6V2N, the tension in the string.

4 (In this question, you may assume that the strings are of
For Q such a length, and the pulley so positioned, that at no
Since friction is limiting (particle is in motion) time during the motion is the pulley hit by either mass.)
Masses of 3m and m are connected by a light inextensible
F=uR>, yw coefficient of friction.
i : string passing over a light smooth pulley. The system is
Resolving perpendicular to slope: released from rest with the string taut and with both
R,=3%X10 cos 45°, masses at a height h above the ground.
> R,=15V2N. Find:
(i) the acceleration with which they both move;
Equation of motion:
(ii) the tension in the string before the 3m mass hits the
3x10 cos 45°—-T—F=3x
V2 ground;
> F=15V2-3V2-6V2 (iii) the loss of kinetic energy at the impact of the 3m mass
i.e. F=6V2N. with the ground, (the 3m mass does not rebound from
Hence 6V2=15V2 _ the ground); —
6v2 2 fn (iv) the greatest height reached by the smaller mass, and
> = -, the coefficient of friction.
u=—— the total time taken to get there;
15225 (v) the speed with which the 37m mass leaves the ground
Forces on the pulley are: again.
45° 45° (S)
5 A light inextensible string passes over a smooth light fixed
pulley and masses of 3 kg and 7 kg are attached to its ends.
Svie 6/2 The system is held at rest with the string taut, those parts
not in contact with the pulley being vertical, and then
The resultant force is
released. Find the acceleration of each mass and the
tension in the string, stating units. After the 7 kg mass has
6V2 cos 45°+6V2 cos 45°, descended a distance of one metre it strikes an inelastic
i.e.12 N vertically downwards. horizontal table. Show that the time taken for this to
happen is 5/7 s from the start of the motion, assuming that
1 Masses of 1 kg and 2 kg are attached to the ends of a long the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 ms. Find the time
light string which passes over a light pulley supported by a during which the 7 kg mass is at rest on the table. (Assume
frictionless horizontal axis. If the tension in the string is T throughout that the 3 kg mass does not reach the pulley.)
newtons, write down the equation of motion of each mass, (O &C)
and hence find:
(i) the tension in the string;
(ii) the time taken for the heavier mass to fall from rest a
distance of 1.5 m. “(0 &C)
ee eel

93
 47 Work and Energy
Definitions, Hooke’s law, Kinetic and potential energy, Mechanical energy, Conservation of
mechanical energy.
BR NS I NCE
SST ER
Definitions Work may be done by or against a force (often gravity). F at . ge ZA ib
It is a scalar. at of. we
When a constant force F moves its point of application Zo yl
from A to B, the work done by F is Fcos 6.AB. A B
SI unit of work is the joule (J). Figure 1
1 joule is the work done by a force of 1 N in moving its point of application 1 m in the direction of the force.
Energy is the capacity to do work. It is a scalar.
SI unit of energy is the joule (the same as work). '
A body possessing energy can do work and lose energy. Work can be done on a body and increase its energy.
i.e. Work done = change in energy.

Hooke’s law Hooke’s law for an elastic string or spring is poe Li] An elastic string AB of natural length 3m and
a modulus 12 N has its end A attached to a fixed point.
where Tis the tension in string or spring, A force of 4N is applied to the end B. Calculate the
Ais its modulus of elasticity , work done by the force in producing the extension.
lis its natural (unstretched) length,
x is the extension. (Note: a negative extension Hooke’s laa Le gives 4 _ 12x
of a spring is a compression.) / 3

: . . Ax? =>x=1 mM, the extension.

Work done in stretching the string or spring is Ey eae
Work done by the force = =2J.
2x3

Kinetic and _ Kinetic energy and potential energy are types of Li] A stone of mass 2 kg is thrown horizontally with
potential mechanical energy. speed 3ms_'.
energy (a) Kinetic energy (K.E.) is due to a body’s motion. __K.E. of the moving stone is $mv?=}2x3?J=9J.
The K.E. of a body of mass m, moving with
velocity v, is 3mv’.
il A body of mass 2 kg is suspended 3 m above a
(b) Potential energy (P.E.) is due to a body’s floor. The P.E. of the body relative to:
position. Gravitational P.E. is a property of (a) the floor is mgh=2x10X3J=60J.
height.
The P.E. of a body of mass m at a distance h, (b) a table 1m high is mgh=2x10x2J=40J.
(i) above an initial level is mgh, (in both cases taking g=10ms *.)
(ii) below an initial level is —mgh.
The initial level can be any level you choose and the Li] An elastic string of natural length 0.5 m and
P.E. at the initial level is zero. modulus 1 N is stretched to a length 0.75 m.
Elastic P.E., a property of stretched elastic strings 2 2
AK Elastic P.E. stored in the string a ey
and springs or compressed springs, is re where A is 2A 2HES
the modulus of the elasticity of the ‘string’, / is its = 0.0625 J
natural length and x the extension (see Hooke’s law).

Mechanical The mechanical energy (M.E.) of a particle (or [i] A particle of mass 3 kg is moving with a speed
energy body) = P.E. + K.E. of the particle (or body). of 5 m/s, 0.5 m above ground level (P.E.=0).
Total mechanical energy
If a system includes one or more elastic strings, then: =P.E.+K.E.
total M.E. of the system = P.E. + K.E. + elastic P.E.
=mgh+3mv"
M.E. is lost (as heat energy or sound energy) when =3x10x0.5+4x3x5?=52.5 J
we have:
resistances (friction) or
Lil A 5 kg mass, moving horizontally on a smooth
impulses (collisions or strings jerking taut).
table at 9 m/s, hits a vertical plane barrier and
rebounds at 4 m/s.
Loss in K.E. =3mvj—3mv3
=$X5x9*-4x5x4*=162.5 J.

Conservation The total mechanical energy of a body (or system) Li] A particle falls freely from rest until its speed is
of mechanical will be conserved if 9ms~'. How far has it fallen? (Use g=10 ms~2)
energy (a) no external force (other than gravity) causes
work to be done, and Initially, P.E.=mgh, K.E.=0.
(b) none of the M.E. is converted to other forms. h So total M.E.=mgh.
Given these conditions: P.E. +K.E. =constant \ Finally, P.E.=0, K.E.=4m.9.
or loss in P.E. = gain in K.E. Figure 2 So total M.E. =4m.9?,
or loss in K.E. = gain in P.E.
Total M.E. is conserved, so mgh =$m9>h=4.05 m.

94
 Work and Energy
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WE] (a) A particle of mass m is projected directly up a rough plane (iii) the work done in overcoming the frictional resistance,
of inclination a with velocity V. Ifu is the coefficient of friction (iv) the average value of this resistance.
between the particle and the plane, calculate how far up the After reaching the lowest point of the chute, the parcel slides
plane the particle travels before coming to rest. along a horizontal floor the resistance to motion being 4 N.
(b) A light elastic string OA of natural length | and modulus Calculate how far the parcel travels before coming to rest.
2mg has its end O fixed to a point on a ceiling. A particle of mass
m ts attached to the end A of the string and is held as close as (i) Find the kinetic energy at the top and bottom of the
possible to O. If the particle is released from rest, find the slope. Hence find gain.
maximum.length of OA in the subsequent motion. (ii) Find the potential energy at the top and bottom of the
slope. Hence find loss.
(iii) Find the loss of mechanical energy. (This is the difference
between the total energy at the top and bottom of the
F= frictional force slope.) Hence find work done.
N=normal reaction (iv) Work done by the average resistance is R X 12 m, where R
Let / be the distance along is the average resistance. Equate this to work done
the slope the particle travels. calculated in (iii). Hence find R.
For final part, use
loss in K.E. = work done against 4 N resistive force
to find the distance travelled.
Since the particle is moving along the plane, friction is limiting,
so F=uN. 1 A block of mass 6.5 kg is projected with a velocity of 4 m/s
Resolving perpendicular to the plane: up a line of greatest slope of a rough plane. Calculate the
N=mg cos a, initial kinetic energy of the block. The coefficient of friction
between the block and the plane is 3 and the plane makes
so frictional force F=umg cos a.
an angle 6 with the horizontal where sin 6 = 73. The block
At bottom of slope, total energy = 4 mV’. travels a distance of d m up the plane before coming
At top of slope, total energy = mgl sin a instantaneously to rest. Express in terms of d:
Work done against friction = mgl cos a. (i) the potential energy gained by the block in coming to
Now, rest;
initial total energy (ii) the work done against friction by the block in coming
= final total energy +work done against friction, to rest.
Hence calculate the value of d.
i.e. 4mV*?=mel sin at+megl cos a
V2 *(©)
a2g(sin a+ cos a) 2 A boy onasledge slides down a hill of variable gradient. In
so doing he travels a distance of 168 m, measured along the
and is the distance travelled by the particle along the slope
surface of the track, and descends a vertical distance of
before it comes to rest.
30m. The combined mass of the boy and the sledge is 80 kg.
(b) Let L be the maximum length of OA. If the initial speed is 2 m s~' and the final speed is
OA will be a maximum when the particle comes to rest at its 16 m s~', find in the same units:
lowest point. (i) the increase in the kinetic energy of the combined mass
When the particle is at O, of boy and sledge;
P.E.=mgL (ii) the work done by gravity.
E.P.E.=0 Hence find the average resistance to motion (defined as the
K.E.=0. work done against the resisting forces divided by the
distance travelled).
So, total energy =mgL
When particle is at lowest point,
(O&O)
Fae) 3 A fixed plane is inclined at an angle a to the horizontal,
2mg(L—1)? where tan a=3. A particle of mass m is projected, from
ER k= the point A on the plane, up a line of greatest slope. The
2!
coefficient of friction between the particle and the plane is
K.E.=0. 3. The particle has moved a distance d up the plane when it
2mg(L—l)? comes instantaneously to rest at the point B.
So, total energy = a1
(i) Find the total work done against the external applied
By conservation of mechanical energy, forces during the motion from A to B.
5) Ay (ii) Find the speed of projection from A.
pe pA l)
(iii) Find the total work done against the external applied
21 forces during the motion from A to B and back to A
.. L?-2L1=0 i.e. L(L—22)=0 again.
(iv) Find the kinetic energy of the particle when it has
=> L=21I, the maximum length of OA. passed through A and moved a further distance 4d
down the plane from A.
(C)
The top of a chute whose length is 12 m is 3 m vertically above
its lowest point. A parcel of mass 1.6 kg slides from rest from 4 An elastic string, of natural length / and modulus of
the top of the chute and reaches the lowest point with a speed elasticity A, is stretched to a length /+x. As a result, the
of 5 m/s. Calculate, for the parcel, tension in the string is mg and the energy stored in it is E.
(i) the gain in kinetic energy, Find x and A in terms of E, g, | and m.
(ii) the loss in potential energy, (L)
ee ener LL LLLML—L——K<K
Lae eS ee

95
 48 Power
Definitions, Moving vehicles, Common situations.

“serene Sze a a
Definitions Power is the rate at which a force does work. [i A pump raises water at a rate of 500 kg per
It is a scalar. minute through a vertical distance of 3 m. If the water
SI unit of power is'the watt (W). is delivered at 2.5ms_', find the power developed.
1 watt (W)=1 joule per second (Js~’). The pump does work to create both P.E. and K.E.
The kilowatt (1 kW=1000 W) is often used. P.E. created is 500 x 10 x3 J 15 000 J per min.
When a body is moving in a straight line with velocity K.E. created is 3x 500 2.5°= 1562.5 J per min.
vms_! under a tractive force F newtons, the power So, power developed is (15 000+ 1562.5) +60~276 W.
of the force is Fu watts.

Moving The power of a moving vehicle is supplied by its Li] A train of total mass 200 tonnes is moving at a
vehicles engine. The tractive force of an engine is the pushing steady speed of 72 kmh"! on a straight level track. If
force it exerts. the non-gravitational resistance is 10* newtons, at what
: i ‘Son - rs
To solve problems involving moving vehicles: rate is the engine working? Take g=10 ms".
1. Draw a clear force diagram. N _y—72kmh! = 72x fms |
Note: ‘non-gravitational resistance’ means ‘frictional 104 F (tractive force)
force’.
2. Resolve forces perpendicular to the direction of 200 x 10° x 10
motion. Figure |
3. If the velocity is: r
(a) constant (vehicle moving with steady speed), then Resolve (7 ): N=200x et x10
resolve forces parallel to the direction of motion = 2 10° newtons
(Newton’s first law), Resolve (—): F =10* newtons
(b) not constant (vehicle accelerating), then find the Power = Fv
resultant force acting and write down the equation 5
_ of motion in the direction of motion. = 10°x72 x 18 2x 10° W=200 kW
4. Use Power=tractive force x speed.

Common The following illustrate some common situations which arise in problems.
situations
1. Vehicles on the level
(a) moving with steady speed v (b) moving with acceleration a and instantaneous
speed v
N Resolve (ft ): N=W
Resolve (=): F=R Resolve ( tf ): N=W
i F Power: P= Fv R ¢ Equation of motion:
F-—R=ma
W W Power: P= Fu
Figure 2 Figure 3

Note: if the vehicle is retarding, i.e. R>F, then a will

be in the opposite direction.
2. Vehicles on a slope of angle a
(a) moving with steady speed v (b) moving with acceleration a and instantaneous
(i) moving up speed v
(ii) moving up
Resolve 1 to plane:
Resolving | to plane:
N=Weos a
N=Wcos a
Resolve ||to plane:
Equation of motion ||to
F=R+Wsin aw
plane:
Power: P= Fu
F-—R-—Wsin a=ma
Figure 4
Power: P= Fv
Figure 6

Note: if the vehicle is moving up the plane but

(ii) moving down retarding, then F<R+Wsin a.
(ii) moving down
Resolve 1 to plane:
N=Wcos a Resolve 1 to plane:
Resolve ||to plane: N=W cos w
F+Wsin wa=R Equation of motion ||to
plane:
Power: P= Fv
F+W sin a—R=ma
Figure 5 Figure 7 Power: P= Fv

Note: if the vehicle is retarding, using the engine for

braking, then F acts up the plane and F+R>Wsin a.

96
 Power
Worked example and Exam questions

A bus of mass 5 tonnes freewheels down a slope of inclination 1 The engine of a car is working at a constant rate of 6 kW in
driving the car along a straight horizontal road at a constant
sin”? (3)to the horizontal at constant speed. Assuming that speed of 54 km/h. Find, in N, the resistance to the motion of
the car.
the non-gravitational resistances remain the same, find the rate
at which the engine must work in order to drive the bus up the *(L)
same incline at a steady speed of 12 km/h. If the power is 2 Amotor car of mass 800 kg is towing a trailer of mass 300 kg
suddenly increased to 10 kW find, in m/s’, the immediate along a straight horizontal road, Resistances, which are
acceleration of the bus. constant, are 600 N for the car and 240 N for the trailer.
Stage 1, bus freewheeling down slope. Calculate the tractive force exerted by the motor and the
tension in the coupling between the car and the trailer in
F is the non-gravitational F
resistance. Since speed is
each of the following cases:
steady down the slope,
(i) when both are travelling at constant velocity;
forces down slope = forces up slope
(ii) when both are accelerating at 2.5 m/s’.
5 x 10° x 10 Calculate the power developed by the motor when the car
i.e. 5X10°x ee and trailer are travelling at a constant velocity of 15 m/s.
40 sin! (ds) zit)

> F=1250N, the non-gravitational resistance.

3 (Take gas 10 ms ”.) The three parts of this question are
all concerned with a car of mass 3000 kg.
Stage 2, bus being driven up the slope at steady speed. (i) The car will just run down a slope of inclination a
T‘ is the tractive force of the engine. R (sin a= y) under its own weight (i.e. the engine is not
: oF switched on). Find the resistance to motion in newtons.
Since speed is steady,
forces up slope = forces down slope (ii) The car is driven along a level road, its engine exerting
a constant tractive force of T newtons. Given that the force
ie. T=1250+5X10°X10x— F resisting motion is the same (in magnitude) as when the car
40) 5 x 10? x 10 just runs down the plane (Part (i)) and that, starting from
= 1250+ 1250 rest, the car reaches a speed of 15 ms7! ina time of 5
So, T=2500 N. sin! (d) minutes, calculate:
(a) the acceleration of the car; (b) the value of T;
Now, power= Tv watts, v being the speed up the slope. (c) the power developed by the engine.
(iii) When the car is driven up the slope of inclination a
v=12 yee m/s.
18 (sin a= +4) its engine exerts such a tractive force that the
car travels at a constant speed of 40 km/hour. Given that
— m/s the resistance to motion is the same, in magnitude, as in
3 Parts (i) and (ii), calculate the rate of working in kW, giving
your answer correct to two decimal places.
So, power = 2500 x= watts
*(W)
4 Acar of mass 1000 kg moves with its engine shut off downa
slope of inclination a, where sin a= 25, at a steady speed
= 83 kW. of 15 ms_!. Find the resistance, in newtons, to the motion
When the power is suddenly increased to 10 kW, a new tractive of the car. Calculate the power delivered by the engine
Ales to 280 when the car ascends the same inclination at the same
force T, acts, but the speed at this instant is still a m/s. steady speed, assuming that resistance to motion is
unchanged. [Take g as 10 ms -”.]
Using Power = Tv watts,
(L)
10
10x10°= Tx 5 The frictional resistance to the motion of a car of mass
1000 kg is kv newtons, where v m s | is its speed and k is
> T,=3X10°.N. constant. The car ascends a hill of inclination arcsin(7c) at
a steady speed of 8 ms_', the power exerted by the engine
Stage 3, bus accelerating up the slope. being 9.76 kW. Prove that the numerical value of k is 30.
We now have a R t, Find the steady speed at which the car ascends the hill if the
resultant accelerating power exerted by the engine is 12.8 kW.
force acting up the When the car is travelling at this speed, the power exerted
slope equal to, by the engine is increased by 2 kW. Find the immediate
1 acceleration of the car. (Take 9.8 ms” as the acceleration
Ty—F-5x10°x10x7— 5 x 10? x 10 due to gravity.)
(O&C)
=3x 10° —1250—1250
sin (qs)
=500 N. 6 Acar of mass 1.2 tonnes is travelling up a slope of 1 in 150
at a constant speed of 10 m s~!. If the frictional and air
Using, resultant accelerating force = mass X acceleration, resistances are 100 newtons, calculate the power exerted by
up the slope, we have, the engine. The car descends the same slope working at a
500 =5x10°xa, where a m/s* is the acceleration
rate of 2kW. What will be its acceleration when its speed is
500 20 ms_' if the resistances are the same? If the engine is shut
“= |s?
4 isi (aaa off when the speed of the car is 25 m s_! as it descends the
slope how long will it be before the car comes to rest?
1.€ fae eee
10 (S)
97
 a)

49 Impulse and Momentum .

Definitions, Relation between impulse and momentum, Conservation of momentum, Problem
solving, Impulses in strings.
ee re ee NE OS Pe OE NT I

Definitions Impulse is the time effect of a force. It is a vector. Lil A constant force acts ona particle ofmass 0.5 kg
For a constant force F, acting for time ¢, changing its speed from 3ms to 7ms", the force
‘ acting in the direction of motion. What is its impulse?
impulse = Ft.
For a variable force F, acting for time T, Impulse [= Ft=mat. since F=ma
T v=utat>at=7—3=4
impulse= | F dt. So, impulse /=0.5x4=2N s
0

SURI U NI n nal Sea SA GUL Se UHSBOE Lil Find the momentum of a particle of mass 1.5 kg
‘ moving in a straight line at 5ms"'.
The momentum of a moving body is the product of 8 8
its mass m and velocity v,i.e. momentum=mov. | Romeatinie( 565575 Nis
It is a vector whose direction is that of the velocity.
SI unit of momentum is the newton second (N s).

Relation The impulse of a force, constant or variable, is equal [i] A golf ball of mass 0.06 kg resting on a tee is
between to the change of momentum it produces. given a horizontal impulse of 1.8 N s. Calculate the
impulse and If a force F acts for a time ¢ on a body of mass m, velocity v with which it moves off.
momentum _ changing its velocity from u to v, then
impulse = mv — mu. Using impulse = change of momentum
1.8=0.06 v—0.06X0S>v=30ms".

Conservation The principle of conservation of momentum states [i] A pile driver of mass 2 tonnes, moving with
of that the total momentum of a system is constant in velocity 7ms~' before impact, hits a stationary pile of
momentum any direction provided no external force acts in that mass 0.5 tonne. Find their common velocity after
direction, impact.
i.e. initial momentum=final momentum. before after By conservation of
In this context a system is usually two bodies. 7ms y qv momentum:
2000 x 7 =2000 v +500 v
oy ye Ss oa
Figure 1

Problem Problems concerning impulse and momentum usually Li] A gun of mass M, whose barrel is at an angle of
solving involve finding the impulse acting or the velocity or elevation 9, fires a shell of mass m and recoils
mass of a body in a system. horizontally with speed V. The shell travels at speed
v relative to the barrel of the gun.
To find an impulse for such a system:
write down the impulse equation for each body. 7 I Velocity triangle for shell
la- 27 2
To find a velocity or mass for such a system: < |M m
write down the equation of conservation of V
momentum. Figure 2 Figure 3
Velocity of shell, relative to the ground, as it leaves
the barrel is the resultant of o and V.
For the gun (—): —Jcos 80= —-MV
For the shell (=): Jcos@=m(v cos 6-V)
For the shell( 7): Jsin 0=muv sin 6
By conservation of momentum (—):
0=m(v cos 0-V)—-MV

Impulses When astring jerks taut, impulses, which are equal [Re Camcider this system involving two masses m, and mp.
in strings in magnitude but opposite in direction, act at the two
ends. If two particles are attached by a string which Just u 0
jerks taut, then the two particles will experience the before (m) (")
equal and opposite impulses. er: Co
Impulse problems for other connected particles may Figure 5
be solved in the same way if the string is considered At I l
to be straight and the particles move in a straight line idee —
Just Just c
before after @ Figure 6
jerk: jerk: | me Paes v
u arter
v (v jerk:
jerk ys a
(™) eis ae (m,)

Figure 4 Figure 7
For mass m: —l=myv—mu
So this system is equivalent to that shown in [i] For mass m2: I[=m,v—m)x0
By conservation of momentum: mu=m,v+myv.
98
 Impulse and Momentum
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

ER a A a I EGRESS ISD IGT SNOOP BAUR ER RARER SER

(34 shell of mass 20 kg is travelling horizontally at 100 ms~! when 2 A railway engine of mass 5300 kg, moving on horizontal
it suddenly explodes into three pieces A, B, C of masses 12 kg, rails at 0-4 m/s, strikes the buffers in a siding and is brought
6 kg and 2 kg respectively. The diagram shows the direction of to rest from this speed in 0-2 s. Calculate:
travel of the shell before the explosion and the directions of the (a) the impulse, in N s, of the force exerted by the buffers
three pieces A, B, C after the explosion. on the enginein bringing the engine to rest;
(b) the magnitude, in N, of this force, assuming it to be
constant. = (2)
Before explosion Bottral obsa8dey apg Two particles A and B, of masses 3m and m respectively,
are connected by a light inextensible string and are free to
move on‘a smooth horizontal table. Initially, A is at rest
and B has speed u in the direction AB. The first diagram
After explosion
shows the situation just before the string tightens. Find the
impulse in the string at the instant when it tightens and the
common speed of A and B afterwards.
ums?

Later, B is brought instantaneously to rest while A

continues towards B. Immediately after the impact
Calculate between the two particles, the speeds of A and B are x and
(a) the angle 6 made by the direction of C with the backward y respectively, as indicated in the second diagram. In this |
horizontal direction, impact, two-ninths of the kinetic energy of the system just
(b) the speed of A. before the impact is lost.

Since no external impulse acts on the system, momentum is

conserved in any chosen direction.
Using conservation of momentum at right angles to the
original direction of travel, we have:
6X 60 cos 60°—2X120 sin @=0 Prove that 3x+y =u and that 3x7+y*= gu’. Hence
determine the values of x and y in terms of u. (C)
= sin 0=3
: 6=sin (3) When a body of mass 3m is moving in a straight line with
Using conservation of momentum parallel to the original speed u, it explodes. As a result it splits into two bodies A
direction of travel we have: and B, of respective masses m and 2m, which move in the
same straight line as before, but in opposite directions.
6x60 cos 30°+12x
v —2120 cos 6=20 100
Given that the extra energy created by the explosion is
v= 1663+20 cos @—15V3 3mu’, find the speeds of A and B. The body B then
immediately strikes a body of mass M which is at rest and
Since sin 6 =, cos a7. also free to move in the same straight line. If the impact is
perfectly elastic, prove that B will subsequently strike A if
hence, v= 1663+5V7—15V3 M>o6m. (OLE)
ie. v~154ms_!.
A gun of mass 600 kg is free to move along a horizontal
track and is connected by a light inelastic rope to an open
(i pile driver of mass 3 tonnes falls through a distance of 5 m truck containing sand whose total mass is 1490 kg. The
onto a pile of mass 1 tonne without rebounding. If the pile is truck is free to move along the same track as the gun. A
driven 15 cm into the ground find the average resistance of the shell of mass 10 kg is fired from the gun towards the truck
ground and the time of penetration. and when it leaves the barrel has a horizontal velocity of
915 ms_! relative to the gun and parallel to the track. The
Use conservation of momentum to find the common velocity shell lodges in the sand where it comes to relative rest
of the pile and driver combination just after impact. Use before the rope tightens. Find:
constant acceleration formulae to find the value of the (i) the speeds of the gun and shell just after the shell
retardation over 15 cm. Write down the equation of motion leaves the barrel;
for the pile and driver combination. (Remember that the (ii) the speed of the truck before the rope tightens when
accelerating force downwards will be (4x 10*—R) newtons, the shell is at relative rest inside the truck;
where R newtons is the average resistance of the ground). (iii) the speed of the gun and truck just after the rope
Finally use constant acceleration formulae to find the time of tightens;
penetration. (iv) the loss in kinetic energy due to the rope tightening;
(v) the magnitude of the impulsive tension in the rope.
1 A bullet of mass 50 g, moving horizontally, strikes a (S)
stationary target at 486 m/s and becomes embedded in it. A particle of mass m, initially at rest, is subjected to an
The target is of mass 4 kg and is free to move. Calculate, impulse J. In the ensuing motion the only force on the
ignoring the time taken by the bullet to become embedded particle is a force directly opposing the motion of the
in the target: particle and of magnitude k times the square of the velocity
(i) the speed at which the target and the embedded bullet of the particle. Show that at time ¢ after the impulse the
move initially;
ml
(ii) the impulse imparted to the target by the bullet, particle has velocity v=
(iii) the kinetic energy lost in the impact. *(A) Ikt+m (J)
eee eeee a=
en

99
 50 Impact
Definitions, Direct impact of spheres, Direct impact with a wall, Oblique impact with a wall.

e
ae a nn are
Definitions If two bodies rebound on collision, then the impact is elastic.
If two bodies coalesce on collsion, then the impact is inelastic.
Newton’s experimental law for an elastic impact of two bodies can be written as:
speed of separation after impact =e x speed of approach before impact
where e is the coefficient of restitution.
The value of e depends on the materials of the colliding bodies. For different materials 0<e<1.
If e=0, the impact is inelastic. If e=1, the impact is perfectly elastic (not realisable in practice).

Direct impact Direct impact takes place when two similar spheres Li] A sphere of mass 3 kg moving at5 m s_' strikes
of spheres moving along the same straight line collide. a similar sphere of mass 2 kg travelling in the opposite
To solve problems involving the direct impact of two direction at2 ms '.The coefficient of restitution is 3.
smooth spheres of masses m, and m2, moving with Find the velocities after impact.
initial velocities u; and uz (ui>uz) and final velocities before impact ——>5ms' 2ms'. Take
v; and v2 and coefficient of restitution e: —
5 C)3k9 C)2ks as +ve.
1. Draw a clear diagram. after impact ar Sa
Figure 2
before impact ——+u, ——>)_— Take By the conservation of momentum:
.
afterimpact >
oO
Sea te!
as
as t+ve. (3 X5)+ (2x —2)=301+ 202
Figure 1 ne; 11 =3v,;+2v2 (1)
2. Use conservation of momentum in the chosen
By Newton’s experimental law:
direction,
Le: Mu, + M22 =mMyv1 +M2v2 v2— 1 =4(5—(—2))
3. Apply Newton’s experimental law, Ley v2— U1 =2 (2)
i.e. V2— V1 =e(U,
—U2) Solving (1) and (2): v:=1.4ms"', ».=3.4ms"'.

Direct impact When a smooth sphere collides directly with a smooth Li] A ball of mass 2 kg travelling along a horizontal
with a wall wall, the sphere’s direction of motion is perpendicular floor at 5S ms“ collides directly with a vertical wall.
to the wall. The sphere receives an impulse The coefficient of restitution is 0.3. Calculate the speed
perpendicular to the wall. of the rebound and the impulse given to the ball in the
To solve problems involving the direct impact with a collision.
vertical wall of a smooth sphere of mass m moving See
with velocity u before impact and v after impact: efore impact —>5ms"!
1. Draw a clear fea J 2ka(_ }-—<¢— | a
after impact = a te
before impact ar ey Take rizeres

after impact a as tve By Newton’s experimental law:

Figure 3 v=0.3x5
2. Apply Newton’s experimental law, =1.5ms™' the rebound speed.
1.€. v=eu Using Impulse
=change in momentum:
3. Use impulse = change in momentum if needed, [=(2X1.5)—(2x —5)
i.e. J=mv—(—mu) =13Ns

Oblique When a smooth sphere collides obliquely with a Li] A smooth sphere travelling along the ground at
impact smooth wall, the sphere’s direction of motion is at an 3ms-/! strikes a smooth wall at 60° and rebounds at
with a wall —_angle (#90°) to the wall. The sphere receives an 45°. Calculate the velocity after impact and the value
impulse perpendicular to the wall. The component of of the coefficient of restitution.
velocity parallel to the wall is unchanged since both
surfaces are smooth.
before 3ms ' V after
To solve problems in which a smooth sphere mass m impact 60° 45° impact
strikes a wall at an angle a with velocity u and
rebounds at an angle 6 with velocity v:
Figure 6
1. Draw a clear diagram.
before v after Equate components of velocity parallel to the wall:
impact impact
(78) 3 cos 60°= v cos 45°
Figure 5 .v=—ms!
2. Equate components of velocity parallel to the
wall, By Newton’s experimental law, perpendicular to the
wall
1; ucos w@=v cos B
3. Use Newton’s experimental law, perpendicular to v sin 45°=ex3 sin 60°
the wall, -e=
1G v sin B=eu sin w v3
4. Use Impulse =change of momentum,
perpendicular to the wall if needed,
1c: I=mv sin B—(—mu sin a)

100
aa SN
 Impact
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

3 Three smooth spheres A, B and C of masses 2m, 7m and 14m 1 A railway truck A of mass 4000 kg travelling at 2 m/s
respectively and of equal size, are at rest on asmooth horizontal collides with another truck B of mass 6000 kg travelling at
floor. The centres of the spheres lie in a straight line. The co- 1 m/s in the same direction. The speed of truck A after the
efficient of restitution between each pair of spheres is 4. Sphere collision is 1-25 m/s in the same direction. Calculate the
A is projected towards B with speed u. Show that after two speed of truck B after the collision. A and B are now
impacts B is at rest and A and C are each moving with equal brought to rest by frictional forces which are in each case
speeds in opposite directions. Calculate the total kinetic energy 50 N per 1000 kg mass. Calculate:
of the spheres after the two impacts. (i) for how long A and B are each in motion after the
collision;
(a) Diagram showing the first impact between A and B: (ii) the final distance between them.
*(C)
Before —>u =

© @
Two identical smooth spheres, S and T, moving in opposite
directions with speeds u, 3u respectively, collide directly.
The sphere T is reduced to rest. Find the coefficient of
restitution between the spheres.
After — VV; —> V, (L)
A particle moving along a smooth horizontal floor hits a
(b) Conservation of momentum (take to the right as positive): smooth vertical wall and rebounds in a direction at right
(2m Xu) + (7m xX0) =2m Xv, +7mXvz angles to its initial direction of motion. The coefficient of
Le: 2u = 20, +702 [1] restitution is e. Find, in terms of e, the tangent of the angle
between the initial direction of motion and the wall. Prove
(c) Newton’s experimental law: that the kinetic energy after the rebound is e times the
ep 2h Se 2u [2] initial kinetic energy.
[1] and [2] give v, =—éu and v= 4u. VY)
Sphere B now goes on to hit sphere C.
(i) A sphere of mass m moving along a smooth horizontal
table with speed V collides directly with a stationary
Before —> tu —ie() sphere ofthe same radius and of mass 2m. Obtain
expressions, in terms of V and the coefficient of
restitution e, for the speeds of the two spheres after
1@ © (4m) impact. Half of the kinetic energy is lost in the impact.
Find the value of e.
After ——s Va
(ii) A particle of mass m moving in a straight line with
speed u receives an impulse of magnitude / in the
direction of its motion. Show that the increase in
Conservation of momentum: kinetic energy is given by /(/+2mu)/(2m).
(7m X gu) + (14m x 0) = (7m X v3) + (14m X v4) (L)
i.e. u=3v3+6v4 [3] Three beads A, B and C, of masses 3m, 2m and m
Newton’s experimental law: respectively, are threaded in that order on a smooth
horizontal straight wire. Initially, A, Band C are separated
D4— 03 = 2(3U)
and at rest, and A is then projected towards B with speed
i.e. 604—603=U [4]
10V. The coefficient of restitution between A and B is 3.
Show that the speed of B after the collision is 9V. Find the
[3] and [4] give: v3=0 and v4=<éu. velocity of A after the collision and find also the kinetic
So A and C are now each moving with speed gu in opposite energy lost in the collision. After A and B have collided, C
directions and B is at rest. is projected towards B with speed 6V. Given that the
Total K.E. after two impacts is collision between B and C is perfectly elastic (e= 1), find
42m(hu)* + $.(14m) . (4u)? = mu’. the velocities of B and C after this collision.
(C)
GE ball is thrown vertically upwards from the floor with velocity
Two particles, A of mass 2m and B of mass m, moving on a
V. It rebounds from the ceiling, which is a height h above the
smooth horizontal table in opposite directions with speeds
floor, and then rebounds from the floor. After this second
5u and 3u respectively, collide directly. Find their velocities
rebound, it just reaches the ceiling again. after the collision in terms of u and the coefficient of
If the coefficient of restitution between the ball and ceiling is e,
restitution e. Show that the magnitude of the impulse
and between the ball and floor is f, prove that
yn 2h fe?) e-f?
. 16 4
exerted by B on A is acne SU +e). Find the value of e for

which the speed of B after the collision is 3u. Moving at this

First treat the ball as a particle moving freely under gravity-and speed B subsequently collides with a stationary particle C
calculate its velocity just before it hits the ceiling. Consider of mass km, and thereafter remains attached to C. Find the
impact with ceiling knowing the initial velocity (just found) velocity of the combined particle and find the range of
and find its velocity just as it comes off the ceiling. Now find values of k for which a third collision will occur.
the velocity of the ball just before it hits the floor. Use impact VY)
again to find the new upward velocity just as it begins to rise.
The final velocity, since the ball just reaches the ceiling for a
second time, is zero. Using the results you have obtained,
derive the required equation.
2

101
 51 Projectiles
Definition, Analysis of motion, Standard results.

Definition A projectile is a particle which is given an initial velocity and then moves freely under gravity.
It is assumed that gravity is the only force acting on the particle, i.e. air resistance 1s negligible.
If its initial velocity is vertical, then the particle will move in a straight line under gravity.
If its initial velocity is not vertical, the particle will move in a curve (a parabola).

Analysis Consider a particle a yoR [i A particle is projected from ground level with
of motion projected with initial y speed 30 m s_' at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
velocity u at an angle w Calculate: (a) the time of flight, (b) the range.
to the horizontal and Foes y
has velocity v at time t. O x ems!

Its flight can be analysed by considering horizontal 30 cos 30° L R x

and vertical motion separately and using the equations = 15/3 ms” :
for uniform acceleration in a straight line, Figure 2 Figure 3
ive, bag? ; (a) Consider vertical motion:
pills When the particle reaches the ground s=0.
ewes u=15, v=?, a=—10, s=0, t=?
Using s=ut+ 3at?
=ucos a Uy =u sin w@
rae
ie. 53-1)=0

t=0 is the starting time, t=3s is time of flight.

(b) The horizontal velocity 153 ms™' is constant.

y=(usin a)t—igP Since the particle travels for 3s at this velocity,
: range R=15V3x3=45V3 m.

Standard Time of flight Greatest height

results i.e. the time taken for the The projectile reaches its %
projectile to travel along greatest height when the
its path from O to A. vertical velocity is zero.
Oo Ax
Consider vertical motion: Figure 4 Consider vertical motion: O : Ax
At any time t, y=(u sin a)t—3gf using v?=u’ + 2as Figure?
At A, y=0 ..0=(u sin a)t—igt 0=u? sin’ a—2gs
>t=0 (initial position) gee

_ 2usin a > Smax <a (greatest height)

or ¢ (time of flight) §

Range Direction and velocity at any time

i.e. the horizontal distance At any time the projectile Vv
OA travelled by the is always moving along a u sin a-gt
projectile. tangent to its path. LN ‘a

Consider horizontal motion: Horizontal velocity: u cos w u cos a

: Figure 5
At any time t, x=(u cos a)t Vertical velocity: u sin a—gt Figure 8
From the diagram: v*=(u cos w)*+(u sin a—gt)?
2u sin w 2u sin w@
When t=——_, then x = (u cos a) ———— (usin a—gft)
rah (u cos a)
ee
: u’ sin 2a
i.e. ¥=———— (the range) Equation of the path of the projectile
Take x and y axes through” sy
A. 3 : , A the point of projection O.
This is a maximum when sin 2~=1, i.e. ae or 45°. P(x, y)
If t is the time for the
projectile to travel from
So the maximum range is —. O to P(x, y), then: O
Figure 9
Horizontal distance: x=(u cos a)t
Angle of projection
for a given range : y Vertical distance: y=(u sin a)t—igt
Eliminating ft between these equations gives:
Let the range be my ow
y=x tan Oygx?5 Sec? w
&

u’ sin 2a_ ku’ 0 Zaa~ u

g g Figure 6 the equation of the path or trajectory of the
projectile.
>sin 2a~@=k
If k=sin 6, then 2a@= 0 or 2-8,
i.e. a=30 or 3(m— 8)
So there are two possible angles of projection.
102
 Projectiles
Worked example and Exam questions

34 stone is thrown from a point O which is at the top of a cliff 1 A body is projected upwards from a point on a horizontal
50 m above a horizontal beach. The speed with which the stone plane, with a velocity of 40 m/s, at an angle of 60° to the
is thrown is 40 m s_' and it hits the beach at a pointR which is at horizontal. The point of projection is at a horizontal
a horizontal distance of 200 m from O. If the stone was thrown distance of 40 m from the foot of a vertical wall which is
at an angle of elevation a, show that one of the possible values 10 m high, and the motion takes place in a plane
WS perpendicular to the wall. Calculate:
of tan a is F and find the other possible value. (i) the vertical height by which the body clears the wall;
(ii) the greatest height above the horizontal plane reached
Given that tan a= 3 caiculate by the body;
(i) the time the stone was in the air, (iii) the time of flight of the body;
(ii) the angle at which the stone hits the beach at R. (iv) the horizontal distance beyond the wall at which the
body strikes the plane.
*(A)
2 A ball was thrown from a balcony above a horizontal lawn.
The velocity of projection was 10 m/s at an angle of
elevation a, where tan a =i. The ball moved freely under
gravity and took 3s to reach the lawn from the instant when
it was thrown. Calculate:
(a) the vertical height above the lawn from which the ball
was thrown;
(b) the horizontal distance between the point of projection
~< 200m —»R and the point A at which the ball hit the lawn;
(c) the angle, to the nearest degree, between the direction °
Consider the horizontal motion of the stone. of the velocity of the ball and the horizontal at the instant
The horizontal velocity 40 cos a ms“! is constant, when the ball reached A.
so, 40 cos ax T=200 (T is the time of flight)
= T=5 sec a. [1] *(L)
Consider the vertical motion (take up as positive). 3 A batsman strikes a ball at a height of 1.5 m above the
s=—50, u=40 sin a, a= —-10, t=T ground, giving it an initial speed of 29 ms ' at an angle of
Using s = ut+4at gives 30° to the horizontal. What is the minimum distance of the
—50=40 (sin a)T+4(—10)T’, boundary from the batsman if he scores a ‘six’ (i.e. the ball
and substituting for T from [1] gives passes over the boundary line without first bouncing)? A
—50=200 tan a—125 sec’ a. fielder, who is capable of catching a ball at a height of
2.75 m or below, goes .to the boundary line. What speed
So, —2=8 tan a—5(1+tan? a) must the batsman give to the ball if he is to hit it at the same
i.e.5 tan? a—8 tan a+3=0 height and elevation as before and ensure that he will score
i.e. (5 tan a—3)(tan a—1)=0 a six and not be caught by the fielder?

> tan a=F orihe (S)

4 The muzzle speed of a gunis V and it is desired to hit a small
(i) If tan hese sin a= E and cos ecu, target at a horizontal distance a away and at a height b
of V34 V34
above the gun. Show that this is impossible if
Using [1], \ V*(V*—2gb)<g’a", but that, if V7(V?—2gb)>g’a’, there
T=5 sec a are two possible elevations for the gun. Show that, if
V’? =2ga and b =a, there is only one possible elevation,
Me IPS) gv)
5 and find the time taken to hit the target.
So T= V34 s — the time of flight. (OLE)
(ii) To find the angle the stone hits the beach at R, we need to 5 A particle is projected from a point O with speed 5ms_! at
find the vertical component of velocity at R. an angle of elevation 0, where 0647/2, and moves freely
Consider the vertical motion (take up as positive). under gravity. Taking the acceleration due to gravity to be
10 m s 7, show that the equation of the path of the
u= 40 sin a= —~— v=?, a=—10, t=T= V34 projectile referred to horizontal and upward vertical axes
Using v=u-+at gives, Ox, Oy is y=x tan g—= (1+tan’ 6).
2) = OV (-10)V By considering this equation as a quadratic equation in
tan 0, show that there are two distinct values of @ for which
-—* V34ms7!. the projectile passes through a given point (X, Y), where
X>0, provided that 20Y<25—4X”.
Let 6 be the angle to the horizontal at which the stone hits the
Given that the two values of 6 are a and # and that (X, Y) is
beach then the vector triangle is
a point whose co-ordinates satisfy this inequality,
40 cos a = 4? vi4 write down expressions for tan a+tan # and tan a tan # in
110
NI ie a SA. terms of X and Y, and deduce an expression for tan (a+).
Fe ae 17 110: all If Y=X, show that a+$ =37/4.
a7 V4 =
100. 33 a 100 a
10 )
17
11
i.e. the stone hits the beach at an angle tan' (3) to the
horizontal.

103
 52 Motion in a Horizontal Circle
Definitions, Problem solving, Common situations.

Definitions Consider a particle P of u i] Find the velocity

2 and; acceleration
( of a particle
mass m moving in a \ p moving in a horizontal circle, radius 20 cm, at a
horizontal circle, centre O, constant angular velocity of 30 revolutions per minute,
radius 7, with constant \
speed v. Angular velocity = 30 revolutions per minute

Figure 1 239 Xo rad. st=yrad.s“'

The linear velocity v of P is directed along the 60
tangent to the circle at P. Velocity v=rw=0.2X ams '~0.628 ms *
: by TAY
The constant angular velocity w of P is w= ¢ “accelecation<) =iit=0.2oa aSEe
a Oe mee

w is measured in radians per second (rad s_'‘).

There is no acceleration along the tangent since the
particle moves with constant speed around the circle. [i] A particle of mass 0.5 kg is attached by a light
The acceleration a of P is in the fees PO, i.e. inextensible string, length 2 m, to a fixed point O on
towards the centre of the circle, and a=— or ra”. the top of a smooth horizontal table. The particle is
r made to rotate in a horizontal circle with the string
By Newton’s 2nd law, this acceleration must be taut at a constant speed of 8ms~'. Calculate the
produced by a force which is also directed towards tension in the string.
the centre of the circle. R
So the equation of motion for the particle is: r Pp
mv? O
force we mray. Fisere 2 5N
This force may be the tension in a string, a frictional Equation of motion along PO: T=0.5 oe 16 N.
force, a gravitational force, etc. 2

Problem When solving problems in which a particle P Li] A conical pendulum consists of a particle of
solving describes a horizontal circle, centre O, with constant mass 2 kg attached to one end B of a light inextensible
speed or constant angular velocity: string AB of length 1 m. A is a fixed point. The
1. Draw a clear force diagram. particle describes a horizontal circle whose centre O is
2. Resolve vertically, (since the particle does not 0:5 4 lie ily ped ey ] poe ses phim mm the
move up or down, forces must balance in this string and the angular'velocity of the particle.
direction). Bis Since OA=0.5 m and
3. Write down the equation of motion along the AB=1m,
radius PO. A V3
OAB=60° and Ga m.
Let w be angular velocity.
Figure 3

Resolve ( f ): T cos 60°=20>T=40N (1)

Equation of motion along BO:
T sin 60° =2x~ 3xof (2)

From (1) and (2): @ =20>w=2V%S rad. s7}.

Common The following illustrate some other common situations which arise in problems.
situations 1. Particle P moving inside a hollow cone, with
friction
(a) P about to move up cone (w—a maximum) (b) P about to move down cone (w—a maximum)
Resolve (‘ ): Resolve (7 ):
Rsin wa=mg+F cos w R sin a+ F cos a= mg
Equation of motion along Equation of motion along
PO: —

PO;
Figure 4 2 Figure 6
: mov
Rceos w+
F sin a=— : mv 2
= Rceos a—F sin ~a=—
r
2. Car rounding a bend on a banked track
(a) car cornering at maximum speed (b) car cornering at minimum speed
resolve (f ): Resolve (f ):
Rcos w=mg+ Fsin aw R cos a+ F sin a=mg
Equation of motion along Equation of motion along
PO: PO:
Figure 5 ; mv? 2
R sin w+ Fcos w@=—— Figure 7 , mov
R sin a—
F cos ~=——

104
 Motion in a Horizontal Circle
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

SS
TR 1 TS OO SC Ne GIN BEE VEG ORE SET IA OETA
WE az. rigid light rods AB, BC each of length 4 m are smoothly 1 In a conical pendulum the inelastic string is of length 12m
Jointed at B and the rod AB is smoothly jointed at A to a fixed and a particle of mass M kg is attached to the end of the
smooth vertical rod. The joint at B has a particle of mass 2 kg string. When the string makes an angle of 60° with the
attached. A small ring, of mass 1 kg is smoothly jointed to BC at vertical the tension in the string is 10 N. Calculate the value
C and can slide on the vertical rod below A. The ring rests on a of M. The string will break if the tension in it exceeds 48 N.
smooth horizontal ledge fixed to the vertical rod at a distance Calculate the greatest number of revolutions per minute
the particle can attain. *(A)
> m below A. The system rotates about the vertical rod with
(a) A small smooth ring P of mass m is threaded on to a
constant angular velocity 6 radians per second. light inextensible string of length 2a, whose ends are tied to
Calculate fixed points A and B where A is distant a vertically above B.
(a) the forces in the rods AB and BC, Show that it is not possible for the particle to move in a
(b) the force exerted by the ledge on the ring. horizontal circle at constant speed with AP and BP equally
inclined to the vertical, but that it can move in a horizontal
Notice that the angles at A and C are 30°. circle with BP horizontal and find its speed in this case.
Force diagram for the system.
(b) A smooth hollow right circular cone with vertex
Let T, and T> be the forces in
downwards is rotating with angular velocity w about its axis
the rods AB and BC which is vertical. A particle is at relative rest on the inside
respectively. of the cone at a vertical height h above the vertex. Prove
that w = V(g/h) cot a where a is the semi-vertical angle of
Let R be the force exerted on
the cone. (S)
the ring by the ledge.
Resolving vertically for C: 3 Prove that the acceleration of a point moving in a fixed
T, cos 30°+R=10 {1] circle of radius r with constant angular speed w is directed ,
Resolving vertically for B: towards the centre of the circle and has magnitude w’r.
T,; cos 30°= T> cos 30°+20 [2]
Equation of motion for B:
T, cos 60°+ T, cos 60°
=ox4xo° [3]

Solving [2] and [3] gives

7=18+ 22 N and T=13-8 N.

One end of a light inextensible string of length /is attached
Substituting for 7> into [1] gives to the vertex of a smooth cone of semi-vertical angle a. The
R=(20—9V3) N. cone is fixed to the ground and its axis is vertical. The other
end of the string is attached to a particle of mass m which
can rotate in a horizontal circle in contact with the outer
GEY body of mass M moves in a circle of radius R under a force
surface of the cone, as shown in the diagram. Given that the
kM which is directed towards the centre, k being constant.
angular speed of the particle is w, find an expression for the

rant)
Show that the velocity of the body is of constant magnitude and
tension in the string. Find an expression for the greatest
that T, the time for a revolution, is given by
value of w for which the motion as described can occur.
(C)
The gravitational attraction of the earth on a satellite of mass M A light inextensible string of length 5a has one end fixed at a
point A and the other end fixed at a point B which is
in a circular orbit of radius R about the centre of the earth is
vertically below A and at a distance 4a from it. A particle P
gMr/R’, where r is the radius of the earth. If its time of
of mass m is fastened to the midpoint of the string and
revolution is T, show that
moves with speed u, and with the parts AP and BP of the
R? =e(22), string both taut, in a horizontal circular path whose centre
20 is the midpoint of AB. Find, in terms of m, u, a and g, the
tensions in the two parts of the string, and show that the
A satellite’s orbit keeps it always vertically above a fixed point on motion described can take place only if 8u*>9ga.
the equator. Given that the radius of the earth is 6.378 x 10° m
and that the earth takes 8.616 X 10* s to turn on its axis, show that (J)
the height of the satellite above the surface of the earth is An artificial satellite of mass m moves under the action of a
approximately 3.5810’ m. gravitational force which is directed towards the centre, O,
(Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.8 m/s’.) of the earth and is of magnitude F. The orbit of the satellite
: a 2 is a circle of radius a and centre O. Obtain an expression for
Write down the equation of motion using R for the T, the period of the satellite, in terms of m, a and F.
Show that, if the gravitational force acting on a body of
acceleration. Hence show v is constant. Use v= Rw to find o. mass m at a distance r from O is mu/r’, where p is a
constant, then T?u = 47°a°.
Ta gives required result for T. For the second part, use Assuining that the radius of the earth is 6400 km and that
w
the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth is
c= in the expression obtained for T. Hence get the 10 ms”, show that u=(6.4)7103 m3 s~?.
Hence, or otherwise, find the period of revolution, in hours
required expression for R®. The final part of the answer is to 2 decimal places, of the satellite when it travels in a
obtained by using the given values for r and T to find R. Height circular orbit 600 km above the surface of the earth.
of the satellite above the earth’s surface is R—r. (L)
nnee EEyan EENIE INE EnENNRIEISEREEENR EERE EERE REE amen

105
 7)

53 Motion in a Vertical Circle

Definitions, Types of motion, Problem solving, Simple pendulum.

Definitions When a particle P, of mass m, is moving in a vertical circle, centre O, radius r,

its speed v is variable. SP
The particle P has an acceleration a in the direction PO, i.e. towards the centre
2
of the circle, given by a=~- or ra. So this acceleration is variable too.
r Figure 1

(Note: The tangential acceleration need not be considered at this level.) By Newton’s 2nd law, the
acceleration towards O must be produced by a force which is also directed towards O.
; ; mv?
So the equation of motion for the particle along the radius PO is: force =—— or mra”.
Tr
This variable force will be the resultant of the weight force mg and at least one other force.

Types of The two main types of motion in a vertical circle for a particle with initial speed u are described below.
cia 1. The particle cannot leave the circular path, e.g. a 2. The particle can leave the circular path and
bead threaded on a vertical wire. become a projectile, e.g. a particle attached to a
: : string.
The particle can do one of these three things. The particle can do one of these three things. |
(i) Complete the (ii) Come to rest (iii) Oscillate if (T is the tension in the string or a normal reaction)
circle if v>0 at at top if v=0 at v=0for0<@<a (i) Complete the (ii) Become a __ (iii) Oscillate if
top circle if T=0 for projectile if T=0 v=O for 6<x/2
all values of 9 = for 2/2<0S7
v>O eae ere
iil ES “fn eSe
/ ‘ m / ‘ sag O

wee
>
oA
~< ; \ ye
an
rt ~~
|

Uu u u

and u*>4gr. and u’?=4er. and u?<4gr. and uw>Sgr. and 2gr<u?<S5gr. and uw’ gr.
Figure 2 Figure 3

Problem When solving problems in which a particle P i A particle of mass m is suspended from a fixed
solving describes a vertical circle, centre O: point O by a light inextensible string of length |. When
1. Draw a clear force diagram. the particle is hanging freely in equilibrium it is given
2. Use conservation of mechanical energy a horizontal speed of \/3gl. Find the tension T in the
i.e. Initial (P.E.+K.E.)=(P.E.+K.E.) at any point. _ String when the angle between the string and the
3. Write down the equation of motion for the downward vertical is 60°.
particle along the radius PO. By conservation of M.E.:
AS Zee
Note: The given conditions of the problem will a "maton (1 — cos 60°)
indicate whether the particle completes a circle, S =s
oscillates, becomes a projectile, etc. (see ‘Types of Equation of motion along PO:
motion’ above). mv?
T—mg cos 60°=——
Figure 4 ~ on
Eliminating v gives T=3mg.

Simple A simple pendulum is a special case of a particle [i] A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass
pendulum making small oscillations in a vertical circle. m making small oscillations on the end of a light
When the pendulum has swung fixed point inextensible string of length | attached to a fixed point.
through an angle 6 from the When hanging in equilibrium, the particle is given a
downward vertical, v=/0. small horizontal speed u. Calculate a, the maximum
By conservation of M.E. at P: angular displacement.
mg(l—I cos 6) +3m(10)?=constant fixed point
Figure 5 By conservation of M.E.:
Differentiating with Tespect to time gives:
smu? =mg(I—I cos a)
(mgl sin 0)0 +m?66=0 uz
>cos w=1—-—
1.e. 6= —*sin0 2gl
Since @ is small, sin 0~ 0, so approximately For small u, a will be small
and cos w ~ 1—4¢
Fi 6 Z
ag $6 1=fe? Ae
Compare this with the basic S.H.M. equation 2gl
(¥=—arx). X=
u
e

eit RE
So the motion is angular S.H.M. with period ay
&
106
 Motion in a Vertical Circle
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

A particle of mass m is suspended from a fixed point O by alight moved halfway along its path from A towards the point
inextensible string of length |. The particle is hanging freely in at which it first comes to rest, its speed is
equilibrium when it is given a horizontal speed of V(3gl). Find V {ga(V3-1)}.
the height of the particle above its equilibrium position when the
string becomes slack. (ii) Find v? in terms of ga in the case when P leaves the surface

First draw a diagram showing the forces on the particle P when at a height = above A, and find, in terms of a and g, the
OP makes an angle 6 with the downward vertical.
Let T be the tension in the string and v be the speed of the speed of P as it leaves the surface.
particle at P. VJ)
Conservation of energy gives:
3 A particle of mass m slides down the smooth outside
bm(V3g1)* surface of a fixed sphere of radius a. At the top of the
=4mv?+mg(/—1 cos 0) sphere its velocity is horizontal and of magnitude u. If 6 is
i.e. 3gl=v"+2gl(1—cos 8) [1] the angle that the radius to the particle makes with the
Equation of motion along PO: upward vertical, show that the reaction between the
2 particle and the sphere is mg(3 cos @—2) — mu’/a. Show
T—mg cos 0= m— [2] that the particle, when just displaced from rest at the
top, leaves the surface when 0 = cos! 3, and find its speed
at that instant.
When the string goes slack, T=0. Use this in [2] to get: (W)
v’=—gl cos 0.
4 A small bead is free to move on a smooth circular wire of
Use this value of v? in [1]: radius a which is fixed in a vertical plane. The bead is
3g/= —gl cos 6+2gl—2gl cos 0 projected with speed (4ag)? from the lowest point of the
1 wire. Prove that the radius from the centre of the wire to
=) cos 9= —— the bead makes an angle 6 with the vertical at time ¢ after
3
the instant of projection, where
The height of the particle when the string becomes slack is t=(a/g)' In(sec 40+ tan 40), and the reaction between
the wire and the bead vanishes when 6=2—cos! (3).
l—I cos a ately
3253 (OLE)
5 One end ofa light inextensible string of length ais attached
A smooth sphere with centre O and radius a is fixed with a point to a particle of mass m. The other end is attached to a fixed
B of its surface in contact with a vertical wall. A particle P of point O which is at a height 3a above the horizontal
mass m rests at the highest pointA of the sphere. It is slightly dis- ground. Initially the stringis taut and horizontal. The
turbed so that it moves from rest towards the wall in the plane particle is then projected vertically downward with
OAB. If at any instant in the subsequent motion the line OP velocity (2ag)?. When the string has turned through an
makes an angle 0 with the line OA and the particle is still in con- angle 0 (<7) find the velocity v of the particle and show
tact with the sphere, find expressions for the velocity of P at this that the tension in the string is mg(2+3 sin 6).
instant and for the reaction of the sphére upon it in terms of m, (a) If the string can withstand a tension of at least 5mg,
g, aand 0. prove that the string will not break.
Z (b) If the string can withstand a tension of at most img,
Prove that the particle leaves the sphere when cos sors and find the values of @ and v when the string breaks. In this
case find the time to reach the vertical through O. Hence
that its speed is then V(2ga/3). show that the particle strikes the ground at the point
Show that P hits the wall at a height 4a(5V/5—9) above B. vertically below O.
(O
& C)
Draw a clear force diagram. Use conservation of energy (take
OB as the initial level for P.E. and consider the initial velocity 6 Show that small oscillations of a simple pendulum of
of P to be zero). length / are simple harmonic with period 27V//g. A
Write down the equation of motion along PO. Particle leaves pendulum clock beats seconds (i.e. one half-period =
sphere when the reaction is zero. When particle leaves the 1 second) at a point where g = 9.812 ms~°. Find the length
sphere, consider it to be a projectile moving freely under of the pendulum correct to 3 significant figures. If the clock
gravity (see unit 51). is moved to a place where g=9.921 ms ”, will the clock
gain or lose? Find how much it would gain or lose during
one day. To what length should the pendulum be altered if
(EX) 1 A heavy particle connected to a fixed point O by a light it is to register correctly?
inelastic string of length a is moving in a vertical circle
(S)
about O. Its speed when at the lowest point of the circle is
(3ga)'. Find the inclination of the string to the vertical 7 Asmall bead P of mass mis threaded on a smooth circular
when it becomes slack, and show that the speed of the wire, with centre O and radius r, which is fixed in a vertical
particle is then (3ga)!. Find also the maximum height plane. Initially the bead is at rest at the highest point of the
above O reached by the particle. wire. If the bead is slightly displaced from this position,
*(OLE) determine an expression for the speed of the bead when the
line OP has turned through an angle 0. Show that the
2 A particle P is projected horizontally with speed u from the magnitude of the force exerted by the wire on the bead in
lowest point A of the smooth inside surface of a fixed the direction of OP is mg(3 cos 6 —2). State the direction of
hollow sphere of internal radius a. this force when 0 increases beyond the value cos”! (3).
(i) Inthe case when u’ = gashow that P does not leave the
surface of the sphere. Show also that, when P has
oe ———————————————

107
 a)

54 Variable Forces
Introduction, Force as a function of time, Force as a function of velocity, Force as a function of
displacement.
Sam RN a i
Introduction If the force acting on a body of constant mass is variable, then the acceleration of the body will also be
variable. This is a consequence of Newton’s second law of motion which states that:
force = mass X acceleration.
Under these conditions the acceleration of the body must be expressed as a function of time or velocity or
displacement and calculus used to solve the problem.

Force as a The force or acceleration may be given as a function Li] A particle of mass 8 kg is acted upon by a force
function of _ of time t. 4(1—e~*) N. If the body is initially at rest, find the
time velocity of the particle after 3 s.
To find v in terms of t:
dv 7
use pees Use a=— for acceleration.
dt dt
motion ((F=ma) ig gives:
ti of f motion
Th e equation
To find s in terms of t:
(a) find v in terms of ft, 4(1-€*) =o
t
(b) use Jace, de
at i.e. —=(1—e*)
dt
Integrating gives: v=}(t+6e~*)
+c
When t=0, v=0, so 0=3(6)+c>c=-—3
Hence, v=}(t+6e~*)—3
After3s,v= 3(3+6e *)—3~0.32 ms},

Force as a The force or acceleration may be given as a function [i] A particle of unit mass moves from rest along a
function of _ of the velocity v. straight line under the action of a force (2—0.1 v) N.
velocity . where v is the velocity in m s~'. Find the displacement
To find v in terms of t: when the velocity is 10 m s~'.
dv
use a=—. dv :
Use ee for acceleration.

To find v in terms of s: The equatien of motion (F=ma) gives:

reste eel (2-0.1v)=1.v—dv

So |ds= [~2.ue
(2—0.1v)
20
ds= [(- 10+
=) dv
5 (2—0.1v)
s=—10v—200 In|2—0.1v|+c
When
s =0 andv=0, thence =200In2.

Hence, s=200 In : |
—10v.
PID AND,
When v= 10, s=200 In 2—100~38.6 m.

F orce as a The force or acceleration may be given as a function Li] A particle of unit mass, moving in a straight
function of —_ of the displacement s. line, is acted upon by a force equal to (—4x) N, where
displacement
x m is the displacement of the particle from a fixed
To find v in terms of s: point O in the line. If initially the particle is at rest
whenx =3 m, find the velocity whenx = 1m.
use a=v ge
Pa
dv ;
Use a=v — for acceleration.
To find s in terms of t: dx
(a) find v in terms of s, The equation of motion (F=ma) gives:
ds
(b) use v=—. (i CE tay
dt dx

So |vdv=—4 | xdx
bv°=—2x*+c¢
When x=3, v=0, so c=18.
Hence, v?=4(9—x’).
When x=1, v?=4.85v0=+2V2ms"!.
eee
 Variable Forces
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WER particle of unit mass falls from rest under gravity through the Use the expression found for v in terms of x (from (i1)) in
air. The resistance of the air is kv’ where k is a constant and v is the integral to obtain the work done.
the speed of the particle after it has fallen for time t. Calculate
the time taken for the particle to acquire a speed V. 1 A particle of mass m, subject to a resistance mk times the
square of its speed, is projected vertically downwards with
Equation of motion for the particle is
speed w, where kw*<g. Find the speed of the particle
dv when it has descended a distance x.
—=g-—kv’.
dt i ‘ (V)
Rearranging this differential equation we have,
Show that the acceleration of an object moving along a
| d = |dt straight line may be written as v =. A vehicle of mass
g—kv
2500 kg moving on a straight course is subject to a single
i.e. =| = -{a resisting force in the line of motion of magnitude kv
& =p
newtons, where v metres per second is the velocity and k is
constant. At 100 km/h this force is 2000 N.
Ret k re ee
i GaN Why The vehicle is slowed down from 100 km/h to 50 km/h.
g & Find:
(i) the distance travelled;
Using partial fractions we have
(ii) the time taken.
a 1 1 (A)
+— dv= | dt
2g 1+wv 1—wv
A particle, of mass m, moves in a horizontal straight line
: 1 1+wv 2 ; : under the action of a resisting force of magnitude mkv’,
ee = =t+c, c is a constant of integration. where v is the velocity and k is a positive constant. When
2gw |1—wo t=0, v= U and x =a, where x is the displacement from the
When t=0, v=0 > c=0. origin at time ¢. Find expressions for:
(i) v in terms of x;
pepo fog Bees (ii) v in terms of ¢;
2gw 1—wov (iii) x in terms of f. (C)
k , : : At time ¢ a particle is moving vertically downwards with
But w= 8 so the time taken for the particle to acquire a
& speed v in amedium which exerts a resistance to the motion
speed of V is, say, T where, proportional to the square of the speed of the particle. Ifits
terminal velocity is V, prove wt the equation of motion
pirrdbtnge |MEV E
me We? id
2Vkg Ve-VVk| of the particle is a =e(1- <).and write down the

equation of motion when the particle is moving vertically

A body of mass m falls from rest under gravity through a resist- upwards. A particle is projected vertically upwards in the
ing medium. The resistance is kv? per unit mass where k is medium with speed equal to the terminal velocity V. Prove
constant and v is the velocity when the body has fallen a that when it returns to the point of projection its speed is
distance x. Vviv2.
(i) Given that u is the limiting value of the velocity, i.e. the
velocity for which there would be zero acceleration,
(OLE)
establish the differential equation The motion of a particle is such that its speed v at time tis
v= ke-0). given by o> (v—v*) and v=0-2 when t=0. By solving
(ii) By solving this differential equation obtain an expression the differential equation:
for v in terms of x. (i) find the value of t when v=0-5, giving your answer
(iii) Show that the work done by the resistance when the body correct to two decimal places;
has fallen a distance x is (ii) express v in terms of t.
mu 2 = By considering the differential equation in the form
—— (2kx +e 7-1),
2
; : : 1 ED D a -*(v—v’), or otherwise, where x is the distance
(i) Set up the equation of motion for the particle using vx as
be travelled when the speed is v, andx =0 when v=0-2, show
the expression for acceleration. As acceleration that the value of x when v=0-8 is double its value when
v=0-6.
approaches zero 1.e. eee: velocity approaches u
V)
i.e. g—ku’—0.
Hence get the required differential equation. A particle of mass m is projected vertically upwards under
(ii) Solve the equation using the method of variables gravity with speed u in a medium in which the resistance is
separable. mk times the speed. If the particle reaches its greatest
(iii) The resistance is a variable force so use height H in a time T, show that u=g7T+kH. If the particle
returns to its original position with speed w after a further
Work done = |Fdx where F= kv’ time T’, show that w= g7’ —kH. Find the particle’s speed
0 as a function of time during the upward motion and show
that kT=log.(1+ku/g).
i.é. Work done= [mkv’ dx.
i
0 a
 fw

55 Simple Harmonic Motion

Definitions, Equations, Forces producing S.H.M.

gg er ae pee er ug TR SR a TS

Definitions Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.) is a special type of a a

oscillation. J 5 cos! rf
In linear S.H.M. a particle oscillates in a straight line A ji
with a linear acceleration which is proportional to the Figure |
linear displacement from a fixed point and always Note:
directed towards that fixed point. Hes ts aR,
Consider a particle P, oscillating with S.H.M. along , te ; =
the line AA’, as shown in the diagram. (a) a tee A aie (=na),
O is a fixed point, the centre or mean position. (b) the Hess avait”
a is the amplitude of the S.H.M., i.e. the maximum At A and A’, where x= +a,
distance of the particle from the centre O. (a) the speed is zero, : 5
(b) the acceleration is maximum (=*a).

Equations The basic equation of S.H.M. is: [i] A particle is executing S.H.M. with period 1/4 s
Px and amplitude 0.5 m. Calculate:
pre —w*x where w is a constant. (a) the speed when the displacement is 0.25 m,
‘ (b) the magnitude of the acceleration when the
From it can be derived: displacement is 0.1 m.
y= (=)'- -(a*— x") (a) T 20 im 21 ve
dt paar LAS
T 27/4
x =asin wt, ifx=0 when t=0 aie ee. y
x =acos at, ifx=a when t=0 Using o°= w"(a"— x")
= 8°[(0.5)?—(0.25)?] =12
The period, 7, of the S.H.M. is the time for a nbe= NV 1225A6-ms—
complete oscillation, i.e. to travel a total distance 4a. b) Usi bite eaeaee
The frequency, f, of the S.H.M. is the number of (b) Using acceleration = — wx
oscillations made per unit time. = —§87(0.1)=-6.4ms”
i 2x 1 .. the magnitude of the acceleration is 6.4ms~’.
o f
Note: T and f are independent of the amplitude a.

Forces A force directed towards a fixed point and Li] A particle of mass m hanging on the end of an
producing proportional to the displacement from that point elastic string of natural length | and modulus A is
P. .

S.H.M. produces S.H.M. pulled down a distance a (<megl/A) below its

A simple example of a force producing S.H.M. is the equilibrium position and then released. Prove that the
tension in a stretched elastic string or spring. subsequent oscillations are simple harmonic, find the
period of oscillations and state the amplitude.
To show that the motion produced is S.H.M.:
In equilibrium position:
1. Draw a clear force diagram showing the particle in
b is the static extension.
equilibrium. Equilibrium Extended
position position
2. Use Hooke’s law to find the static extension. ve
By Hooke’s law: T=?
3. Draw a diagram showing the particle at a point
between the equilibrium position and an extreme. Resolve (ft ): T.-=mg
4. Write down the equation of motion measuring
displacement from the equilibrium position. So mga? (1)
5. Compare this equation with the basic equation of In extended position:
By Hooke’s law:
_A(b+x)
fie ; (2)
rd
Once a motion has been shown to be S.H.M. then
the equations of S.H.M. can be used to find a, v, a, mg Equation of motion:
etc: Extreme ee
Figure 2 mg sree
—T,=m — AC),
5
If only part of the motion of a particle is S.H.M.,
then each part of the motion must be dealt with
separately. The motion of a particle on an elastic
string, for example, is S.H.M. only while the string is Equations (1), (2) and (3) give ue = ey
: d? ml —_
in tension. When the string becomes slack the only
force acting on the particle is its weight. So the This is of the form coe — wx with w= se ;
particle moves in a vertical line under gravity, its
initial speed being obtained from v?=w?(a*—x’).
i.e. S.H.M. about the static equilibrium position.

Period of oscillations jae =20 ae

w A
Amplitude is a.
——
eee
110
 Simple Harmonic Motion
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

SR
CVE ey a eR ee CM TO er ee ea
A particle is executing simple harmonic motion with amplitude (ii) Determine the magnitude of:
2 metres and period 12 seconds. Calculate the maximum speed (a) the acceleration of P when at a distance of 2 m
of the particle. from O;
Initially, the particle is moving at maximum speed. Show that (b) the force acting on P when at a distance of 2 m
the distance moved by the particle until its speed is half the from O;
maximum value is V3 metres and find the time taken by the (iii) Write down an expression for the displacement of P
particle to travel this distance. from O at any time ¢, given that Pis at O att=0. Hence, or
(Standard formulae relating to simple harmonic motion may otherwise, find the time taken to travel directly from O toa
be quoted without proof.) point C between O and B and at a distance of 1 m from O.
on Find also the time taken to go directly from C to the
Using T=—, we have point D between O and B and at a distance of 2 m from O.
a) [Answers may be left in a form involving inverse
oe ATES pela trigonometric functions. ]
6 (A)
Now, v?=@7(a?—x’) 2 A particle moves on the line Ox so that after time ¢ its
Me
=
1 ear (4—x’), since a=2 m. displacment from O is x, and =
é =U.

v is a maximum when x=0, When ¢=0, x=4 and dx/dt=9. Find:

, met Lik: (i) the position and velocity of the particle when t= 7/6;
1.€. Pmax ~ 3 ms“ is the maximum speed. (ii) the maximum displacement of the particle from O.
V)
When <a ie. v=2mso, hath
2 6 3 A particle of mass m is attached to one end of a light elastic
ee string of length a and modulus 3mg. The other end of the
we have, ()=— (4—x’), string is attached to a fixed point O and the particle hangs
6 36 in equilibrium under gravity at the point E. Find the
ie. x7 =3 distance OE. If the particle is a further distance x below E
> Paw Gira <2 thedietance travelled: show that the resultant force acting on the particle is
To find the time taken to travel this distance, proportional
: to x. The particle is pulled down to the point
at a distance a below E and released from rest. Show that,
a ee ia in the subsequent motion and while the string is taut, the
i.e. V3=2sin (2) particle executes Simple Harmonic Motion and that its
6 distance below E at time ¢ after being released is
ne UF 3
= G™3 a COS {(®)|
=> t=2 seconds.
an (O&C)
4 (Take g as 10 ms’ in this question.) A light elastic spring
One end of an elastic string of modulus mg and natural length a has natural length a and modulus of elasticity 4. Prove that
is attached to a fixed point O. To the other end A are attached the energy stored in the spring when it is stretched is
two particles P and Q, P having mass 2m and Q having mass m. Ax*/(2a), where x is the extension. A light elastic spring of
The particles hang down in equilibrium under gravity. If Q falls natural length 0-2 m and modulus of elasticity 50 N hangs
off, show that P subsequently performs simple harmonic vertically with one end attached to a fixed point and with a
motion and state the period and amplitude of this motion. particle of mass 2 kg attached to the lower end.
If on the other hand P falls off, find the distance from O of the (i) Calculate the extension of the spring when the particle
highest point reached by Q. __ is in equilibrium. ; tie
(ii) The particle is pulled down below its equilibrium
First use Hooke’s Law for the elastic string attached to a position until the total extension of the spring is 0-2 m
particle of mass 3m to find the total length OA. Now use and it is then released from rest in this position.
Hooke’s Law for a particle of mass 2m to find a new length Calculate the speed of the particle when it passes the
OA. The difference between the two lengths will be the equilibrium position, and find the maximum
amplitude of the oscillations. compression of the spring in the resulting motion.
Consider the 2m particle to be moving and displaced x metres (C)
for its equilibrium position. Write down the equation of
motion and show this is an equation of simple harmonic 5 A mass rests on a horizontal platform which is moving
motion. Hence w and T. For the last part of the question, use horizontally to and fro with simple harmonic motion of
conservation of energy (see unit 45). amplitude 0.5 m, making twenty complete oscillations per
minute. If the mass remains at rest relative to the platform
: : throughout the motion, show that the coefficient of friction
(EX) 1 A particle P of mass 8 kg describes simple harmonic must not be less than 0.224 approximately. If = }, the
motion with O as centre and has a speed of 6 m/s at a mass is 10 kg, and the platform is stopped abruptly when
distance of 1 m from O anda speed of 2 m/s at a distance of 0.3 m from its mean position, write down the equation
3 m from O. describing the subsequent motion of the mass, and derive
(i) Find: the relation that holds between the kinetic energy of the
(a) the amplitude of the motion; mass and the work done against friction during that
(b) the period of the motion; motion. How far will the mass slide before coming to rest?
(c) the maximum speed of P;
(d) the time taken to travel from O directly to one (W)
extreme point B of the motion.
I
111
 156 Vectors in Dynamics
Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Momentum, Impulse, Kinetic energy, Work, Power.

Displace- The position vector r of a point P(x, y, z) Li] A particle moves so that its position vector rin
ment, referred to the origin O can be written as: metres at time t in seconds is r=Sit+t’ j+t k.
velocity, * Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle at
i
acceleration ;
Pedy eek err ()in three dimensions; j
time t and its speed d after
after 33secondsds.

d ‘
A Attime v=" =3¢ j+21 k
t
r=xi+yjorr= (")in two dimensions. :
‘ , a= = =61 j+2k
: t
The velocity v of P is = sometimes written as r.
emer is Speed is the magnitude of the velocity, i.e. |v].
The acceleration a of Pis ya” |v|=V[(32)? + (22)7]
iA =tV (9 +4)
sometimes written as r. When t=3 lv| = 31 [25 ~27.7 m s7}
SI unit for r is the metre (m); for v the metre per ;
second (ms_‘); for a the metre per second squared
(ms~’).

Force Newton’s second law of motion: Li] Find the force acting on a mass of 2 kg with
i.e. force = mass X acceleration position vector r= 0 i+2¢ j+3 kat time t.
can be given in ns form as r=Pi+27j+3k
=ma
° . .

or F=mr. ime
SI unit for force is the newton (N). r= Orit ae
So F= mr=2(6t i+
4 j) =12ti+8j

Momentum The momentum of a particle mass m, velocity v is Lil Find the momentum of a particle mass 5 kg and
given by: velocity v=2i-j.
momentum =my momentum =5(2i—j) =10i—5j Ns.
SI unit for momentum is the newton second (N s).
\
Impulse The impulse I produced by a force F acting for time Li] Find the impulse produced by a force given by
T is defined as: F=sinti+cost j acting for the time interval0<t< 7/2.
T z
=| Fdt. Impulse=1= |F ar= |(sini¢-cotj) dt
SI unit for impulse is the newton second (N s). é =
Since F=ma, ~ |-cosri-tsinsj |
T Tdy 0
i NEE me = (j)—(-i) =i+j

=m/(v-—u) i.e. change in momentum.

Kinetic The kinetic energy, K.E., of a particle mass m, Li] Find the K.E. of a particle of mass 4 kg and
energy velocity v is velocity v = 3i+2).
4mv.v=4mv" ‘ eteng fay, Aged
SI unit for kinetic energy is the joule (J). K.E.=2.4(3i+ 2j) .3it 2j)=26 J

Work The work done by a force F is defined as { F.v dt. Li] Find the work done by a force F=2ti+4j ona
SI unit for work is the joule (J). particle with velocity v= Si-—tj in the time interval
Ps 0<ts<2.
Since F=m—, 2 2
dt Work done= |F.var=| (2ti+4j).(5i-tj)dt
: dv 0 0
the work done is m [v.me >
t 2
haan = er dr=|
se=12J
= }3mv’ —3mu’
i.e. increase in K.E. 0

Power The power exerted by a force F is the rate at which F Li] Find the power exerted by a force F=5t it+2tj on
does work. a particle with velocity v=t i—2f j at time t.
So “eRe (| F.v dt)=F.v =F.v=(5¢ i+2r j).(t i—22j)
Power
yh
. ° :

AT \Jo =seeare es
SI unit for power is the watt (W).

12
 Vectors in Dynamics
Worked example and Exam questions

SS
wR BRS
ho SN URS UR a en eR
In this question the units of mass, length and time are the at B(0, 8). The particle P moves with a constant speed of
kilogram, metre and second respectively. 5 m/s parallel to the line 3y =4x and Q moves with a
A particle of unit mass moves so that its position vector r at time constant speed of 4 m/s parallel to the line y= —Ax, the
t is sense of motion of both P and Q being that in which x is
r=cos tit+sin tj+34¢ k. increasing. Given that i and j are the unit vectors in the
Find (a) the momentum at time t, directions of x increasing and y increasing, respectively,
(b) the kinetic energy at time t, show that the unit vectors in the directions of motion of P
(c) the work done on the particle in the time interval t=0
and QO are z ese j and : i A j respectivel
to t= 4,
(d) the force acting on the particle at time t,
Sach ce WARE! Ramee eee
(e) the power exerted by this force at time t. Determine, in the form ait+ bj:
(i) the velocities of P and Q;
Since r =cos ti+sin tj+4f k,
(ii) the vectors AP, BO and PO at time ¢.
r = —sin fit+cos tj+rk,
Show that, if P and Q meet, A must satisfy the equation
and r=-—costi-sintj+k.
7(1+/°)'=8-A.
(a) The momentum at time ¢ is mr so,
momentum = —sin tit+cos tj+tk Ns. Verify that 4 = —7 is a solution of this equation and for this
value of 4 find the time when P and Q meet.
(b) The kinetic energy at time t is $mv*=4mr.r so, kinetic (A)
energy
= 3(—sin tit+cos tj+tk).(—sin tit+cos tj+tk) In this question i and j are vectors of magnitude 1 km in
directions E and N respectively. Units of time and speed
= 4(sin? t+ cos” t+)
are hours and kilometres per hour. A and B move in a
= (1+?) joules. horizontal plane, A with constant velocity 4i+ 4j and B with
(c) The work done on the particle in the time interval t=0 to constant acceleration 2i+ 2j. At time t=0, A is at the point
4 with position vector i+4j and B is at 4i+j moving with
rai [Ry dt, so velocity 2j.
0 (i) Find the position vectors of A and B at time ¢ and
hence show that AB=(?—4t+3)i+ (P—2t—-3)j.
Work done
(ii) Find the time when B will be due S of A and the
4
distance AB at that moment.
-| (—cos ti—sin tj+k).(—sin tit+cos tj+tk)dt (iii) Show that A and B subsequently collide and give the
0
4
time at which this happens.
-| (sin t cos t—sin t cos t+ t)dt (iv) Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of
0 B just before the collision occurs.
(S)
At time f the position vector r of the point P with respect to
=8 joules. the origin O is given by r=(a sin pt)it+aj, where a and p
dr
(d) The force acting on the particle at time tis F=mr, so are constants. Show that the vector —;+p’r is constant
Force = —cos ti—sintj+kN dt
during the motion. (L)
(e) The power exerted by the force at time ¢ is F.v, so
Power = (—cos ti—sin tj+k).(—sin ti+cos tj+tk) A particle of mass m moves in a horizontal plane Oxy with
= (sin t cos t—sin ¢ cos t+ ft) speed v along the x-axis in the positive direction. It is
= t watts. subjected to a horizontal impulse I which turns its direction
of motion through 30° in an anticlockwise sense and
reduces its speed to v/V3. Find the vector I. At the same
1 A particle initially at rest at the point (2, 2) has acceleration instant an impulse —I is applied to a particle of mass 3m
which is at rest. Find the magnitude and direction of the
(5)in ms? after ¢ seconds. Find vector expressions for resultant velocity of this particle.

its velocity and position after t seconds.

)
Find its change in position in the first “100 second. After At time fa particle is in motion with velocity v and is being
how many seconds is it moving in a direction inclined at 45° acted upon by a variable force F. Write down expressions
to the x-axis? *(0O & C) for (i) the power at time ¢, (ii) the work done by F during
the time interval 0O<?<T.
2 A force F, = (4i+2j) N. State the magnitude of F;. The particle, of mass m, moves in a plane where i and j are
A second force F, has magnitude 8V/5 N and acts in a perpendicular unit vectors so that its position vector at time
direction given by the vector i+2j. State the force vector tis given by r= 2a cos 2ti+a sin 2tj, where a is a positive
F,. Hence calculate the resultant force Fp of these two constant. Derive expressions for the velocity v and the
forces and the unit vector in the direction of this resultant. force F at time ¢. Obtain an expression in terms of t for the
What is the acceleration that this resultant would produce power at time ¢ and show that the work done by F during the
ona mass of 3 kg? The mass was initially at rest at the point interval 0<t<T is 3ma*(1—cos 47). If T varies, find the
with position vector 2i—4j. If the two forces continue to act maximum value of the work done by F and determine also
on the mass, show that the point with position vector the smallest value of T for which this maximum value is
18i+20j lies on the path traced out by the mass. “(5) reached.
3 In this question distances are measured in metres and time V)
in seconds. At time t=0 two particles P and Q are set
in motion in the x-y plane. Initially P is at A(1, 0) and Q is
a ern Rn
 57 Coplanar Concurrent Forces
Definitions, Resultant of two forces, Resolving a force, Resultant of a system of forces.

Definitions Coplanar forces are forces whose lines of action all lie in the same plane.
Concurrent forces act at the same point. If forces act on a particle, then they must be concurrent.

Resultant of If two forces p and q are concurrent then they act at Lil A particle is acted upon
two forces a point, O say. Their resultant r may be found by by forces in a horizontal
vector addition using the triangle law, i.e. p+q=r. plane. 6 newtons in a
direction NE, 7 newtons
f
in a direction S26°E.
q Find the resultant force.
p 180°—6
Figure 1 Figure 3

The magnitude of r is given by the cosine rule: The magnitude R of the resultant force is given by:
i.e. r=V p?+q’?+2pq cos 6 R=V[6@?+7?+(2
6X7 cos 109°)]
since cos(180°— @)=—cos 8. = V [36+ 49 —27.35]
=V57.65
The resultant r also acts > R ~7.59 newtons
at the point O as shown.
The direction of r is given If wis the angle between the direction of the
Figure 2
by the sine rule: resultant and the 7 newton force, then
i.e. sin eel sin @
r sin pave sin 109°
If p and q are at right angles, then 0=90° and 7.59
~=(0).7474
r=Vp*+q’ and tan a=, > w~48.4°
P

Resolving a__A single force can be split into two components or Lil
force resolutes by the converse of the triangle law for : aye
vector addition. This process is called resolving the : aie oe :
free: 5 a is resolved into
Figure 4 components b and c.

Although a force may be resolved in an infinite bi AF sind ; :

number of ways, the most useful way is when the two 28 )\ 4 F is resolved into
components are perpendicular to each other. F des perpendicular components
Figure 5 F cos @ and F sin 0@.

In problem solving it is often necessary to resolve a i] A particle is acted upon

force in one or more directions, e.g. horizontally, by the coplanar concurrent
vertically, parallel to a plane, perpendicular to a forces W, R and F as shown.
plane, etc. The table gives the
resolutes of the forces in
four directions.
In diagrams it is conventional to mark the magnitudes Figure 6
of a force and its resolutes.

W WwW 0 W sin @ | Wcos @

R Rcos 6} Rsin 8 0 R
F Fsin @| Fcos @ FF 0

Resultant of To find the resultant of a system of coplanar Li] Find the single force A
a system concurrent forces: which is equivalent to the
of forces 1. Resolve each force in a stated direction and find given system of forces.
the sum of the resolutes, p say, in that direction.
2. Resolve each force in a direction perpendicular to
the first stated direction and find the sum of these 4N
resolutes, q say. Figure 8
3. Find the resultant r of Total resolute in direction Ox
these two concurrent forces =(13+2V3)—4 cos 30°+6 cos 60°=16 N
p and q by vector addition Total resolute in direction Oy
using the triangle law. Figure 7 =(14+3V3)—4 cos 60°—6 cos 30°=12 N
YA
r=V p*+q’ and tan a=4
R=20 N(3:4:5A)
P 0=arctan 0.75
O 16N x
Figure 9
——
eeeeSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSsshshseseseseseseseseseseseF
114
 Coplanar Concurrent Forces
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

PQRS is a square. Calculate the resultant of the following 4 (i) Find the resultant of the system of coplanar forces
forces: : shown in the figure, giving its magnitude and the angle
SN acting along PQ, it makes with the 400 N force.
3V2 N acting along PR,
3 N acting along PS. 300N
Find also the angle the resultant makes with PQ.

Let X and Y be the components

of the resultant force in the
directions of PO and PS.
X=(5+3V2 cos 45°) N
-(s+3va.J,)
V2 N
=8N, (ii) Two forces, P and Q, which are inclined at an angle of
120°, have a resultant of magnitude PV7. Calculate
and : :
the magnitude of QO in terms of P.
Y=(3+3-V2 cos 45°) N 5 « (O&C)
ig 5N Q ;
zs(3+3 v2.55) N 5 Three forces act through the point with position vector
Be: 3i+ 2j.
ON: F, has magnitude 15 newtons and acts in the direction given
by 3i+4j.
Hence, the resultant force R has magnitude R where, F, has magnitude 3V2 newtons and acts in the direction
— Vi WAY given by i—j.
7 a ee ) F; has magnitude 4V/5 newtons and acts in the direction
= V(8? +6") given by 2i+j.
= ida Express the three forces in terms of the unit vectors i and j.
Y Hence find the resultant Fp of these three forces in terms of
R makes an angle tan“! (5) with PQ, the unit vectors. If i and j are the unit vectors in the
: x directions of the x and y axes, the unit of length being the
i.e. R makes an angle 36° 52’ with PQ. metre, illustrate the resultant Fp graphically. Using the
graph, calculate the magnitude of the moment of Fp about
|GEyae medians of an equilateral triangle PQR intersect at G. the origin.
Forces of magnitude 2, 2 and 4 N act along GQ, GR and GP *(S)
tively. Calculate th itud d directi th
Ee ate Se eaon mig ou praniccbannoy the 6 (a) In the regular hexagon ABCDEF, AB=a and
BC=b. Express, in terms of a and b, the vectors:
Choose two directions at right angles along which to resolve, a SE sak FS 8 Se
say, RQ and GP. (i) AC; (ii) AD; (iii) AE; (iv) AF.
Find the resolutes, say, X and Y of the resultant force in the (b) The origin O, the point A with position vector 4i+3j
two chosen directions. and the point C with position vector 3i—4j are three
Calculate R= V(X*+ Y’), the magnitude of the resultant vertices of a square OABC. Calculate the position vector of
force. B. Forces of magnitudes 5 N, 10V2 N and 10 N act along
. : > lhc> =
State the direction of the resultant force. OA, OB and CO respectively. Express each of these
; ; forces as a vector in terms of i and j. Hence
A show that
ey porizonsal bore Nels _ magnitude 12 N and acts due east the resultant of these forces acts along OA and calculate
from a point O. The horizontal forces P and Q act from O in een
me f ; : gnitude of this resultant.
the directions 030° and due south respectively. Given that (A)
P+Q=R, calculate the magnitudes of P and Q.
*(L)
2 The following horizontal forces pass through a point O: 5 N
in a direction 000°, 1 N ina direction 090°, 4 N ina direction
225° and 6 N in a direction 315°. Find the magnitude and
direction of their resultant. Two further horizontal forces
are introduced to act at O: PN ina direction 135° and QN
in a direction 225°. If the complete set of forces is now in
equilibrium calculate the value of P and of Q.
*(C)
3 The resultant of a force 2P N in a direction 060° and a force
10 N ina direction 180° is a force of V3P N. Calculate the
value of P and the direction of the resultant. A third force
of 25 N, concurrent with the other two and in the same
plane, is added so that the resultant of the system is in the
direction 180°. Find the direction in which the third force is
applied and find the magnitude of the resultant.
“(C)

115
 58 Moments and Couples
Moment of a force, Resultant moment, Principle of moments, Parallel forces, Couple

Moment of a When a force acts on a rigid body it may cause the Li] A heavy rod AB is acted upon by the coplanar
force body to turn about an axis. This turning effect is forces X, Y, W and P as shown. The table gives the
measured by the moment of the force about this axis. moments of the forces about A, B and G.
The moment of a force about an axis is defined as the
product of the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
force from the axis. It is usual to refer simply to the
moment ‘about a point’ instead of using the more
correct description ‘about an axis through a
Olt
The moment of force F
about O is Fd. \
The moment of force F
about X is zero. Figure 1

SI unit of moment is the newton-metre (Nm).

Anticlockwise OQ moments are usually taken as
positive, clockwise © moments as negative.

Resultant When a set of coplanar forces acts on a body, the Lil Forces act along the sides of asquare ABCD of side
moment resultant moment about a point in the plane is the 1 mas shown. Find the resultant moment about A.
algebraic sum of the moments of the individual forces
D Resultant moment about A
about that point.
iS:
at an (1x0)+(3x1)
+(—2
Xi) 30)
einesFigure3 E =1Nm

Principle of | The principle of moments states that: Li]Forces of magnitude 4 N and 3 N act along the
moments the resultant moment of a set of coplanar forces sides AB and AD respectively of a square ABCD of
about a point is equal to the moment of their side 2 m. Find the perpendicular distance d of the line
resultant about the same point. of action of their resultant R from O, thé midpoint of
DE:
R=V37+4=5N

Moment of R about O is —Sd

Resultant moment of forces
D 7) C about O is:
Figure 4 (3x1)—(4x2)=—S.

By the principle of moments:

—5=—-5Sd>d=1m

Parallel Like parallel forces act in a like Li] In the given diagram, find the distance x of the
forces the same direction. resultant R from the point A.

Unlike parallel forces act 7N ia 12N

in opposite directions. wea unlike "
A
Figure 5 = 0.57m s
The resultant of a set of parallel forces is parallel to Figure 6
the original forces. Its magnitude is the algebraic sum .
of the magnitudes of the individual forces. Moment of R about A is 19x.
The location of the resultant may be found using the Resultant moment of 7 N and 12N forces about A is:
principle of moments. (7x0) + (12 x0.57) =6.84
By the principle of moments:
6.84=19x>x=0.36m

Couple A couple is formed by two

equal unlike parallel forces
which are non-collinear. boo, Figure 7
Lil] The diagram shows a
uniform rod AB, pivoted at
A and held horizontally by
a couple of moment G.
Find G.
<— 2m—>
A |

20N
:
G
B

It has zero resultant but is does have a moment. Figure 8

The moment of the couple shown is Fd. This is Moments about A give: G=202=40 Nm.
constant about any point in the plane of the couple.

116
 Moments and Couples
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

ANE,atCalculate the turning effect about O of the force F, = 3i+j acting

the pointrr,=it+jand the force Fy =2i—5j acting at the point
4 A thin non-uniform beam AB, of length 6 m and mass
50 kg, is in equilibrium resting horizontally on two smooth
n= 2i ih ; supports which are respectively 2m and3.5m from A. The
thrusts on the two supports are equal. Find the position of
the centre of gravity of the beam. The original supports are
Total clockwise moment removed and a load of 10 kg is attached to the beam at B.
about O The loaded beam rests horizontally on two new smooth
=(3x1)+(5x2) supports at A and C, where C is a point on the beam 1 m
=13 Nm. from B. Calculate the thrusts on each of the new supports.
Total anticlockwise moment *(A)
about O
5 A straight uniform rigid rod AB is of length 8 m and mass
=(1x1)+(2x1) 10 kg. The rod is supported at the point X, where
=3 Nm. AX=5m, and, when downward vertical forces of
magnitudes P and 4P newtons are applied at A and B
respectively, the rod rests in equilibrium with AB
horizontal. Calculate:
Resultant moment about O= —13+3
(a) the value of P;
=-—10 Nm, (b) the force, in N, exerted on the support at X.
i.e. a clockwise moment of 10 Nm.
*(L)
6 A uniform rod AGB of weight w N rests horizontally on
A uniform plank AB, 3 mlong, of mass 10 kg, is supported in a two supports Cand D. AG=GB=6cm. The support C can
horizontal position by two vertical strings attached at distances be placed in any position from A to G, and the support D
lmand2mfromend A. Calculate the mass which should be can be placed in any position from G to B. The reactions at
placed at the end A of the plank so that the supports C and D are P N and Q N respectively.
(i) the tension in the string nearer end B just vanishes, Denoting AC by x cm and DB by y cm, express P and Q in
(ii) the tension in the string nearer A is three times that in the terms of x, y and w. Given that P=20Q:
string nearer B. (i) show that 2x—y=6;
(ii) find the value of x when the support D is placed at B.
Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the plank. These
will be the two tensions in the strings, the weight force of the “(C)
plank and the unknown weight at A. 7 Auniform straight plank AB, of mass 12 kg and length 2 m,
(i) Let the tension in the string nearer B be zero. Find the rests horizontally on two supports, one at C and the other at
unknown weight by taking moments about the point D, where AC=CD=0-6m. A particle P of mass X kg is
where the other string is attached to the plank. hung from B and the plank is on the point of tilting:
(ii) Use tensions 3T and T say. Resolve vertically and take (a) Find the value of X.
moments once to find the unknown weight this time. The particle P is removed from B and hung from A.
(b) Find, in N, the magnitude of the force exerted on the
plank at each support.
1 Two forces F, and F, of magnitudes 3V/5 Nand V5N act
through the point with position vector 2i+j in directions *(L)
i+2j and i—2j respectively. Calculate F, and F, and hence
state Fp the resultant of these forces. Draw a clear diagram
to illustrate Fp in component form and hence calculate the
er
magnitude of the moment of Fp about the point with R
position vector i. What do you deduce from this result?
(Take the unit of length to be 1 metre.)
*(S) 8 The figure shows a light horizontal beam AB, of length9 m,
A uniform rod AB, of length 150 mm and mass 50 g, has a supported at its ends by a force S acting vertically and a
load of X grams attached at a point C of the rod such that force R acting at an angle of a to the line of the beam. A
AC=30 mm. The rod rests horizontally on a smooth force of 30 N is applied to the beam, at an angle of 30°, 3 m
support placed at a point D where AD = 60 mm. Calculate from B. If the beam is in equilibrium, calculate:
the numerical value of X. A second smooth support is now (a) S; (b) a; (c) R.
placed at B and the load of X grams is removed. A new load Calculate the magnitude and sense of the necessary
of 60 g is attached to the rod at a point EF such that moment that would have to be applied at A to reduce the
EB=35 mm. If the rod still rests in a horizontal position, reaction at B to zero.
calculate the thrust on each support.
*(S)
(A)
A non-uniform rod AB of length 6a rests in a horizontal
A uniform bar AB of length 6 m and mass 15 kg lies position on two pegs distant a from each end. (Draw your
horizontally on supports C and D where AC=1 m and diagram with B to the right of A.) The rod will just tilt if a
DB=2m. Find the magnitudes of the vertical forces at C weight W is attached to A or a weight 2W is attached to B.
and D. Find the weight of the rod and the distance of its centre of
(i) Find the value of the downward vertical force which, gravity from A. When the rod is resting on the pegs (with
when applied at A, would just cause the bar to tilt. neither of the weights attached) a clockwise couple of
(ii) Find the distance from A at which an upward vertical moment Wa is applied to the rod in the vertical plane
force of 60 N should be applied to cause the bar just to containing the rod. Find the magnitudes of the reactions of
tilt about D. the pegs on the rod.
*(C)
ces———
 59 Equilibrium
Particle in equilibrium, Rigid body in equilibrium, Conditions for equilibrium.

| se ae ena aa a ES SD SS ST ET EES cE

Particle in When a particle is in equilibrium under a system of i] A particle on a slope

equilibrium coplanar concurrent forces the following condition is is subject to the forces
satisfied: shown in the diagram and
the total resolute of all the forces in any direction is in equilibrium. Find
must be zero. the forces R and P.
When solving problems about particles in
equilibrium: Figure 1

1. Draw a clear force diagram.

Resolving vertically (to eliminate force P):
2. Choose a direction for resolving, remembering
that the resolute of a force in a direction R cos 30°—10—3 cos 60°=0
perpendicular to itself is zero.
3. Resolve the forces acting in this chosen direction
and equate the total resolute to zero.
4. If necessary, resolve the forces acting in another Resolving parallel to slope (to eliminate force R):
suitable direction and equate the total resolute to P cos 30°—3-—10 cos 60°=0
zero.
- 16V3
Ken
3

Rigid body in When a rigid body is in equilibrium under a system i] A uniform ladder 5 m long, weight 200 N, rests
equilibrium of coplanar forces, the following two conditions are on rought horizontal ground and against a smooth
satisfied: vertical wall. It is inclined at an angle of 30° to the
1. the total resolute of all the forces in any direction vertical. Find the normal reactions at each end of the
must be zero, ladder.
2. the total moment of all the forces about any point
in the plane must be zero. Ladder AR.
When solving problems about rigid bodies in R — normal reaction at A.
equilibrium: S — normal reaction at B.
1. Draw a clear force diagram. F — frictional force.
De Choose two directions at right angles for resolving, Figure 2
remembering that the resolute of a force in a fay
dirécti f : ’ Moments about A give:
irection perpendicular to itself is zero. PKs ae F
3. Resolve the forces acting in the two chosen XS cos 30°= 200 x2.5 cos 60
directions and equate each total resolute to zero. S= 100V3 N
4. Take moments about a suitable point in the plane, ‘ai 3
remembering that the moment of a force about a
point on the line of action of the force is zero. Resolving vertically gives:
R-—200=0>R=200N

Conditions If a system of coplanar forces is in equilibrium, then: Lilascp is a square of side 2m. Forces of _,
for re 1. noresultant force must act (or the system would magnitude 7, 3, 3, 7 and 4V/2 N act along BA, BC,
equilibrium —_have an acceleration), and DC, DA, and AC respectively. Show that this system
2. no resultant turning effect must exist, i.e. it must of forces is in equilibrium.
not reduce to a couple. a 3
Three sets of necessary and sufficient conditions for
equilibrium are given below. Any of these may be
used to test the equilibrium of a system of forces. INY < A\ 3N

Set, 1
A system of coplanar forces is in equilibrium if:
4
1. the total resolutes of the forces in two perpendicular A IN D
directions are each zero, and
Figure 3
2. the resultant moment about any point in the plane is
zero. To show that this system of coplanar forces is in
equilibrium it is necessary and sufficient to show that
Set II the resultant moments of the forces about three non-
A system of coplanar forces is in equilibrium if: collinear points are each zero.
1. the resultant moments about any two points in the
plane, P and Q say, are each zero, and Moments about A give:
(3 x2)—(3x2)=0
2. the total resolute of the forces in one direction, not
perpendicular to PQ, is zero. Moments about B give:
(3 x2)—(72)+(4V2x V2) =0
Set III Moments about Cgive:
A system of coplanar forces is in equilibrium if: (7X2)—(7X2)=0
the resultant moments about three non-collinear
points are each zero. Hence, the system of forces is in equilibrium.

118
 Equilibrium
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

The diagram shows a uniform rod AB of weight W and length 21 A smooth circular cylinder of weight 150 N rests on level
which is smoothly hinged at its midpoint to a fixed pivot M. A ground DL, touching a vertical wall LM, as shown in the
particle of weight 2W is attached to the rod atA. The other end B diagram. The axis of the cylinder is parallel to the ground and
has a light string attached which is fastened to a fixed point C. the wall.
The rod is in equilibrium with AB making an angle 0 with the F

horizontal, where cos 0 == The angle ABC is 90°. The points

Ag
A, B and € are all in the same vertical plane.

A uniform rod DF of weight 100 N and length 1.5m, smoothly

hinged at D so as tomove ina vertical plane perpendicular to
the axis of the cylinder, rests at an angle of 60° to the horizontal,
touching the cylinder at a point0.5 m from the end F. Calculate
the magnitude of the forces on the cylinder at the points where it
touches the rod, the ground and the wall.
Calculate, in terms of W,
First draw two separate force diagrams:
(i) the tension in the string,
(ii) the magnitude of the resultant force exerted by the pivot on (i) Showing the forces acting on the cylinder,
(ii) Showing the forces acting on the rod.
the rod.
Resolve horizontally and vertically for the cylinder. Take
Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the rod AB. moments about D for the rod.
Solve the three equations to find the three required forces.

1 A light inextensible string ABCDE has its ends A and E

fixed at two points in the same horizontal line and has loads
attached at the points B, Cand D. If AB, BC, CD and DE
make angles of 45°, 30°, 30° and 60° respectively with the
horizontal and the load at the lowest point C is 3 kg,
calculate, assuming the string and the loads are in
equilibrium:
(i) the tension in each of the four portions of the string,
(ii) the loads at B and at D. *(A)

2 A uniform rod AB, of length 4a and weight W, is smoothly

hinged to a fixed point at A. The rod is held at 60° to the
cos pines so sin gas horizontal with B above A by a horizontal force F acting at
4 4
B. Calculate, in terms of W:
Let T be the tension in the string. (a) the magnitude of F;
Let X and Y be the horizontal and vertical components of the (b) the magnitude of the force exerted by the hinge on the
reaction at the pivot. rod and find, to the nearest degree, the direction of this
force. The horizontal force acting at B is removed and the
(i) Moments about M: rod is held in the same position by resting against a fixed
Tl=2WI cos 0 smooth peg at C, where AC = 3a.
(c) Calculate, in terms of W, the magnitude of the force
=> T= Ww— the tension in the string. exerted by the peg on the rod.
(d) Find, to the nearest degree, the direction of the force
(ii) Resolving vertically: exerted by the hinge on the rod. (Ly)
Y=2W+W+-+T cos 0
| The figure shows a
3
ee y=3w+s Woe ) shop-sign consisting of a
Palast. | uniform metal bar AB
|
= Y=42W. | weighing 10 kg and a
|
Resolving horizontally: |
| g
uniform rectangular plate
BCDE weighing 20 kg, the
X=T sin 0 whole being supported by a
| light stay PQ. The joints at
==" ya3! W. |
|
8 P, Q and A are smooth
|
| hinges. The dimensions
| C are -AB= 125m,
|
|
|
2 AQ=0.5
m, AE=0.7 m,
| RO —aMeine
A4w Magnitude of the force at the Write down the equation of moments about A, and hence
pivot is calculate the tension in the stay PQ in newtons. Find also
2 2]2
the horizontal and vertical thrusts on the hinge at A.
3/7 ie =f id W=W3V2.
oer 8 8 (O
& C)

119
 60 Three Force Problems
Three forces in equilibrium, Triangle of forces, Lami’s theorem, Useful formulae.

Three forces When a body is in equilibrium under a system of Lil This horizontal bar held by two vertical strings
in three coplanar forces only, several special results is in equilibrium.
equilibrium apply which make these ‘three force problems’ easier Ty T2 Three
to solve. parallel
coplanar forces.
The first special result is: w
If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three Figure 1
coplanar forces, then these forces are either: This bar in contact with rough ground and held by a
(a) parallel string is in equilibrium
or (b) concurrent.

Spotting this in questions often makes their solution Three

much easier. concurrent
coplanar forces.

Figure 2

Triangle of | The second special result is: [i] A particle of weight W is supported by two light
forces If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three strings as shown. Find the tensions T, and T>.
concurrent coplanar forces, then these forces can be Force diagram Triangle of forces
represented by the sides of a triangle taken in order,
since their vector sum must be zero. ty t
Force diagram Triangle of forces a A
R Li Pp WY

. cant
= in
Figure 4
Figure 3
From the triangle of forces: 7;=W cos @
The sides of the triangle must be parallel to the forces T.=Wsin vw
they represent, and equal in length to the magnitudes of De
the forces. Notice how the arrows ‘chase each other round’ in
the triangle of forces, showing zero resultant, i.e.
particle in equilibrium.

Lami’s The third special result is Lami’s theorem which is a Li] The diagram shows a uniform
theorem version of the sine rule. ladder AB of weight 200 N
R Pp resting in equilibrium with
¥ 2 Y its foot on horizontal rough
ad, ground and its upper end
against a rough vertical wall.
oN Find R and S, the total
reactions at A and B.
Figure 5

If three concurrent coplanar forces P, Q and R are in

equilibrium and the angles between Q and R, R and Figure 6
P, P and Q are a, B and y respectively as shown, ; cages aoe
then Lami’stihactent states that The ladder is in equilibrium under three non-parallel
forces R, S and 200N, so the forces are concurrent.
P Q R R “
—_— = = S Lami’s theorem gives:
= | sina sinf siny ~ 200 RR wk
This is particularly useful when one of the forces and 2 sin 75° sin 150° sin 135°
the angles between pairs of forces are known. 150° 135 seas
It may also be used to solve the triangle of forces _ Sin 30° x 200~104 N
when this has been sketched. sin 75°
sin45°
ne
Figure 7
S=———
sin75°
x 200~146 N

Useful The following trigonometrical formulae are often useful. c

formulae
When D divides AB in the ratio m:n then:
(m+n) cot 8=n cot A—m cot B
(m+n) cot 2=m cot a—n cot B
When D is the midpoint of AB, then
Figure 8
2 cot d=cot A—cot B=cot a—cot B

120
 Three Force Problems
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

peg at C and makes an angle 6 with the vertical where

sin 0=0.6. The distance AC is 60 cm. Draw a figure
showing the forces acting on the bar. Calculate:
(i) the magnitude of the reaction at C;
(ii) the angle which the reaction at A makes with the
horizontal. “(G)

The diagram shows a uniform rod PQ of mass 10 kg which is

held in equilibrium by two strings attached at the ends P and Q 2
of the rod. The strings are inclined to the vertical as shown.
Calculate:
(a) the tensions in the strings, P
(b) the angle made by PQ with the vertical.

Draw the force diagram showing the forces acting on the

rod PQ.@ is the angle of inclination of PQ to the vertical.

Ty
The diagram represents a uniform plane triangular lamina
XYZ of weight 50 N and the angles YXZ and XYZ are 34°
and 90° respectively. The lamina is suspended in
equilibrium by two light strings AX and BZ. AXY and BZY
are straight lines. If P is the mid-point of XZ, show that
PX=PY= PZ. Why must PY be vertical? Hence calculate
(i) the angle which XZ makes with the horizontal; (ii) the
tensions in the strings.
"(0 & C)
VW
100N 3 A uniform rod XY of mass 10 kg rests in a vertical plane
with the end_X in contact with a smooth vertical wall. The
end Y is below X. The rod is inclined at 60° to the vertical
The rod is in equilibrium under the action of the three forces
and is held in equilibrium by a light string attached to Y and
which pass through a common point, say, R.
to a point Z in the wall vertically above X. Show, in a
Draw the triangle of forces.
diagram, the forces acting on the rod and hence that the
0° . Prounthe nianole distance ZX is half the length of the rod.
? ie 8 e Find (i) the inclination of the string to the vertical;
T, = 100 cos 50° N, and (ii) the tension in the string.
100 : T>= 100 cos 40° N. “(W)
T, Since G is the midpoint of PQ and : ‘ ;
40° ZABC=90°, P, O and R must all lie 4 Two light rings can slide on a rough horizontal rod. The
Cc on acircle (angle at the centre is 90°). rings are connected by a light inextensible string of lengtha
Hence GP=GQ=GR so ZGPR=S0°. Hence 6=80? is the to the midpoint of which is attached a weight W. Show that
angle of inclination of PQ to the vertical. the greatest distance between the rings consistent with
equilibrium is wa/(1+,7)! where u is the coefficient of
friction between either ring and the rod.
A smooth uniform sphere of radius 18 cm and weight 24 N rests 8
against a smooth vertical wall and is supported by an inexten-
sible wire 12 cm long tied to the wall and the surface of the 5 A uniform body is in the form of a thick hemispherical shell
sphere. Calculate the tension in the wire and the reaction of the having internal and external radii 2a and 3a. Show that the
wall on the sphere. distance of the centre of mass from the centre of the plane
Sketch a diagram showing the three forces acting on the face is t23a.
sphere. (They must be concurrent.)
Sketch the triangle of forces. One force, 24 N, is known.
Use the triangle to calculate the other two forces.

1 The figure shows a uniform heavy bar AB of length 1 m and

mass 8 kg which is freely hinged at A to a vertical wall. The
bar rests in equilibrium with AB in contact with a smooth

The body rests, as shown (in cross-section), on a fixed

horizontal surface and against a fixed vertical surface, with
its axis in a vertical plane perpendicular to both surfaces.
The vertical surface is smooth and the coefficient of friction
between the body and the horizontal surface is 4. Given
that the body is in limiting equilibrium, find the value of
sin a, where a is the inclination of the plane face to the
horizontal. .
(@)

121
 61 Friction
Force of friction, Angle of friction, Problem solving.

Force of When one body slides or attempts to slide over Li] A body, mass m, is resting on a rough
friction another, forces of friction usually exist between the horizontal plane and is being acted upon by a
two surfaces in contact. horizontal force P.
R
Forces of friction act between rough surfaces in
contact. Smooth surfaces in contact are frictionless.
The following experimental laws describe the
behaviour of frictional forces.
1. A frictional force only exists when one body slides mg Figure 1
or tries to slide over another.
2. A frictional force always opposes the tendency of As the magnitude of P is gradually increased from
one body to slide over another. zero, the magnitude of the frictional force F will also
3. The magnitude of a frictional force may vary, increase from zero in an attempt to prevent motion.
always being just sufficient to prevent motion, until it When motion begins F has reached its maximum,
reaches a maximum value called the limiting value. called the limiting value wR, and cannot increase any
more to prevent motion. So the frictional force
4. The limiting value of the frictional force is wR,
remains constant, i.e. F=uR, whatever the increase
where w is called the coefficient of friction and R is
ieee:
the normal reaction for the surfaces in contact. wis a
measure of the degree of roughness of the two For:
surfaces in contact and is different for different pairs 0<P<Py body stationary
of surfaces. and F<uR.
5. When one body slides over another, the frictional P= Py limiting equilibrium
force between them equals the limiting value wR. and F=uR.
A consequence of laws (3) and (4) is that the p P>Pp body accelerates and
frictional force F obeys the relation F<uR. F=uR.

Angle of The resultant S of the frictional force F and the

friction normal reaction R is called the total reaction.
normal
reaction
It makes an angle @ with the normal, where tan 0= -
The normal reaction R is constant, but the frictional frictional force
force F may vary.
As the frictional force F increases from zero to its
maximum value F_, the limiting value wR, the angle
6 increases from zero to a maximum value A, called
the angle of friction.
UR
tan A=—=
R a)

i.e. A=tan"! u
When the frictional force has reached its limiting
value F,:
the direction of the total reaction S, is at an angle A
to the normal reaction R,
limiting friction F, = uR
the magnitude of the total reaction is V(R?+ wR?)
=RV(1+w2)=Rseca. Figure 3

Problem The following points are important when solving Li] Find the least force P
solving problems involving a frictional force F. required to Just prevent
1. Draw a clear force diagram. Show the frictional this particle from sliding
force as F, do not use wR. Remember: F tends to down this inclined plane.
Oppose motion.
2. In general F<wR. If F has reached its limiting Figure 4
value, then F=uR may be used in the solution. Resolve ||to slope: P cos 6+ F—mg sin a=0
3. ‘Limiting equilibrium’ indicates that the body is at > F=meg sin a— P cos 6
rest but on the point of moving and that F=uR. Resolve 1 to slope: R+P sin @—mg cos a=0
4. If the body is in equilibrium, then the equations of >R=mg cos a—P sin 8
equilibrium (see p. 118) and FSuR are used.
Limiting friction, so F=uR
5. If Ais given, not yw, then it is often easier to solve mg sin w— P cos 0= u(mg cos a— P sin @)
the problem by considering the total reaction, rather
mg sin(a—A)
than F and R separately. This is often the case in Using u=tan dA, P=
three force problems (see p. 120). cos(@+ A)
P is a minimum when cos(@+A) is a maximum, i.e. 1.
Hence, minimum P=mg sin(a—A).
This occurs when (8+ A)=0, i.e. Q=—A.
——————
eens
122
 Friction
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

A uniform ladder of length 7 m leans against a vertical wall at an Draw a diagram showing the three forces acting on P.
angle of 45° to the horizontal ground. The coefficients of friction Since equilibrium is limiting, F=uN. Hence find w.
between the ladder and the wall and the ladder and the ground (a) Copy Figure (a) and add the missing three forces to it.
are 3 and 3 respectively. How far up the ladder can a man, (Remember friction will act down the plane.)
ee weight is half that of the ladder, ascend before the ladder Resolve parallel and perpendicular to the plane. Use w= tana.
slips: Hence find H.
Assume that the man has climbed to such a position that the (b) Copy Figure (b) and add the missing three forces to it.
ladder is about to slip. Use resolution in two directions at right angles and «= tan a.
This diagram shows the forces acting on the ladder AB. M is Hence find Q. Q will be a minimum when cos (@—a) is a
the man. maximum, i.e. 1. Hence state the value of 6 for cos (@—a) = 1.

1 A particle P, of mass 7m, is placed on a rough horizontal

table, the coefficient of friction between P and the table
being uw. A force of magnitude 2mg, acting upwards at an
Let AM=x metres. acute angle a to the horizontal, is applied to P and
AG=GB=33 metres. equilibrium is on the point of being broken by the particle
F, and F; are the frictional
sliding on the table. Given that tan a =. find the value
forces.
N, and N, are the normal of pu.
reactions.
aC)
2 A block of mass 1.5 kg lying on a rough inclined plane is
prevented from slipping down the plane by a string
attached at one end to a point of the block and, at the other
end, to a fixed point. The string is parallel to a line of
Since ladder is about to slip
greatest slope of the plane. The angle of inclination of the
F, =3N, and F,=43N). plane to the horizontal is a, where tan a =3, and the
Resolving vertically: coefficient of friction between the block and the plane is
N,+ F,=3W. 0.5. Calculate the tension of the string in newtons. If the
Resolving horizontally: string is cut, find the acceleration with which the block
slides down the plane.
(O
& C)
F, == Np.

These four equations give, 3 The foot of a uniform ladder, of length/ and weight W, rests
1 on rough horizontal ground, and the top of the ladder rests
ey, peer WoW. Bow.
7 if 7 7 against a smooth vertical wall. The ladder is inclined at 30°
to the vertical. Find the magnitude of the force exerted by
Moments about A:
the ladder on the wall. Given that the coefficient of friction
2W x 33 cos 45°+ WxXx cos 45° = Nz X7 sin 45°+ Fy X7 cos 45°, between the ladder and the ground is V3, show that a
so, 7W+xW=9W+3W man of weight 4W cannot climb to the top of the ladder
i.e. x =5 metres — the distance up the ladder the man can without the ladder slipping, and find the least weight which
safely climb. when placed on the foot of the ladder would enable the
man to climb to the top of the ladder.
(L)
'GEX particle P of weight W rests in limiting equilibrium on a rough
plane which is inclined at an angle a to the horizontal. Prove 4 A fixed hollow hemisphere has centre O and is fixed so that
that the coefficient of friction between the particle and the plane the plane of the rim is horizontal. A particle A of mass m
is tan a. can move on the inside surface of the hemisphere. The
(a) Figure (a) shows a horizontal force H, which is applied to P particle is acted on by a horizontal force of magnitude P,
and acts in the vertical plane containing the line of greatest slope whose line of action is in the vertical plane through O and
of the inclined plane which passes through P. If equilibrium is A. The diagram shows the situation when A is in
limiting with P on the point of moving up the plane, find H in equilibrium, the line OA making an acute angle 6 with the
terms of W and a. vertical.

Za)
Fig (a) Fig (b) (i) Given that the inside surface of the hemisphere is
(b) Figure (b) shows a force Q which is applied to P in the smooth, find tan @ in terms of P, m and g.
vertical plane containing the line of greatest slope through P. (ii) Given instead that the inside surface of the hemisphere
The force is inclined at an angle 6 to this line. If equilibrium is is rough, with coefficient of friction ~ between the
limiting with P on the point of moving up the plane show that surface and A, and that the particle is about to slip
_ Wsin 2a ' P+umg_
downwards, show that tan 0=
cos (0—a) mg—wP
Hence find, in terms of a, the value of 0 for which Q is least. (C)
123
 i)

62 Bodies in Contact
Force diagrams, Problem solving.

Force Bodies in contact may be either simply touching each Li] A rough cylinder of weight W rests in
diagrams other or connected together with a hinge. equilibrium on rough horizontal ground with its axis
In both cases, if the bodies in contact are in horizontal. A uniform rod of weight w is smoothly,
equilibrium under a set of coplanar forces, then: hinged at its lower end to a point on the ground and
(a) the complete system is in equilibrium, rests in contact with the cylinder such that its upper
ae libeiday’ end is above the point of contact, the plane '
Ot aoa ee ea = containing the rod being perpendicular to the axis of
The complete system may be treated as if it were a the cylinder.
single ‘body’. Its force diagram must show the forces
which act on this ‘body’ and originate from outside it, ue
: ; Pace ole system:
e.g. weight force, reactions and frictional forces
between the ‘body’ and its surroundings.
Force diagrams for each separate body must show the
forces which act on that body, e.g. weight force,
reactions and any frictional forces at all points of
contact.

Note: The force acting at a smooth hinge is usually

shown resolved into its horizontal and vertical
components in the force diagram.

Figure |

Problem When solving problems involving bodies in contact: [i] Two uniform rods AB and BC, each of length
solving 1. Draw a clear force diagram for the complete 2a and of mass 2 kg and 3 kg respectively are
system, i.e. treat the complete system as if it were a smoothly hinged at B. The ends A and C are each
single ‘body’. smoothly hinged to two points in the same horizontal
2. Calculate any external forces required which act straight line and distance 2a apart. Find the horizontal
on the complete system by resolving and taking and vertical components of the reactions at each hinge.
moments.
For the whole system:
3. Draw individual force diagrams for the separate By symmetry the
bodies which make up the system. horizontal reactions at A
4. Resolve and take moments as necessary to and C must be equal.
calculate any required reactions. Let X and Y be the
horizontal and vertical
Note: The maximum number of independent components of the
equations which can be obtained for a system reaction at A.
consisting of n separate bodies is 3n. In practice this
maximum number of equations is usually not needed Let X and Z be the
to solve a problem. horizontal and vertical
Figure 2 components of the
reaction at C.
Resolve (f ): Y+Z=50 (1)
Moments about A: Z.2a=20.4a+30. 3a
> Z=27.5N
From (1) Y=22.5N
For separate bodies:

y = 22.5N piesa!

Let P and QO be
the horizontal
and vertical
components of
reaction at B.

Figure 3
Moments about B for BC:
V

30.4a+X.2a.~*=Z.2a.4>X~7.22N

Resolve (—) for BC: P=X~7.22N

Resolve ( t ) for AB: O=30-—Z=2.5N.

124
 Bodies in Contact
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

SERS SS SR aT DA BB NL TRE SE TE
WEY rough circular cylinder is fixed with its axis horizontal. A the lower cylinders. (By symmetry, the forces acting on the
uniform rod AB of length 21 and weight W is placed in contact other lower cylinder will be the same.)
with the cylinder at a point C, where A, B and C all lie in the Take moments about the point of contact of the lower cylinder
same vertical plane. When a horizontal force P is applied at B with the horizontal plane. If the top cylinder is about to slip,
which just prevents the rod from slipping downwards, the the normal reaction between the two lower cylinders will be
inclination of AB to the horizontal is 6 and the midpoint of AB zero. Put this force equal to zero in the moments equation. Use
is at a distance x from C. If u(=tan A) is the coefficient of ‘F=uR’ for the forces acting at the point of contact of the
friction between the rod and the cylinder, prove that, upper and lower cylinders to obtain the required value of ‘y’.
(a) P=W tan (6—A),
(b) w<tan 6,
1 Two uniform rods AB and BC of the same thickness and
(c) x=/ sin 6 sin (@—A) sec A. material, and of length 4 metres and 3 metres respectively,
are freely hinged together and rest in a vertical plane with
the ends A and C ona rough horizontal plane. The system is
in limiting equilibrium when the angle ABC is 90°.
Determine how equilibrium will be broken when the angle
ABC is slightly increased beyond 90° and show that the
coefficient of friction between the rods and the ground
ister (W)

Two uniform rods, AB and AC, each of length 2a and

weighing 3W and W respectively, are freely jointed at A
and rest in a vertical plane with B and C on a rough
The force diagram shows the forces acting on AB. horizontal floor. The coefficient of friction between either
R is the normal reaction at C, F is the frictional force acting rod and the floor is w. In limiting equilibrium,
at C. (i) will slipping first occur at B or at C?
(ii) what will be the reaction at A (giving both magnitude
(a) Since AB is about to slip,
and direction)?
F=uR=(tan A)R [1] (iii) at what angle to the horizontal will the rods be inclined?
Resolving parallel to AB: (S)
F+P cos 0=W sin 6 [2] A uniform sphere of radius a and weight W/V3 rests on a
Resolving perpendicular to AB: rough horizontal table. A uniform rod AB of weight 2W
and length 2a is freely hinged at A to a fixed point on the
R=W cos 6 +P sin 6. [3] table and leans against the sphere so that the centre of
[1] and [2] give, the sphere and the rod lie ina vertical plane. The rod makes
(tan 4)R=W sin @—P cos 6, an angle of 60° with the horizontal. Show that the frictional
[3] x tan A gives, force between the rod and the sphere is 3W. The
coefficient of friction at each point of contact is uw. What is
(tan 4)R=W tan A cos 6+P tan A sin 6. the smallest value of « which makes equilibrium possible?
Eliminating R gives, (O & C)
P(cos 6+tan A sin 0) = W(sin 9—tan A cos 6)
i.e. P cos (@—A) sec A=W sin (@—A) sec A
= P=W tan (0—A).
(b) If 0<A, tan (8—/A)<0P<0O; equilibrium impossible. V
If @=A, tan (@Q—A)=0> P=0; not true.
Hence 0>A>tan 6>tan A
i.e. u<tan 6.
me Se
Two smooth uniform right circular cylinders, each of mass
(c) Moments about C give: m and radius a, are placed symmetrically in contact with
Wx cos 0= P(/—x) sin 0. each other and with two planes, each inclined at angle a to
the horizontal. The axes of the cylinders lie in the same
Using the value of P obtained we get, horizontal plane, and are parallel to the line of intersection
x cos 6=(/—x) sin 6 tan (0—A) of the two inclined planes. Another smooth uniform
i.e. J sin 0 tan (@—/) =x(sin 6 tan (O@—A) + cos @) circular cylinder, of mass 2m and of radius a, is placed
=) I sin @ sin (@—A) =x (sin @ sin (9—A) + cos 6 cos (0—A)) symmetrically on top of the other two. If the two lower
cylinders are forced apart, show that tan a<1/(2V3).
=% cos!(9=(6—A))
(OLE)
=x cos A A uniform rigid rod AB of length 2a and weight W, is
=> x=Ilsin @ sin (@—A) sec A. smoothly jointed at A to a uniform rigid rod AC of length
2aV3 and weight W'. The rods rest in a vertical plane witF
B and C on a smooth horizontal plane, equilibrium being
GE fas equal rough cylinders are lying in contact with each other, maintained by a light inextensible string of length 4a,
with their axes parallel and horizontal, on a rough horizontal joining B and C. Prove that the tension in the string is
plane. A third equal cylinder is placed symmetrically on top of ‘S(W+W’).
the other two. If equilibrium is about to be broken by the upper
cylinder slipping between the other two, prove that the coefficient Prove further that the reaction at A on the rod AC makes
of friction between any two cylinders is 2— 5, , 3W'-W
an angle of tan”
Draw two force diagrams, one showing the forces acting on the (W+W')V3
top cylinder and the other showing the forces acting on one of with the horizontal.
ee LS

125
 th

63 Equivalent Systems of Forces

Equivalence, Reduction to a force or a couple, Reduction to a force and a couple.

Equivalence Systems of coplanar forces which produce exactly the Li] These two systems of forces are equivalent:
same linear and turning effects on a rigid body are I Cc I
equivalent.
To establish that two coplanar force systems are Mea vehpt ABeBE i3N AD=0.8m
equivalent, show that: 45° =lm tan 0=%
1. the total resolutes in two perpendicular directions A B aé—-—--Ap
are the same in both systems, and Fl Figure 1
2. the resultant moment about a point in the plane
containing the forces is the same in both systems.

A known system of coplanar forces may be replaced

Resolve ||AB | 8V2 sin 45°-3=5 | 13 sin 0=5
Resolve | AB |8V2 cos 45°+4=12] 13 cos 0=12
by an equivalent, often simpler, system using (1) and
Moments (A) 4x1=4 13 x0.8 sin 0=4
(2).
Reduction to The resultant of a system of coplanar forces, which is asc is an isosceles triangle with AB=AC=5 cm
a force or a not in equilibrium, is either a single force or a couple. and BC=6 cm. M is the midpoint of BC.Forces of
couple This resultant is equivalent to the original system of 15, 12, 5 and 8 N act along AB,BC,CA,MA
coplanar forces. respectively.
Show that this system of forces is equivalent to a
A system reduces to a single force if:
couple and find its moment.
one or both of the total resolutes in two
perpendicular directions is non-zero.
To locate the position of the line of action of the AB=AC=5 cm=0.05 m
resultant force, take moments about any point in the
BM=MC=3 cm=0.03 m
plane and use the principle of moments.
so AM=4 cm=0.04m.
A system reduces to a couple if one of the following
sets of conditions is satisfied.
eda c Let 2MAB=ZMAC=a,
Set I 12N M so sin a =#
1. The total resolutes in two perpendicular directions are Figure 2 cos a=%
are each zero, and
2. The resultant moment about any point in the plane
Resolve ||to BC:
is non-zero. 12-15 sin a—5 sin w@=12—15
x 8—5 x 8=0.

Set II
Resolve 1 to BC:
The resultant moments about three non-collinear
points are each non-zero. 8-15 cos wa—5 cos w=8—15x
#—-5 x #=0
Moments about A:
12 X0.05 cos w=0.48 Nm
Hence,
the system of forces=couple of moment 0.48 N m.

Reduction to Any system of coplanar forces acting on a rigid body i] Forces 3 N and 5 N act along the sides
a force anda may be replaced by an equivalent system which AC and BC of an equilateral triangle, side a metres. A
couple consists of a single force, acting at a particular point force of 2 N acts along the altitude AD. Find the force
in the plane of the forces, together with a couple. at B and the couple which together are equivalent to
this system.

Il i?)

Figure 3

Let R be the required single force at angle 8 to BC

and G be the moment of the required couple.

Resolve along BC for original system: 5+3 cos 60°

for new system: R cos 0
So Rcos @=5+3 cos 60° (1)
Resolve 1 to BC for original system: 2 +3 cos 30°
for new system: R sin 6
So R sin 6 =2+3 cos 60° (2)
Solving (1) and (2) gives R~7.96N and @~35.3°.

Moments about B: (23a) +(3Xasin 60°)=G

1.€. G=(Sf
1+3 3)
NI
2
ay

126
 Fquivalent Systems of Forces
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

=> lS
[3 28cp is a square of side 2 m. Forces of magnitudes 3 N, 5N, 1 Forces of 5 N and 3 N act along the sides AB, AC
7 N and 2 N act along the sides DA, AB, BC and CD respectively of an equilateral triangle ABC of Side 12 m.
respectively. Calculate: Find the magnitude and direction of their resultant. The
(a) the magnitude of the resultant of the forces and the angle line of action of the resultant intersects BC at D. By taking
made by the resultant with AD, moments about D, or otherwise, find the length of BD.
*(C)
(b) the sum of the moments of the forces about A,
(c) the distance from A of the point where the line of action of
2 A rectangle is defined by the four points A(0, 0), B(5, 0),
the resultant of the forces cuts DA produced.
C(5, 3) and D(0, 3), distances being measured in metres.
Forces of magnitude 6 N,8N,4N, and 2 N act along AB,
B 7N A BC, CD and DA respectively in directions indicated by the
letters. Calculate:
(a) the magnitude of the resultant of this system of forces;
5N 2N (b) the angle between the line of action of the resultant and
the x-axis.
The line of action of this resultant cuts the x-axis at (a, 0).
A aN D (c) Find a value for a by consideration of moments about
A. Hence determine the equation of the line of action of
this resultant.
(a) Let X and Y be the resolutes of the resultant force in the *(S)
directions AD and AB respectively.
3 The square ABCD has each side of length 6 m. Forces of
X=(7-3) N=4N
magnitude 1, 2, 8, 5, 5V2 and 2V2N act along AB, BC,
Y=(5—2) N=3N CD, DA, AC and DB respectively, in the directions
Hence, R= V(4?+3?) N=5N indicated by the order of the letters. Prove that these forces
at an angle 9=tan! (3) to AD. are equivalent to a couple. Calculate the magnitude and
sense of this couple.
(b) Moments about A for the system of forces gives *(A)
G=(7X2)+(2x2) Nm
4 OABCisasquare of side | m. Forces of magnitude 2, 3, 4
= 18 Nm, in a clockwise sense.
and 5V2 newtons act along OA, AB, CB and AC
respectively in directions indicated by the order of the
(c) Let R, the resultant of the forces, cut DA produced at P. letters and a couple of moment 7 N m acts in the plane of
Let AP=x metres. the square in the sense OCBA. Find the magnitude and
R= 5N direction of the resultant of the system and the equation of
its line of action referred to OA and OC as axes. What is
AX the magnitude and direction of the least force introduced at
SS ee A if the resultant of the original system and this new force is
to pass through O?
Moments about A for the resultant force gives G=5 sin 0 Xx.
(S)
Since the moments G must be equal,
5 A rectangle ABCD has AB=3 cm and BC=4 cm. Forces,
5 sin 0Xx=18
all measured in newtons and of magnitudes 2, 4, 6, 8andk,
18 , ; 3 act along AB, BC, CD, DA and AC respectively, the
= x =——_=6
3 m (sincesin g==—).
direction of each force being shown by the order of the
Der letters. The resultant of the five forces is parallel to BD.
5 Find k and show that the resultant has magnitude
Hence, the resultant of the forces cuts DA produced at 6 m 2 newtons. Find the distance fromA of the line of action of
from A. the resultant.
(0 &C)
'GEX regular hexagon ABCDEF has sides of length 2 m. Forces 6 A rigid rectangular lamina ABCD, with AB=4a and
of magnitude 4, R, 2,3, 6 and 5 newtons act along the sides AB, BC=3a, is subject to forces of magnitudes 10P, P, 2P, 3P
BC, DC, DE, EF and AF respectively. A seventh force of acting along CA, AD, DC, CB respectively in the
magnitude S newtons acts along EB. The directions of the directions indicated by the order of the letters.
forces are indicated by the order of the letters. Calculate R and S (i) Find the magnitude of the resultant of the four forces.
when the given system of forces is equivalent to (ii) Find the tangent of the acute angle between the line of
(a) asingle force of magnitude 6 N in a direction parallel to EB, action of the resultant and the edge AB of the lamina.
(b) a couple, (iii) Find the distance from A of the point where the line of
In (b) calculate also the moment of the couple. action of the resultant meets AB.
(iv) Indicate clearly on a diagram the line of action and the
(a) Find the sum of the resolutes of the forces direction of the resultant.
(i) parallel to EB and equate to 6 N, (v) Find the magnitude and sense of the couple G which,
(ii) perpendicular to EB and equate to zero. if added to the system, would cause the resultant force
Solve the two resulting equations to find R and 8S. to act through E, the midpoint of CD.
(vi) In the case when G is not applied, find forces S along
(b) Repeat (a) (ii) and (a) (i) but equate the forces to zero. AB, T along AD and U along BC which, when added
Solve the resulting equations to find the new values for R to the system, would produce equilibrium.
and S.
To find the moment of the couple, take moments about the V)
centre of the hexagon for the total system of forces.
EE —
 :

64 Centre of Mass
Definitions, System of particles, Symmetry, Standard results, Composite bodies.

ESR ee PS SS ce

Definitions The centre of mass of a body is the point at which the mass of the body may be considered to be acting.
The centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the line of action of its weight acts.
The centroid of a body is at its geometric centre. hen
The centre of mass and centre of gravity of a body coincide in a uniform gravitational field.
The centre of mass and the centroid of a body coincide in a uniform body.
A uniform body has uniform density.

System of For a set of particles of masses m1, m2, ™m3,... at the Li] Particles of masses 5, 3 and 8 kg are at (0, 0),
particles points (x1, y1), (%2, y2), (*3, y3),... in the x-y plane, (3, 4) and (6, 0) respectively. Find (x, y), their centre
the centre of mass (Xx, y) is given by of mass.
_— MX +mM2X2+m3x3+... LMiXi
xX o_O... aS
z= 2(0) +33) +806) _97
ed

m+m2t+m3t+... =m; S\qPolaEie) 16 So (x nis(>2 =)

dy Miyi+M2y2t+ M33... =mMiyi pee ELG) Lie) _3 16 4

an = ee BR ee

3 m+tme+tm3+... =m; SSS 4

Symmetry The centre of mass of a uniform body lies on every line or plane of symmetry of the body. It is at the point
where any two lines, or three planes of symmetry intersect.
By symmetry the centres of mass of the following lie at their geometric centres:
uniform rod, circular lamina, rectangular lamina, sphere, cuboid.

lamina = fe |
triangular lamina intersection of medians ars
: : ; circular arc
circular arc, radius a, asin@ ; Figure 2
-angle at centre 2a ie ge alA A
Fi 1
circular sector, radius a, | 2asinaw fr ; ‘Se a
angle at centre 2a By Se lah
H circular sector
i hemisphere,
solid i 3a |1 Figure
gu 3
adiuca P oy from plane face L Sore

hollow hemisphere,
i iin es90 eee solllid
cree holl
esollow
radius a 2 * :
igure 4 Figure 5
solid cone, height h h et,
(tetrahedron, pyramid) |4 ‘TOM Dase
solid h hollow
hollow cone, no base, h ; . cone 1 cone
height h 3 from ‘base oc

Figure 6 Figure 7

Composite A composite body is one made from two or more [i] 8cm D Find the centre of
E
bodies parts (usually standard). mass of this uniform
To find the centre of mass of a composite body lamina referred to OA
and OE as axes.
(a) Draw a clear diagram.
(b) Mark any lines of symmetry. Divide the lamina into
(c) Choose two axes at right angles to each other. If Pooky two rectangles OXDE
a line of symmetry exists choose this as an axis. oO Figure 8 X 4cm A
and XABC.
(d) Divide the body into known (standard) bodies.
(e) Tabulate the ‘masses’ and ‘distances of centres of mass (M is distance of centre
masses from the chosen axes’. mass/unit area) of mass
Note: In a uniform lamina, mass « area.
In a uniform solid, mass « volume.
(f) Take moments about the chosen axes. (6x8)M=48M
(g) Use the principle of moments: (4x2)M= 8M | (8+2)=10 1
Moment of total mass about an axis = sum of 56M e y
moments of separate masses about same axis. Moments about OE give: 48M X4+8M x10=56M xx
This method can also be used to deal with a body >xX=4§ cm
from which a part has been removed. Moments about OA give: 48M x3+8M x1=56M xy
>y =23 cm
.. Centre of mass is at a point which is
45cm from OE and 23cm from OA.

128
 Centre of Mass
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

SES ISIN RI IT eT TO ATG NR RY STE ALR

WE A uniform right circular solid cylinder has a radius r and length

4r. A solid hemisphere of radius r is cut from one end of the
Use the principle of moments, putting together shapes (11) and
(iii) to make (i). Hence find the position of the centre of mass
cylinder, the plane face of which is one of the plane faces of the of the lamina.
cylinder. The hemisphere so removed, is now attached by its
plane face to the uncut plane face of the cylinder thus forming a 1 A uniform rectangular lamina ABCD is of mass 3M;
new solid. Find the position of the centre of mass of the new AB=DC=4 cm and BC=AD=6 cm. Particles, each of
solid. mass M, are attached to the lamina at B, C and D.
Calculate the distance of the centre of mass of the loaded
lamina: (a) from AB, (b) from BC. €()

2 (a) The figure below shows a plate of uniform thickness,

circular in shape, which has two circular holes drilled
through it. The radius of the plate is 80 mm and AOB,
COD are perpendicular axes of the plate.

Let O be the point on the line of symmetry at the extreme end

of the solid.

Sa
\e/
Let x be the distance of the centre of mass of the ‘new solid’
from O.

Shape Mass | Distance of

c of m from O Cc

r+2r=3r One hole, of radius 20 mm, has its centre on OB at a

distance of 5 mm from O; the other, of radius 10 mm, has
its centre at a distance of 40 mm from OA and 20 mm from
OC. Show that the centre of mass of the plate is located on
the axis COD and find its distance from O.
(b) Masses p, q and r are placed at the points whose
cartesian co-ordinates are respectively (0, 0), (20, 0)
Be * oh Ay and (0, 16). If p:q:r=1:4:3, find the co-ordinates of the
(3) q rue Pas westar r centre of mass of the three masses. *(W)
3 A can in the form of a circular cylinder, without a lid, is
made of thin metal sheeting of uniform thickness and witha
mass per unit area of 1 g/cm”. The radius of the canis 10cm
and its height is 20 cm. The can is placed with its base on a
horizontal plane and is half-filled with a liquid of density
1.5 g/cem?. Calculate the height of the centre of gravity of
Notice that if we put together shapes (1) and (2) we get the the can together with the liquid, above the base of the can.
same shape as we do by putting together shapes (3) and (4).
We use this to write down our moments equation. *(A)
Moments about O give: 4 The diagram shows a
square OABC of side a.
(4a x3r) + (xr<2) 2 (Far<F) + (4m? x3) The midpoint of BC is D.
Show that, with respect to
OA and OC as axes, the
=> L=-!.
coordinates of the centroid
F of the triangular region
ABD are (ga, 3a). Find
GEX. uniform lamina is formed by Y the coordinates of the centre of mass of a uniform lamina
removing a circular disc of in the form of the figure OADC. (J)
radius r from a circular disc of
radius 2r as shown. Find the 5 A uniform solid right circular cone has its top removed by
position of the centre of gravity cutting the cone by a plane parallel to its base, leaving a
truncated cone of height h, the radii of its ends being r and
of the lamina with respect to the
two axes Ox and Oy as shown. 4r. Show that the distance of the centre of gravity of the
Cy ; truncated cone from its broader end is zsh. (O & C)
Notice that Ox is an axis of
symmetry. 6 Prove that the centre of gravity of a uniform circular arc
Tabulate: subtending an angle 26 at the centre of a circle of radius a is
asin 6/6 from the centre. Deduce that the centre of gravity
(a) The masses of of a uniform sector bounded by that arc and the radii to its
(i)
the original circular disc, extremities is 3a sin 0/0 from the centre. Show also that
(ii)
the small circular disc which was removed, the centre of gravity of asegment of a circular lamina cut off
(iii)
the lamina. by a chord subtending a right angle at the centre of the
(b) The distances of the centres of mass from O along Ox. circle is 3V2a/(m—2) from the centre. (W)

129
 a)

65 Suspending and Toppling

Suspended bodies, Toppling bodies.

Suspended When a body is freely suspended from a frictionless Lil A uniform rectangular plate ABCD of weight
bodies pivot, P, it will rest in equilibrium with its centre of 2 W has dimensions AB=DC=2a and AD= BC=2b.
mass, M, directly below the point of suspension on A particle of weight W is attached to the plate at C.
the vertical through P. When the lamina, with the particle attached, is freely
For equilibrium: RA suspended from D, DC makes an angle @ with the
b
Hiomiga commlsndtie, downward vertical. Show that tan 0=—.
weight W act in opposite 2a
directions along the
same vertical line, and First find the centre
R=W., vw of gravity, G(x, y),
Figure 1 for the plate and
particle.
ie ac DC and DA as
Problems concerned with freely suspended bodies in cee oe see D Figure 2 Ww
equilibrium often require you to find the angle made
by a line in the body with the vertical. This angle is . senenietat ie
called the angle of inclination to the vertical. be Lensee He ce:it accel naan 2h)
The particle of weight W is at (2a, 0).
To solve problems of this type Moments about DA give:
(a) Draw a clear diagram. mutates
(b) Find the position of the centre of mass, M, of the 2Wxa+Wx2a=3Wx>X= 3
peo : 5 : : Moments about DC give:
(c) Draw in the line through the point of suspension, Pees);
P, and the centre of mass, M. This line will be ew AD +W XU =3W ye
vertical when the body is freely suspended from é
P. Your original diagram need not be redrawn.
(d) Obtain an expression for the angle of inclination | Now show the
to the vertical using the position of the centre of Vertical line
;
mass and geometry or trigonometry from the through G ; and
diagram. D, the point of
suspension.
Figure 3

Since DC makes an angle 6 with the vertical,

tan puree sa
To. Sut PS Pe

Toppling When a body rests in stable equilibrium LilABCD is a uniform square lamina, “i :
bodies equilibrium on a plane, It of side a, from which EBC is removed.
will be stable provided the Find the least length of AE which
line of action of the — will allow the lamina AECD to
weight force lies within stand in a vertical plane with AE
the extreme points of 7% 3 on a horizontal surface. A E B
contact between the body v4 Figure 7
and the plane. :
Figure 4
First find the distance, x, of the centre of gravity of
The body will topple if the body topples about B
AECD from AD.
line of action of the weight Let AE=x and let w be the weight per unit area.
force lies outside one of
these extreme points of distance of c. of g. from AD
contact. It will topple
about the point of contact ABCD aw 5a
nearest to the line of A B EBC 3a(a—x)w x+3(a—x)=3(2a+x)
action of the weight. Figure 5 3a(a+x)w a
Moments about AD give:
If the body is on a rough body topples about A a’w X$a=ha(a—x)w X3(2a +x) +4a(a +x)w XxX
inclined plane, it will
topple if the line of
action of the weight force 3(a+x)
lies outside the lower
point of contact of the For no toppling about E:
body with the plane. B X<AE,
On an inclined plane the f : ; A E
equilibrium of a body may a’taxtx' Vv
be broken by sliding rather 3(a+x) Figure 8
than toppling.
Figure 6
> x24a(V3-1). :
So the least value of x for equilibrium is sa(V3-1).
130
 Suspending and Toppling
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

A toy is constructed as follows. (b) Calculate the distance of the centre of gravity of the whole
A particle of weight W is attached to one end of a light rod of plate from sides AB and AE.
length 3r. The other end of the rod is attached to the centre of the (c) If the plate is freely suspended from A, find the inclination
plane face of a uniform solid hemisphere of weight w and radius of AE to the horizontal.
r, the angle between the rod and the plane face of the hemisphere
being 90°. Find, in terms of W, the least value of w such that
C
when the toy is knocked over on a horizontal surface it will
always.return to an upright position.

We first find the position B D D

of the centre of gravity I
of the toy. :

0 6 cm

Shape Weight | Height of

c.of g.above O
Ehese A E

fs wf (a) Do as the question says — state.

(b) Notice the shape has a line of symmetry.
Use this line of symmetry as one axis. Use AE as the other axis.
Draw the lamina ABCDE.
Tabulate the weights of the triangle, square and plate and the
distances of their centres of gravity from AE.
Use the principle of moments to find the centre of gravity of
YO w = the lamina.
(c) Mark the centre of gravity G of the lamina on your
drawing.
Moments about O give:
Put in the ‘vertical’ through A and G. Mark as @ the angle
(W+w)h= arW+2rw between AE and the ‘vertical’. Use trigonometry to find 0.
The inclination of AE to the horizontal is 90°—6.
at 2s >|
7 8, W+w
Now consider the toy to be knocked over. 1 A uniform lamina of mass M is in the shape of a circular
disc, centre O. Two points A and B on the circumference
of the disc are such that the angle AOB is a right angle. A
particle of mass kM is attached to the disc at B. When the
loaded disc is in equilibrium suspended freely from A, AO
is inclined to the downward vertical at an angle a, where
tan a=0-4. Calculate the value of k.
*(A)
nN A uniform lamina ABCD has the shape of a trapezium with
DC parallel to AB and BAD = 90°, AB = 3a, CD =2a and
Let 6 be the angle between the rod and the horizontal. If the AD = 2b. Find the distances of its centre of gravity from
toy is to return to the vertical position, the line of action of the AB and AD. The lamina is freely pivoted at B to a fixed
weight force must lie to the left of P, the point of contact point and hangs down in equilibrium. If a=7 cm,
between the horizontal plane and the hemisphere. b= 13 cm, find the inclination of AB to the vertical.

ip Al
(O&C)
In POR,
APQ tan
an @=—=-.
Tee
3 A toy consists of a solid hemisphere of radius a to which is
r—h glued a solid circular cylinder of radius a and height 2a so
In APQG, tan 0=——. that the plane end of the hemisphere is in complete contact
r with a plane end of the cylinder. The cylinder is made of
r-h_1 .- » uniform material of density 9, and the hemisphere is made
So, —=-, D>h=
p r 3 =a = of uniform material of density kg. The toy is designed so
that if placed on a horizontal table with the hemisphere
or ff ined
Hence, =) downwards and then tilted to one side, it will return to the
3 8| W+w vertical position. Show that k>8. The toy is placed on a
i.e. w=48W. desk of slope a where sin a=, sufficiently rough to
So, the least value of w such that the toy always returns to an prevent slipping. It rests in equilibrium with the
upright position is 48W. hemisphere in contact with the desk. Find an expression
giving the (acute) angle 6 made by its axis of symmetry with
the vertical. Hence deduce that k= 133.
A thin uniform plate is formed by a square of side 6 cm being
surmounted by an isosceles triangle of vertical height 3 cm, as (O & C)
shown below.
(a) State the distance of the centre of gravity of the triangle
BCD from its side BD.
nearer eee rere eee reer ener nnn =

131
 1 fe

66 Pictorial Representation
Categorical data, Bar chart, Pie chart, Isotype diagram.

a
Se ee Ea
Categorical Information which can be put into categories is called [i] Table showing a man’s annual expenditure.
data categorical data.
Categorical data may be represented pictorially by Expenditure (£)
bar charts, pie charts and isotype diagrams (or
pictograms). Here the
categories are
the items of
expenditure,
e.g. House,
ete:

Bar chart In a bar chart data are represented by a series of Li] For the data above a suitable scale is
parallel bars of equal width. The length of each baris 1 cm<>£500. bea
proportional to the frequency of the category it fine ae oii
represents. The distance between adjacent bars Eeed Lie ahaha abi s eyote 500
should be equal. =6cm
Bars may be drawn horizontally or vertically but all The lengths of the other bars, working down the
must start from the same base line. If drawn table, are 4cm, 1.6 cm, 1.6cm and 2.2 cm.
vertically, the diagram is often called a column graph.
Bar chart showing a man’s annual expenditure

House

Food
Fuel
Travel 5

Others j
0 £1000 £2000 £3000
Expenditure
Figure 1

Pie chart In a pie chart, the total data is represented by the Li] For the data above the ‘sum of category values’
area of a circle which is divided into sectors, one is £7700.
sector for each category. , . 3000 P
Each sector angle is a fraction of 360° and may be The sector angle for “House” is 7700 ° 360° = 140.3
found from: The sector angles for the other sectors, in order, are
eorange oe ee 360°. 93.5°, 37.4°, 37.4° and 51.4°.

; BAM sendy Sts Pie chart showing

Since the ‘sum of the category values’ is represented a man’s annual
by the complete circle, the sum of the sector angles expenditure
must be 360°. This is a useful calculation check.
A pie chart should not contain too many sectors (less
than eight is usual). Each sector should be clearly
labelled.

Figure 2

Isotype In an isotype diagram (or pictogram) data are Li] For the data above a suitable symbol would be
diagram represented by symbols (usually pictures). A symbol
(or is used to represent a stated number of units of the G) to represent £500.
pictogram) data. Appropriate fractions of the symbol are used to
Figure 3
represent fractions of the basic number of units.
The symbol used is often associated in some way with Isotype diagram showing a man’s annual expenditure
the data it represents.
CT ORGEGRGEGEG
Food 6) te) G) G)

Fuel 6) G

Travel Ce) (4
6) <= £500
Others ‘G) 6) q
Figure 4

132
 Pictorial Representation
Worked example and Exam questions

The approximate expenditure in the United Kingdom during an Represent this information on a pie chart, stating the size of
academic year on various sectors of education is given below: the angles. Suggest briefly how the pie chart might be
displayed on a poster to achieve immediate visual impact.
Sector Expenditure *(A)
(millions of £)
In 1977, the group sales of ICI by geographical region were:
Primary 523
Secondary 608
Special 46 United Kingdom £1 868 000 000
Adult 260 The rest of Western Europe £865 000 000
Teacher training 57 The Americas £628 000 000
Universities 258 Australasia £505 000 000
Others £807 000 000
Illustrate these data by a pie chart, showing clearly any necessary
calculations. Display this information on a pie chart, showing clearly
any necessary calculations.
Total expenditure is £1752 millions
Thus £1752 millions <—> 360°
*(A)
The cash flow of BP during 1977 was reported as follows:
£1 million <—> (=)
1752 “Where the funds came from.’
x °
Income before UK tax £769 million
and £523 millions —( | =107-5°, to the
1752 nearest half-degree. Depreciation £304 million
Other £19 million
Replacing 523 by the other entries in the table in turn and
tabulating the appropriate sector angles gives the following Total £1092 million
table.
‘How they were used.’
Sector Sector angle
Capital investment £721 million
in pie chart
UK tax £35 million
Additional working capital £65 million
Primary OWED Dividends £78 million
Secondary 125.0° Repayment of borrowings £193 million
Special Os
Adult 335) Total £1092 million
Teacher training ES
Universities 53.0% Represent these data diagrammatically.
The total of the sector angles is 360° as required. *(A)
The appropriate pie chart is shown below. Five companies form a group. The sales of each
company during the year ending 5th April, 1978, are
Teacher shown in the table below

2
Training

Company A B Cie ae:

Sales (in £1000s) 55 130 20 35 60

Draw a pie chart of radius 5 cm to illustrate this

information. For the year ending 5th April, 1979, the total
sales of the group increased by 20% and this growth was
maintained for the year ending Sth April, 1980. If
pie charts were drawn to compare the total sales for each of
these years with the total sales for the year ending
5th April, 1978, what would be the radius of each of these
Secondary pie charts? If the sales of company EF for the year ending
5th April, 1980, were again £60 000, what would be the
angle of the sector representing them? *(C)

Answer any TWO of the following:

1 The table below, adapted from a magazine article, shows (a) Explain the meaning of ‘correlation’. Referring to your
the approximate total number of deaths in England and projects, discuss briefly two correlation coefficients which
Wales in 1975 from preventable external causes. you have studied, and compare their uses.
(b) Discuss three methods of representing data
Cause Number of deaths diagrainmatically, explaining the advantages and
disadvantages of each method.
Smoking 100 000 (c) You wish to study the prevalence of five different grass
Traffic Accidents 6 000 types on a very large grassy hillside. Explain the principles
Alcohol 5 000 which would guide you in collecting random samples and,
Falls 4 000 assuming that a table of random numbers is available, how
Others 2 000 this table could be used for the collection. (L)
a eeea reagan nn ERIN In EUR RR DR

133
 *

67 Frequency Distributions
Definition, Class limits and class boundaries, Histogram, Frequency polygon and frequency curve.

ee
SSSR A NT

Definition When repeated observations are made on a variable Li] The marks of 40 students in a test (discrete
the result is a frequency distribution. The variable data)
may be discrete or continuous.
A frequency distribution is recorded in a frequency Mark -9 |10—19|20—29 |30—39|40—49
table. The values of the variable are often grouped
into classes. The frequency table gives the possible Frequency (f)| 4 8 17 ) Zz
values or class intervals of the variable and the
corresponding frequencies (f). Estimated UK population in 1930 (continuous data)

Age (years) : 4 | 5-14 | 15 “pe 60— |

Number (millions) ! 3.5 7.0 Vel aN TAL ed

Class limits | For a grouped frequency distribution (continuous or Lil In the discrete data above, the open class ‘9’
and class discrete) the lower and upper class limits are the may be closed at 0 (the lowest possible mark). It
boundaries = extreme values of each class in the frequency table. becomes ‘0—9’ with lower and upper class limits of 0
Open classes have no well-defined class limits. They and 9.
may be closed at arbitrary but convenient points. In the continuous data above, the open class ‘60—
may be closed at 109 (a possible maximum age!).
For a continuous frequency distribution, the lower
class boundary (I.c.b.) and upper class boundary Li] For the class ‘15—29’ in the continuous data
(u.c.b.) are the priallest, aNGilasses rates above: If the ages were measured ‘to the nearest
ei clyuaat an eur Ba she. clasecen year’, then the l.c.b. is 14.5 and the u.c.b. is 29.5,
(theoretically) have. na ae the class width is (29.5—14.5)=15,
For a grouped discrete frequency distribution the the class mid-value is $(14.5+29.5)=22.
class boundaries are adjusted because of the f <
. Note: If the ages were measured as ‘age in years last
continuous nature of the variable scale. They may be birthdav® then th i lace 3 1 ib bel15
found using: ee a Ms— ne ia Cc oeeal wou (eo Wa

> (u.c. limit of one class +I.c. limit of next class). OSS a ay anaes
The class width or class interval is the difference For the class ‘10-19’ in the discrete data above:
between the two class boundaries, i.e. (u.c.b.-l.c.b.). |eb. is $(9+10)=9.5 and u.c.b. is $(19+20)=19.5
The class midpoint or mid-value is half-way between the class width is (19.5—9.5)=10,
the two class boundaries, i.e. 3(l.c.b.+u.c.b.). It is the class mid-value is 3(9.5+19.5)=14.5.
often used to represent the class interval.

Histogram A histogram illustrates a frequency distribution. It i] Draw a histogram for the continuous data above,
consists of rectangles drawn on a continuous base. given that the ages are ‘to the nearest year’.
The area of each rectangle is proportional to the
frequency of the class it represents. The rectangles do class widths: :Be age1 15 30 = 550
not have to be of equal width but their bases must be _ class frequency .
proportional to the class widths, i.e. the extremes of eincowiie) 0.78 0.76 0.79 0.59 0.11
the base of each rectangle are at the l.c.b. and u.c.b.
of the class it represents. (to 2 d.p.)
The ratio of the heights of = cf. cf
each rectangle may be found °™ , ae
eee class BOE),
class width(cw)
for each class. A suitable
scale is selected for the Aly Sth variable
vertical axis which should = 3
be labelled as shown. Figure 1
Note: Since the base is continuous, there must be no
space between rectangles. The u.c.b. of one class
must coincide with the l.c.b. of the next. 045 145 29.5 59.5 109.5 age
' Figure 2

Frequency A frequency polygon is a line cf Lil Some commonly occurring frequency curves
polygon and = graph which may be drawn cw
:
frequency by joining the midpoints of belle Righiekae left skew
curve the tops of the rectangles ayie YN ww \
which would form a histogram.
It is extended to the next
lower and higher classes,
these having zero frequency. Figures —
A smooth frequency curve may be drawn through the wey) J-shaped yy, J-shaped
midpoints if the number of classes is large. Figure 4

134
 Frequency Distributions
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WE In 1959 the age distribution of the population of the United

Kingdom was as follows:
Since a frequency polygon is obtained by erecting ordinates at
the centre of each class interval, the calculation procedure is
INU IDEr almost identical with that for a histogram. Appropriate table
Age (years) (in millions) oe beer with the first row of the table completed are
shown below.
0- 15.6 .
a oH Freq. poly Freq. poly
40- 6.9 Class Class interval Class freq. ordinate
50 6.8 Class width midpoint Freq. width Class width height
60- ite ia | ay
uy oY 950-250 1075 20 DS) 0.08 0.8
Draw a histogram for these data.
The scales used are 1 cm to 100 hours for the horizontal (life)
Let the linear scale for the age axis be 1 cm to 10 years. The axis and 10 cm to 1 unit for the vertical (class freq./class width)
calculation of the histogram column heights is set out in the axis, giving rise to the frequency polygon shown below.
table below.
Class frequency
Class
Histogram Class freq. Histogram Class width Scale 1:2

Class width Freq. col.width Class width col. height

(cm) (cm)

0- 20 15.6 2 0.78 7.8

20= 10 6.6 1 0.66 6.6
30- 10 7.4 1 0.74 We!
40— 10 6.9 1 0.69 6.9
50— 10 6.8 1 0.68 6.8
60- 20 eh 2 0.385 3.85 ee ot ty
80- 2D, 1.0 2 0.05 0.5 | Bisis iiss |
100 2 s og eeee 2 3 z
as as = a S 8 RaGa S BB ra

The appropriate histogram is shown below.

Note: the column class frequency/class width gives the ratio of 1 The number of passengers on a certain regular weekday
the column heights in the histogram, by taking the scale as train service on each of 50 occasions was
10 cm to one
u unit on the corresponding
3 : axis gives a set of 1655 141 16Se oS SOE OSs Onl C/o U9
column heights of reasonable dimensions. Na 147 166 154 159 ihe. albeay/ 139 180 143

160) 185153 LOS) SOR Saleen Oe OS 182

Cham crencenes iki eh eS) key gies sy IE BYE 0)
Class width Scale 1:2 210M 162 PISS 7s 19S OA eel Se a ee ils
Choose suitable class intervals and reduce these data to a
grouped frequency table. Plot the corresponding frequency
polygon on squared paper using suitable scales.
SCA)
2 Eighty numbers are recorded below. Construct a grouped
frequency table using class intervals: 0—, 0.2—, 0.4—, 0.6-,
0.8-, 0.9-1.000. Draw an accurate histogram, using
suitable scales, which should be clearly indicated, to
| | represent this table.
0 cp ae el oa py ye epee 0.841 1.000 0.837 0.404 0.159 0.670 0.966 0.951
0.909 0.537 0.009 0.551 0.917 0.987 0.739 0.254
0.141 0.420 0.846 1.000 0.832 0.396 0.167 0.677
0.757. =~0.991 0.906 0.529 0.018 0.559 0.920 0.985
Draw a frequency polygon for the following frequency distribu- 0.959 0.650 0.132 0.428 0.851 1.000 0.827 0.388
tion which gives the distribution of life of 300 electric light bulbs. 0.279 0.288 0.763 0.992 0.902 0.522 0.027 0.566
Life (hours) Frequency 0.657 0.961 0.956 0.644 0.124 0.436 0.856 1.000
0.989 0.751 0.271 0.296 0.768 0.993 0.898 0.514
950 20 0.412 0.150 0.664 0.964 0.954 0.637 0.115 0.444
1200- 28 0.544 0.913 0.988 0.745 0.262 0.306 0.774 0.994

1300- 44 *(A)
1400- 27
1450- 29
1500- 29
1550- 28
1600— 46
1700-— 28
1800-2100 21
Haan eee ee ——__--_ iin nanan =a g_—_—_—_——

135
 ‘

68 Mode and Means

Mode, Arithmetic mean, Weighted mean, Geometric mean, Harmonic mean.

Mode The mode of a set of values is that value which occurs Li] The mode of 2, 3, 3, 1, 3, 2, 4, 5, 6, 3, 2, 4, 4,
most frequently. 3 is 3 since the value 3 has the largest frequency.

The modal class of a grouped frequency distribution

isthe elas wath the grodiest Deduenss Li] Calculate the mode of this distribution:
The value of the mode modal
within the modal class Class | 10— 154.°20- 25= 305 35—40
may be estimated from
the histogram of the f y (D> » aap 25 30 7
distribution as shown
in the diagram. A,
To calculate the value For this distribution use: mode=L+ l rar c
of this mode use: hes
L mode

=
1 :
F igure 1
The modal class is ‘25—’.
mode=L+ (aos) c Skies
A, =41-—27=14
where L =lower boundary of modal class A,=41-—30=11
A,=modal class f—f of next lower class c =5
A2=modal class f—f of next higher class
c =width of modal class “. mode =25 + ( “a )5=27.8
14+11

Arithmetic The arithmetic mean of the n values x;, 49, ... , Gals Lil Calculate the arithmetic mean of the discrete data
mean I eee (x1 +x2+ sia 5387) _2x

n n

For n values with respective frequencies fi, fo, . . - fr;

ge (fix + fox2 olsen Pinta) _>fx

Givi fa) af
If a is a working mean and deviation d,=a—x,, then

Baw ne
=f
For a grouped frequency distribution (continuous or
discrete), the mean is given by:
Ef
=f
where the class mid-value represents each class.
If a is a working mean and either the class intervals
are of equal width c or the deviations d, have a Sasi hie ee)
common factor c such that d,=cu,, then perth Mnehe mean2 a (2 d.p.)

X= aC 2h
=f

Weighted If the numbers x;, X2,... , Xn are given the weights Li] A pupil’s marks in four tests are 38%, 67%,
mean Wi, W2,..., Wn, then the weighted mean is 43%, 712%.
_ (winrtwoxrt... + Wan) Dx The weights for the tests are 1, 2, 2, 3 respectively.
5¢ = — HO ,-

(witwet...+Wnr) Zw
_ ~ 38X1+67x2+43xX24+72x3
Xy= = 59.25%
1+2+25

Geometric The geometric mean of the n values x;, x2, . . . , Xn iS [i] The geometric mean of this distribution is:
mean xy) lell 3 4 5
G.M. =V (x; KXgMos MXy)
Tif
Oa eee
For n values with respective frequencies f,, fo, . fas G.M.=V (12x 22x 35x 43x 54x62)
=V (2.80 10°) =3.14
G.M. =V (xf XxBX... X xf)
a ee

Harmonic The harmonic mean of the n values x;, x2,... , Xn Li] The harmonic mean of the 5 values 2, 4, 5, 6, 9
mean is n/Z(1/x)

For n values with respective frequencies fi, fo,..., fr, 5 ed

harmonic mean is nJS(f] x)
 Mode and Means
Worked examples, Exercises and Exam questions

A
E aE aa P TY

WE; (a) (i) Obtain the arithmetic mean of the numbers

15293; 455 5697,:8:
1 The wing spans of 1000
specimens of a type of
2 The percentage marks of
100 candidates in an
(ii) Hence show that the geometric mean of the numbers insect were measured examination are given in
9, 92492-9797 -9% G08 accurately and the results the table below.
is 32 are summarised in the
Mark
(b) Given that p>q>0, use the expansion of (Vp—Vq) to table below. per cent Frequency
show that the arithmetic mean of p and q is greater than their Wing span 0-19 3
geometric mean. cm Frequenc c
ay z d 20-29 4
(a) (i) Let the arithmetic mean be X, 0- 0 30-39 9
a 5 40-49 27
eS
ier stat trod +s 36 9 ae 20 50-59 Mp)
8 32 z- 90 60-69 18
ae 715 70-79 8
(ii) Let the geometric mean be g aa 265 80-99 6
g= V9'x92x
93x 9X 95K 9EKOT KOS 6- 240 Caiculate the mean
ie 120 percentage mark. *
1424+3444+5+6+74+8 8- BS
=9 8
awa
9- 10
2 10- 0
2 2
Calculate the mean wing
span. *
(b) Since p>q, Vp>Vq
-. Vp-Vq>0 3 The atmospheric pressure at a weather station was
measured once each day for a year. The results are
and (Vp— Vq)*>0 recorded below.
“ (Vpy + (Vay —2VpVq>0 Pressure Number
a (millibars) of days
<*> Vea

920- 3
But =e5 (ACME og and V N88 Poe (G.M.),4 980- 14
990- 44
ip (A.M.),,>(G.M.) pg
1000- 77
1010- 150
1020- 63
1030-1040 14
The following distribution gives the estimated total population
of the UK for the year 1977, in millions. Find the mean age. Find the mean pressure. *

4 (a) Calculate: (i) the arithmetic mean; (ii) the geometric

|
Age |o- 10— | 20- | 30- | 40 50- | 60— | 70— | 80— mean of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
= perl eee (b) Show, by means of clearly labelled sketches, the shape
Frequency 10:1 ORS TD) TD NWCEFN eT POO sieves) Ther of the frequency curve of a distribution when it is: (i) skew
with the mode less than the mean; (ii) bi-modal. *(A)

For the following tabular calculation note the points below: 5 (a) Foraset of positive real numbers x, X2, ..., Xp, give the
(1) the last class has been closed at 90 years. formula for: (i) their arithmetic mean; (ii) their geometric
mean. Show that the arithmetic mean of two different
(2) the working mean a is 45 years.
positive real numbers x, and x2 is always greater than
(3) dis the deviation of the mid-class value from a.
their geometric mean.
(b) Define the mode of a frequency distribution and give <
real-life example of a multimodal distribution. *(A)
Deviation
Class Frequency from a, ae d 6 The arithmetic mean of the positive numbers aj, ao, a3, is a
Class mid-value f d (@ fu and their geometric mean is A. Similarly the arithmetic
mean of the positive numbers b,, b, 3, is b and their
0- 5 10.1 —40 —-4 -—40.4 geometric mean is B. Find in terms of @ and b only the
10- 15 9.3 =6{0) seh WALES) arithmetic mean of:
20- 25 7.9 —20 — ie 15:3 (i) (a, +b), (a2+bz), (a3+bs);
30- 35 7.6 =10 =i 26 (ii) 4), 51, az, bz, a3, b3;
40- 45=a 6.7 0 0 0
50- 55 6.7 10 | 6.7 Find in terms of A and B only the geometric mean of:
60- 65 6.0 20 2 12.0 (iv) a by, a2 bz a3 b3;
70- 75 3.8 30 3 11.4 (v) a} bi, a3 b3, a3 63, *(A)
80- 85 122 40 4 4.8
90 7 (a) (i) Obtain the arithmetic mean of the numbers:
IW Pps he)s CIs SVEN, 7S tory We):
Xf=59.3 Sf —91,7-F34.9 (ii) Hence, or otherwise, show that the geometric
= —56.8 mean of the numbers: 4, 4”, 47, 44, 4°, 4°, 4”, 48, 4°,
iso.
(b) Given that a>b>0, use the expansion of
X=a ue pe 8 s3ai0 years
(Va— Vb)’ to show that the arithmetic mean of a
fi 59.3 and b is greater than their geometric mean. *(A)
nnn
eae EE SIE En En IEnEEIEEEE nS ERRRRR RENEE EERE EERE

137
 i)

69 Median and Quantiles

Definitions, Median for a discrete variable, Median and quantiles for grouped data.

Definitions The median is that value of the variable which divides

the distribution into two equal parts with equal
frequencies.
Associated with the median are the quartiles, deciles
and percentiles. These are called the quantiles.
The quartiles divide the distribution into four equal frequency
parts. The three corresponding values of the variable
being denoted by Q:, Q2 and Q3. cumulative
percentage
frequency
cumulative
The deciles, D;, D2,... , Do, divide the distribution
into ten equal parts.
The percentiles, P;, P2,... , Ps9, divide the variable
distribution into one hundred equal parts.
If M is the median, M=Q2=Ds5= Po.

Figure 1

Median for To find the median for a set of discrete variables Li] Find the median of (a) 3, 7, 4, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 8,
a discrete (a) Arrange the distribution in order of magnitude: (Db) 933416 5,857 AG 8A, ©
variable My
XQ GX 5 2 - 8 5 Xn
(b) If n is odd, the median is the middle item, i.e. (aye iy Onder: ly 254) 55145104 1a are
the 3(m+1)th item. The median is 4.
(c) Ifn is even, the median is the arithmetic mean of
the middle two items, i.e. the $nth and 3(n+2)th (b)) In order: 13:4, 45°59, 03,6, fata one:
items. The median is 3(5+6)=5.5.

Median and___— For grouped data of a discrete or continuous variable Li] The table below is the frequency distribution of
quantiles for the following graphical method can be used to marks obtained in a test by 200 students.
grouped data estimate the median and quantiles.
mark | 10— 20- 30- 40- 50-— 60— 70-— 80-90
(a) Form the cumulative frequency distribution. The
cumulative frequency for any class is the sum of ff 1S 345 S424 oO 8
frequencies of that class and lower classes.
(b) Plot each cumulative frequency against the upper Draw a cumulative frequency polygon to illustrate the
limit of the corresponding class interval. data. Estimate the median from the graph and by
(c) Join these points with either straight line calculation.
segments to form the cumulative frequency How many students would fail if the pass mark is 40?
polygon or a smooth curve to form the If the top 10% of students are to be given a grade I,
cumulative frequency curve (or ogive). what is the lowest mark which will achieve this?
(d) The middle number of the distribution is located
on the cumulative frequency axis and the The cumulative frequency distribution is:
corresponding value of the variable is the mark | 10— 20— 30— 40- 50- 60— 70- 80-90
median. The quantiles can be found in a similar
way. cf 18 52 110 152 176 186 192 200

A more accurate value of the median

may be found using the formula:
LAT —
median=L+ (A-E2s) c 3
median o
ey
where =
IL = lower boundary of median class 2
N _ = total frequency 3
(2f): = sum of frequencies below
median class
fmedian = frequency of median class
Cc = width of median class

Figure 2

From the graph: M~38 marks

By calculation: M=30+
(3(200)
pester —52)10
MERE aed" 715
58
From the graph : 110 students fail,
64 is the lowest mark for grade I.
138
EE EEE EEE aoa SSS SSSSSSSSSSSSSNSSSSSNSSesesssosce
 Median and Quantiles
Worked example and Exam questions

A ES ROO SE ter tm soa erms cere econ NS,

The lives of 80 circuit components were recorded in hours to the 2 The table below shows the average productivity of coal
nearest hour and grouped as follows: miners in Great Britain over a 12-month period, measured
Life (hours) Frequency in tonnes per manshift.

660-669 5; Miners
670-679 7 Productivity (thousands)
680-689 10
690-699 15
700-709 24 o3,
1-1.5 +
31
710-719 12
1.5-2.0 51
720-729
730-739 5) 2.0-2.5 62
Alf 4 2.5-3.0 44
(i) State the limits between which the actual life of each 2.0=3-9 11
component in the first group must lie. 3.5-5.0 20
(ii) Construct the cumulative frequency and draw the cumula- (a) Illustrate these data by drawing a histogram;
tive frequency curve. (b) Find, in thousands, the total number of miners;
(iii) Use the curve to estimate (a) the median, (b) the 90th (c) Draw a cumulative frequency polygon on a separate
percentile. sheet;
(i) The true limits for the first class are 659.5 — 669.5, since (d) Estimate, from your graph, the median productivity;
the life is recorded to the nearest hour. (e) Estimate the total coal produced per shift.
i ———a ae os *(O & C)
(ii) 660— 670— 680- 690- 700— 710— 720- 730- ; ene.
Life |669 679 689 699 709 719 729 739 3 Ona particular date (30 June 1968), the age distribution of
| oS rete aes aah the population of the United Kingdom is given to have
f 3 7 10 Sook Od 12 5 4 been as follows:
| a. eee of :
cf 3 10 20 35 59 Ta 716 80 Age range 0-9 10-14 15-19 20-59 60-64 65-104
= = es Millions of people 7.7 4.6 44 284 2.9 8.0
The appropriate cumulative frequency curve is shown
below. The categories are such that, for example, 10—14 consists
a of all people who have had their 10th birthday, but not their
15th birthday, and thus spans a range of 5 calendar years.
(i) Display the data on a histogram.
(ii) Estimate the median age, giving your answer to the
nearest year.
(iii) Calculate an estimate of the mean age of the
population of the United Kingdom on that date,
showing your working clearly. (C)

4 An inspection of 34 aircraft assemblies revealed a number

eae of missing rivets as shown in the following table.
TI
Pe HH Number of
siantita Hai rivets missing Frequency
HH FH
HED
TTI a HH aan
HH 0-2
Bes
49
= A oir cieriosttaiits : #
tHE
sere coo EEEH CH H pettstetetet lear 6-8 6
659.5 669.5 679.5 689.5 699.5 709.5 719.5 729.5 739.5 9-11

(iii) Since there are 80 observations the median corresponds 12-14 2

to the 40.5th observation; from the graph the median 15-17 1
value is estimated to be 701.5 hours. 18-20 :
The 90th percentile corresponds to the 21-23
Draw a cumulative frequency curve. Use this curve to
observation; from the graph this value is estimated to be estimate the median and the quartiles of the distribution.
720.5 hours. (O&C)

5 30 specimens of sheet steel are tested for tensile strength,

1 The table shows the marks, collected into groups, of 400 measured in kN m ’. The table gives the distribution
candidates in an examination. The maximum mark was 99. of the measurements.
No. of Compile the cumulative
Marks candidates frequency table and draw Ue Nope
the cumulative frequency strength SES gana
0-9 10 curve. Use your curve to
10-19 26 estimate: (i) the median; 405-415 4
20-29 ee (ii) the 20th percentile. 415-425 3
es = If the minimum mark for on =
50-59 71 Grade A was fixed at 74, a alee :
60-69 52 estimate from your curve ees 5
70-79 30 the percentage of =
80-89 14 candidates obtaining Draw a cumulative diagram of this distribution. Estimate
90-99 6 Grade A. cs) the median and the 10th and 90th percentiles. (O & C)
a EEE EEE eel

139
 7)

7O Measures of Dispersion
Range, Semi-interquartile range, Mean deviation, Variance and standard deviation.

Range The range is the difference between the largest and Li] Calculate the range x DOD Bs TANG
smallest items of the distribution, for this distribution.
Ce largest item — smallest item. if Pe Oe A ae Ea!

The range is (6—1)=5S.

Semi- The semi-interquartile range = 3(Q3— Q,) where Q; iJ Calculate the semi-interquartile range for the
interquartile and Q; are the first and third quartiles (see Median distribution with Q,=29.41 and Q3=49.52.
range and Quantiles p. 138).
: : Semi-interquartile range = 3(49.52—29.41)=10.05.

Mean The mean deviation can be measured from the Li] Calculate the x |10— 15— 20— 25-— 30-35-40
deviation arithmetic mean, median, mode or any other mean deviation
specified value. from the mean filsctomldp cies tle i
It is usually measured from the arithmetic mean. of this distribution.

The mean deviation from the mean of the n values gate 30h =26.95 (to2d.p.)
Kiteos
ween cols: fe lilo
MD td

ss Ds mid-value f bx 36 fixe
The mean deviation from the mean of a frequency 10- 12.5 ~ 14.45 28.90
distribution is: 15- 17.3 12 9.45 113.40
Df |x-2| 20- Less 4 4.45 120.15
Mari) pe 25- 27.5 41 0.55 22.55
30- 32.5 30 are 166.50
This formula is also used for continuous and grouped 35-40 | ais iTeRey) 73.85
discrete frequency distributions but the class mid- Xf= 119 Lf|x—z|= 525.35
value is used to represent each class.
owe 525.35
mean deviation = ——— = 4.41 (2d.p.)
119

Variance Variance is denoted by o* for a population Li] Calculate the variance and standard deviation
and standard and by s? for a sample. for this distribution of the test results of 200 students.
deviation
The variance of the n values x1, X2,... , Xn iS mark | 10— 20— 30— 40— 50— 60— 70— 80-90
Diet) a.
oa Get), (definition) f 18 34 58 42 24 10 6 8
n
_=x?__, (computational form- class mid-value cite d u uw fu
n easier for calculation) 2 (c=10)
10- 15 1S=2 70330 eS 9 162
The variance of a frequency distribution is 20- 25 34-850. =n 4 136
ae V2 30- 35 Sisw PAUSE PSY =i 1 38
C= a) (definition) 40- 45=a 42 1890 0 0 Oe oD
=f 50- 55 24 1320 10 1 24
2
= = —xX° (computational form) 60- 65 10: 6505" 620 2 4 40
70- 1S 6 450 30 3 Ge 54
80-90 85 8 680 40 4 16 128
These formulae are also used for continuous and
grouped discrete frequency distributions but the class Xfx= 8140 xfu?
= 602
mid-value is used to represent each class.

If a is a working mean and either the class intervals

pM, She 200
are of equal width c or the deviations d, from a have
a common factor c such that d,=cu,, then Let a=45, so b=X¥—a=40.7-45=—4.3

Ge cfu? 2 2
—b’ where b=x—a. Variance eK b? US (—4.3)*
200
Standard deviation is simply the positive square root =301—18.49
of the variance, i.e. V variance. = 282.51
It is denoted by ofor a population
and by s for a sample. Standard deviation =V282.51=16.81

eee
140
 Measures of Dispersion
—_—_—~
= Worked example and Exam questions

3 The table below gives the frequency distribution of the speeds of 3 The sum of 20 numbers is 320 and the sum of their squares is
95 cars passing a check point. 5840. Calculate the mean of the 20 numbers and the
standard deviation:
(i) Another number is added to these 20 so that the mean
Speed (km/h)| 30- | 40- | 50O- | 55— | 60- | 70- is unchanged. Show that the standard deviation is
decreased.
Frequency 0 20 30 3) 10 0
‘(ii) Another set of 10 numbers is such that their sum is 130
and the sum of their squares is 2380. This set is
Calculate the mean speed and the standard deviation. It is later combined with the original 20 numbers. Calculate the
found that the recording instrument gave a reading of 5 km/h mean and standard deviation of all 30 numbers.
below the true speed. Find the new mean and standard deviation. *(C)
Close the last class at 80. Show, from the basic definition, why the standard deviation
Let the working mean be a= 52.5 km/h, A the deviation of the of a set of observations x1,%7,%3,...... nO ce enna , xX, with
mid-class value from a and c (=2.5) the scale factor for the
deviation of the mid-class values. : : Oh we
mean x may be found by evaluating ./—-—
Tabulating the results: n
(a) Find, showing your working clearly and not using any
Deviation d pre-programmed function on your calculator, the standard
Class Frequency from a, u=- deviation of the following frequency distribution:
Class mid-value f d Ci ee Xo wee Gt as 4
Feds CA otal le
30- 35 0 =U) =i 0 0 (b) The average height of 20 boys is 160 cm, with a
40- 45 20 es = —60 180 standard deviation of 4 cm. The average height of 30 girls is
50- 52.5 =a 30 0 0 0 0 155 cm, with a standard deviation of 3.5 cm. Find the
55- eS 335) S) 2 70 =—140 standard deviation of the whole group of 50 children.
60— 65 10 IDES) 5 Si) 25,0)
70- a5 0 MBS 9 0 0 (S)
80 Suppose that the values of a random sample taken from
some population are x1, %2,...... , Xp. Prove the formula
Tf=95 Sfu=60 Sfu?=570
s! (x;-x/? = s x? — nx’.
=a =
Let the mean speed be 3d, then Parplan Opinion Polls Ltd. conducted a nationwide survey
Sx into the attitudes of teenage girls. One of the questions
pega
tee ogi5 4g SPO 54 item asked was “What is the ideal age for a girl to have her first
xf 95
baby?” In reply, the sample of 165 girls from the Northern
Let s, be the standard deviation of 0, then zone gave a mean of 23.4 years and a standard deviation of
1.6 years. Subsequently, the overall sample of 384 girls
ree Feo (Northern plus Southern zones) gave a mean of 24.8 years
=f and a standard deviation of 2.2 years. Assuming that no
2
SeesOr a 04 girl was consulted twice, calculate the mean and standard
deviation for the 219 girls from the Southern zone.
95
5,=5.9 km/h
(A)
Let V=v+5 (i.e. V is the true speed), then V=5+5 The following table summarises the masses, measured to
= 59.1 km/h the nearest gram, of 200 animals of the same species.
and sy=s,=5.9 km/h Mass (g) Frequency

1 The figures below are the yields to the nearest kilogram of a 70-79 7
certain root crop obtained from 32 plots of equal size. 80-84 30
Pera oe oe ee 8 0 22 85-89 66
ire 26 4 20 2 194 ts 20 20. 24 90-94 Syl
Zopueel ze 20) 24 "18° 22. 20 95-99 27
F081 A 20, 1D 100-109 13
Draw up a table showing the frequencies of the various Calculate estimates of the median and upper quartile of the
yields. Using your table and an assumed mean, estimate distribution.
the mean yield and the standard deviation. *(C) Estimate the number of animals whose actual masses are
less than 81 g.
2 A zoologist weighs 200 eggs and records the weights in the Calculate estimates of the mean and the standard deviation
following grouped frequency table. of the distribution.
Weight (g) 24— 30- 36- 42— 48-54 (A)
No. of eggs 22, 45 ip? 43 18
Find the mean and standard deviation, correct to two
decimal places.
He later discovers that his scales were incorrectly set and
that each egg was underweighed by 4 g. Determine the
corrected mean and standard deviation. #(S)
0
ee
141
 :&

71 Index Numbers and Moving Averages

Index numbers, Crude and standardised rates, Moving averages and their use in time series

eA RE ec mA a RR Sc REST
Index A set of data may be reduced to relative values by [i] The€ expenditure
€x) of a household over a three
numbers comparing it with a fixed (base) number. These year period is shown below.
relative values are called percentage aoe or len Reet voard Vaan Weight
simple index numbers. If the saiianairs re atives House 3000(100) 2400(80) 2550(85) 110
refer to prices they are called price relatives. Food 2000(100) 2200(110) —2400(120) 360

A percentage relative can be calculated using 4100 Fuel 800(100) 880(110) 950(119) 90
! Jo Travel 800(100) 900(113) 900(113) 80
where qo is the quantity in a base year, Others 1100(100) 1500(136) 1600(145) 360
and q, is the quantity in another year. SS ee ee
In situations which have many contributory factors, Total 7700(100) 7880(102.3) 8400(109.1)
more complicated index numbers are found by using ; ; 4
weighted eae of the percentage relatives of The figures in brackets are percentage relatives with
the contributory factors. If the percentage relatives year 1 as base. Verify these.
are r1,/2,..- , ™m With respective weights e.g. for total expenditure for Year 2
Wi, W2,... 5 Wn, then the weighted index is iad _ 7880 100 = 102.3
n 7700
Index numbers for the total expenditure as weighted
averages of the percentage relatives are 100, 116.3,
124.5.

Crude and The crude death rate for a given district is the Li] Calculation of crude and standardised death
standardised number of deaths per thousand population, rate.
ae : Ae GAT vate total number of deaths 1000 Age Pop. Deaths % of Group WD
ire. cru = :
total population es = UK deaths
group _— pop. in per
Crude death rates are poor for comparing different SP. 1000
areas because they do not take into account the age (W) Pep.
structure of the populations under consideration. To 6a anaes 5 re 91
doo this
this aa standardised
standardised death
death rate
rate isi use d. Ao i a ave 36

A standardised death rate is a weighted average in hee a = aa :: me ;:

which the weights are related to the age distribution at ‘ D 40 48 0.0
of the population of the entire country. 60+ — 2600 104 ae’ :
24800 248 100 982.0
Crude and standardised rates can also be obtained
for births, marriages and unemployment figures. Crude death rate= 1000=10 deaths per 1000.

Standardized death rate=——=9.82 deaths per 1000.

Moving Given a set of numbers x), x2, ... . the moving Li] Given the numbers 2, 0, 1, 7, 4, 2, 2, 8, find
averages and average of order n is given by the following set of the moving averages of order 4 and 5.
their use in arithmetic means:
time series 2 Orie.
Miao
alas ale Gre Xo cea ciaeas tC ntact Xe a First moving average of order 4 is 2S OCR = y's
n ; n n f Ort
If the data is monthly data, then the average is Second moving average of order 4 is age
known as the n month moving average, and is usually
Summarising:
centred on the period to which it refers.
Moving averages are used in time series analysis. In Za ul) 1 7 4 2 2 8
this analysis it is usual to distinguish between the Order 4
following types of variation: Order 5 28 2:8
(a) the secular or general trend with a cycle of
several decades,
(b) cyclical variations, which are fluctuations in the [i] Calculation of 3-monthly moving averages as
used in the analysis of time series.
general trend usually of a S—10 year period. They
may be removed by subtracting suitably chosen - Month 1 2 3
moving averages, Quarter 1 9 11 12
(c) seasonal variations which recur annually due to
Quarter2 11 12 14
the season of the year and may be removed by
subtracting 4-quarterly or 12-monthly moving ae 0.67 0.33 0.67
averages,
(d) residual variations are those fluctuations which
Ee 2
remain when the above have been taken into First 3-monthly moving average =10.67
account.
Adding the quantities in the final row of the table
gives the sequence of moving averages:
10.67, 11.34, 11.67, 12.34
i
SSS
142
 Index Numbers and Moving Averages
Worked examples and Exam questions

WETo) Using 1980 as base year, the price index of a particular o = Sales
commodity in 1981 is 110. Using 1981 as base year, the price ® = Moving Averages
index for the same commodity in 1982 is 120. Calculate the index
number for 1982 taking 1980 as base year.
(b) Calculate a composite index number for the following data.

Index Number 127 118 96 112

(gallons)
Petrol’sales
Weight 2 1 6 5

(a) With an obvious notation

P
—! x 100 =110 and Por 100
= 120
80 81

Multiplying gives,
P
is Fe 100x 100= 110x 120
Po Psy Price (£
Commodity 1976 1977. 1978
oe 100 ee
Ps, 100
A 4 5 7
.. the index number for 1982 with 1980 as base is 132. B 10 12 15
(b) The composite index number is Cc 8 8 10
EES AIO 6 EL 1284 7 Use the above data to complete the following table of
Bae lar@ses 12 price relatives (1976 = 100).

A petrol filling station, open seven days a week, had the follow- Price Relatives (1976 = 100)
ing daily sales of petrol, in gallons, during a two week period. Commodity 1977 1978

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun A 125

B
Week | 700 =©360 590 620 680 710 350 6
Week 2 520 280 460 530, 310 5 .650, 290
Using weights of 5, 3 and 2 for commodities A, B and C,
Plot these sales. respectively, show that the weighted index of price
- Calculate the values of the seven-day moving averages and relatives (1976= 100) for 1977 is 118.5. Obtain the
superimpose these. on the graph. weighted index of price relatives for 1978.
From the graph, estimate the next value of the moving average Using the same weights, determine the weighted index of
and hence estimate the sales for Monday of Week 3. price relatives (1977 = 100) for 1978.
See the graph for the plot of the sales. *(S)
To calculate the moving averages the working is set out in
The table below refers to the mean quarterly rainfall, in
tabular form. cm, for the years 1975 and 1976.

Jan.—Mar. Apr.—June July—Sept. Oct.—Dec.

Week 2 520 280 460 530 510 650 290 1975 26 14 33 a

W2—W1 —180 =) elo) oe tee 17]Oe OU eeOU) 1976 b 18 23 28
WoW oe 25] a1 4 18.6). =-12.9 =—245°-8.6 —8.6
7 The 4-point moving averages for the above data are 29.5,
28.25, c, 26.75, d. Calculate the values of a, b, c and d. If
The first seven-day moving average is rainfall were subject to seasonal variation only, what would
700 + 360+ 590+ 620+ 680+ 710+ 350 you expect of the values of the moving averages? State, and
= 572.9
if explain briefly, any other types of variation that may affect
the quarterly rainfall figures.
Adding the quantities in the final row of the table gives the *(C)
following sequence of seven-day moving averages, 572.9,
547.2, 535.6, 517.2, 504.3, 480.0, 471.4, 462.8. Explain briefly the reasons for using moving averages.
See the graph for the superimposition of the values. A set of 4-point moving averages is calculated for seven
The estimate from the graph of the next moving average is 445. successive values of a certain variable. The first three
Note, the ‘best line’ through the moving averages has been values of the variable are 3, 7, 5 and the first four moving
estimated by eye. averages are 6, 8, 7, 9. Calculate the last four values of the
280 + 460+ 530+510 +650 + 290 + M3 variable. Illustrate these data by drawing graphs, on
=445 s the same diagram, of the values of the variable and the
values of the moving averages.
“. M3=7x 445-2720
= 3115-2720 *(C)
= 395
. the estimated sales for Monday of Week 3 are 395 gallons.
ee
143
 72 Probability
Definitions, Addition rule, Conditional probability, Multiplication rule.

Definitions An experiment has a finite number of outcomes, Venn diagram showing

called the outcome set S. outcome set § m|\
An event E of an experiment is defined to be a subset and its subsets
of the outcome set S. E and E.
The complement of E,E, is the subset of S where E Figure |
does not occur.
Two events of the same experiment are mutually Li] If a fair die is thrown once, then two different
exclusive if they cannot occur simultaneously. scores, e.g. 2 and 3, cannot occur simultaneously, so
Two events are independent if the occurrence of one they are mutually exclusive events. If the die is
has no effect on the occurrence of the other. thrown again, the second score is independent of the
first.
If an experiment has n(S) equally likely outcomes
and n(E) of them are the event E, then the i] A fair die is thrown. List the possible outcomes.
theoretical probability of event E occurring is What is the probability of scoring:
(a) a multiple of 3, (b) not a multiple of 3?

S={possible scores with a die}={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Note: 0<P(E£)<1
P(E)=0 means that E is an impossibility. (a) E={‘multiple of 3’ scores}={3, 6}
P(E)=1 means that E is a certainty.
If the outcome S has only n different possible events yy to ha
15) xa6ne3
Tes ep el
P(E) ={‘not multiple of 3’ scores}
P(E\)+P(E2) +... +P(En) = 2 P(E) =1
=1—P(E)=1-4=3
and P(E)=1—P(E)

Addition rule If E; and E> are two events Li] What is the probability of drawing a club or an
of the same experiment, e039 eight from a pack of cards?
then the probability of FE; or
E, or both occurring is S={pack of cards}, n(S)=52
given by: Figure 2
E,= {clubs}, n(£;)=13, P(E)=3
P(E, or E2) =P(E,) + P(E2) —P(E, and E>)

E,= {eights}, n(E2)=4, P(EA)=3

or P(E, UE?) =P(E)) +P(E>) — P(E, NE2)

If E, and EF, are mutually E, and E,={clubs and eights}={eight of clubs},

exclusive, then P(E, E2) =0
and so: P(E, or E2) = P(E; UE?) =P(E;) +P(E2)
n(E; and Ex)=1, P(E; and E)==
YL

P(E, or E,)=P(E) +P(E)— P(E, and E>)

RAG5
Ss

iar
=
ar ers a

“520152 0520 a8
Figure 3

Conditional _If FE; and E; are two events (not necessarily from the Li] A card is drawn from a normal pack of 52
probability same experiment), then the conditional probability cards. Calculate P(club|black suit)
that EZ, will occur given that E, has occurred is
n(club and black suit)_13_1
P(E,|E2) EKER and E) ME, and E») P(club|black suit) =
n(black suit) 20 ae
P(E?) n(E2)
If E; and £2 are mutually exclusive, then
P(E,|E2)=0.

Two events £; and E) are independent, if

P(E;) =P(E,| Ep) and P(E2) =P(EF)|E;).

Multipli- If E, and E) are any two events, then the probability Li] A coin is tossed and a die thrown. Find the
cation that both EZ, and E, occur is probability that a head and a score less than 3 result.
rule P(E, and FE») =P(E,NE2) =P(E2) xXP(E, |E2)
=P(E,) XP(E2|E,)
These are independent events.
If E,={head} and E,={score less than 3}, then
If E; and EF, are independent, then PEI and E,)=P(E£;) x P(E.)=3xX3=%

P(E, and E2)=P(E,\N E) =P(E,) x P(E2)

144
 Probability
Worked examples and Exam questions

FES a I Ne nc ce Ua a eR ope raeea ON arate SER aa ieee

WE] (i) The events A and B are such that P(A) = 0.43, P(B)=0.48, (EX) 1 Ten cards, bearing the letters P, R,O, P,O,R,T,I,O,N,
P(AUB) =0.78. are placed in a box. Three cards are drawn out at random
Show that the events A and B are neither mutually exclusive nor without replacement. Calculate the probability that:
independent. (i) the first two cards bear the same letter,
(ii) A bag contains 10 red balls, 9 blue balls and 5 white balls. (ii) the third card bears the letter P,
Three balls are taken from the bag at random and without (iii) the three cards bear the letters P, O, T in that order,
replacement. Find the probability that all three balls are of the (iv) the three cards bear the letters P, O, T in any order.
same colour. Find also the probability that all three balls are of *(C)
different colours.
2 Four people were chosen at random from a group of 8
(i) A and B are mutually exclusive if P(A UB) = P(A)+P(B) which comprised 4 husbands and their 4 wives. Find the
P(AUB)=0.78, P(A)+P(B) =0.43+0.48 = 0.91 probability that the sample contained:
#P(AUB) (a) one person from each married couple (called event A);
.. A and B are not mutually exclusive, in which case (b) two males and two females (called event B).
P(AUB) = P(A)+P(B)—P(ANB) Find also the probability that both events A and B
i.e. P(AMB) = P(A) +P(B)—P(AUB) pe ee . e
=('01 0 18 =043 ~ Deduce, or otherwise find, P(B|A) (the probability that
aaa A 4 7 event B happened ifit is known that event A happened).
P(A AB) Z ee Sey. ee a aea mae en ) (Answers may be given as fractions in their le terms.)
#P(ANB) (O &C)
> A a B are neither mutually exclusive nor independent. 3 Four cards are to be drawn at random without replacement
(ii) With an obvious notation we have, from a pack of ten cards numbered from 1 to 10,
10R, 9B, SW, a total of 24 balls respectively.
3 balls are drawn at random without replacement (a) Calculate the probabilities that
P(3 balls of the same colour) (i) the largest number drawn will be 6,
= P(1R2R3R or 1B2B3B or 1W2W3W) (ii) the product of the four numbers will be even,
= P(1R2R3R) + P(1B2B3B) +P(1W2W3W) (iii) all four numbers drawn will be consecutive
= P(1R)P(2R)P(3R) + P(1B)P(2B)P(3B) + P(LW)P(2W)P(3W) integers.
er Oia 8 #20) 8 Lae 5 An 3 (b) Given that at least two of the four numbers drawn were
==oex a x = F a x i x = re ba x - x - a ;find the probability that every number drawn was
i

~ 2A 23X22
[720+ 504+60]=———
1012
(W)
P(3 balls all of different colour)
4 The eventsA and B
epevents 4 jad Elsie
Bearcasuch h thatsins P(A) =3
P(A’|B) =3, P(AUB) =2, where A’ is the event ‘A does
= P(1R2W3B or 1R2B3W or 1W2R3B or 1W2B3R or not occur’. Using a Venn diagram, or otherwise, determine
1B2R3W or 1B2W3R) P(B|A’), P(BNA) and P(A|B’). The event Cis
1. #1—9%T 10: | -o x "5 independent ofA and P(ANC) =. Determine P(C|A’).
ee ea, = bide ake mee State, with a reason in each case, whether (i) A and B are
24 23 22 24 23 22 independent, (ii) A and C are mutually exclusive.
BOKSX9 (225 (C)
FE I3BK ID 4042
5 (a) A and B play a game as follows: an ordinary die is
rolled and if a six is obtained then A wins and if a one is
Mass-produced ceramic tiles are inspected for defects. The obtained then B wins. If neither a six nor a one is obtained
probability that a tile has air bubbles is 0.0015. If a tile has air then the die is rolled again until a decision can be made.
bubbles the probability that it is also cracked is 0.55 while the What is the probability that A wins on (i) the first roll, (ii)
probability thata tile free from air bubbles is cracked is 0.0055. the second roll, (iii) the rth roll? What is the probability
What is the probability that a tile selected at random is cracked? that A wins?
The probability that a tile is discoloured is 0.0065. (b) A bag contains 4 red and 3 yellow balls and another bag
Given that discoloration is independent of the other two defects, contains 3 red and 4 yellow. A ball is taken from the first
find the probability thata tile selected at random has no defects. bag and placed in the second, the second bag shaken and a
ball taken from it and placed in the first bag. Ifa ball is now
Let A be the event ‘the tile has air bubbles’ taken from the first bag what is the probability that it is red?
Let B be the event ‘the tile is cracked’ (You are advised to draw a tree diagram.)
Let @be the event ‘the tile is discoloured’
P(A) =0.0015, P(A)
=0.9885 LA (8)
P(e) =P(A and C or A and C) Ye ” gga se 6 An unbiased die is thrown six times. Calculate the
=P(A and C)+P(A and C) \ \ probabilities that the six scores obtained will
= P(A)P(C|A) + P(A)P(C|A) v(t ae (i) consist of exactly two 6’s and four odd numbers,
= (0.0015 X0.55+0.9985 x 0.0055 ¥ | i) (ii) be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 in some order,
= 0.000825 + 0.0054918 VinAe Se (iii) have a product which is an even number,
= 0.00632 (3 s.f.) (iv) be such that a 6 occurs only on the last throw and that
P(no defects) = P(A and C and D) exactly three of the first five throws result in odd
= P(A) x P(C) x P(D) numbers.
= 0.9985 x 0.9945 x 0.9935 (J)
= 0.987 (3 s.f.)
 :&

73 Discrete Probability Distributions

Definitions, Expectation, Variance, Two random variables.

ae a RR sg pc a SH ee I RS RE Se Se

Definitions Suppose the outcome set S of an experiment is Li] A bag contains 6 blue and 4 red counters. 3 ;
divided into n mutually exclusive and exhaustive counters are drawn at random and not replaced. Find
events E;, E2,...,E,. A variable, X, which can the probability distribution for the number of red
assume exactly n numerical values each of which counters drawn.
corresponds to one and only one of the events is
called a random variable. Let the random variable X be ‘the number of red
Two random variables are independent if any value counters drawn’.
that either may take is unaffected by any value of the P(X=0)=P(no red counters) =P(B:. Bo. Bs)
other. =P(B,) x P(B2|B:) XP(B3|B2 and B;)
Let X be a discrete variable taking only the values ie Sire A ent
X1,X2,...,Xn with probabilities pi, p2,...,Dn 0°98 6
respectively.
n P(X=1)=P(R1. Bo. B; or By. R2. B3 or By. Bz. R3)
X is called a discrete random variable if > pi=1 : (4 6 >) (6 4 >) (Ges 4
; i=1 =(—x-—x—]+(—x-x=]+|—x=x-
10 9 8 109s 10 9 8
The probability density function (pdf) of a discrete ae:
random variable X is a function that allocates =
probabilities to all the distinct values that X can take. P(X=2)
=P(R;. Rp. Bs or Ry. Bp. R3 or By. Ry. R3)
Let P(X =x) be the pdf for a random variable X 3
defined for the discrete values of X. =—
10
Then > P(X=x)=1.
P(X
( =3)) ==P(Rj.R).R3)
P(R{.R2.R3) =—30

Hence the probability distribution for X is:

x 1ha I me

5 Pt.) Dn WK.Mag a a
Note: The sum of the probabilities is 1.

Expectation For a discrete random variable X with pdf P(X=x) Li] For the situation above:
the expectation of x is E[X] = xP(X=x). S
E[X] is interpreted as the mean value yu of X. E[X]= >, xP(X =x)
Properties of E 1 1 3 1
E[a] =a where a is constant ca (02) “i (1x5)a (2x) i (3x=)ol BY
6 2 10 30
E[aX]=aE[X] 3
E[G(X)]=% G(X) P(X=x) E[X?]= 2 x°P(X=x)
Where F(X) and G(X) are any two functions of X, 1 1 3 1
E[F(X) + G(X)] = EL F(X) + E[G(X)]. =(0x2)+(1%3)+(4x2)+(9x=)=2
6 2 10 30

E[3X?—2X]=3E[X’] —2E[X]=6-2.4=3.6

Variance The variance of a probability distribution associated Li] For the situation above:
with the random variable X is
Var[X]=E[(X—)’] where u=E[X] Var[X]=E[X’] - (E[X])?
Computational formula: =2-(1.2)
Var[X]=E[X?] - (E[X])? =0.56
Properties of Var
If a and b are constants:
Var[a]=0 Li] For the situation above:
Var[aX] =a’ Var[X]
Var[aX + b] =a’ Var[X] Var[3X]=3? Var[X]=9 x 0.56=5.04

Two random If X and Y are any two random variables and a and b Li] If X and Y are two independent random
variables are constants, then variables with E[X]=0.4, E[Y]=0.7, Var[X]=0.2 and
E[aX + bY]=aE[X]+bE[Y] Var[Y]=0.3, find (a) E[2X+3Y], (b) Var[X—Y].
If X and Y are also independent, then
Var[aX+bY]=a’ Var[X]+b? Var[Y] - (a) E[2X+3Y]=2E[X]+3E[Y]=2x0.4+3x0.7=2.9
From this last result (b) Var_X— Y]=Var[X]+ Var[Y]=0.2+0.3=0.5
Var[X+ Y] = Var[X— Y]= Var[X]+ Var[Y]

146
 Discrete Probability Distributions
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

ES IS GrE re ROTI KeELIA me aA marae)

WE] The discrete random variable, X, has the following probability Let A be the score on the altered die and U the score on the
distribution. : unaltered die, then X=A+U and the possible score
combinations for a score of 3 are:
x 0 1 2 A U
1 D,
3 il y) 1
P(X=
eo) See
eer Thus P(X =3) =P(A = 1)P(U=2)
+P(A =2)P(U=1)
The probabilities on the RHS are easily found and
Find the mean and variance of X. hence P(X = 3) can be evaluated.
If two independent random variables, X, and X>, have the A similar approach can be used for P(X =4).
same distribution as X, find the distribution of X,— X>, and give A tree diagram shows that the range of values of X is the
its mean and variance. integral values 2 to 9 inclusive, and also assists in the
calculation of the respective probabilities.
By symmetry E[X]= 1 P(X does not exceed 3) = P(X =2 or 3), and this probability is
Var[X] = E[X?]-E?[X] easily found from the probability distribution of X and so
2 P(X does not exceed 3 in three throws of the dice) can be
E[X?]= B PP(X=3) = 0x + 1X +4x Z evaluated.
x=0 8 ln

NOS Sg
rian y 1 Jane earns £40 for a five-day week. She works every fourth
Sunday, for which she is paid double-time, and three
Let Y=X,-X)
Saturdays in every four, for each of which she is paid time
and a half. Draw up a table showing the probability
The diagram below shows the possible values y of Y and the distribution of her wage on a day chosen at random and
associated probabilities P(Y=y). hence find the mean and variance of her daily wage. Find
also the mean and variance of her weekly wage assuming
PCY) that the Sundays on which she works fall in weeks not
containing a ‘working’ Saturday. What would be the mean
be 0) &X8 = 6a of her weekly wage if her ‘working’ Sundays fall in weeks
also containing a ‘working’ Saturday?
9 ——_—--1 -1 #8Xi=6
*(W)
ae -2 §Xh=e4 2 Inagame, a player rolls two balls down an inclined plane so
that each ball finally settles in one of five slots and scores
PEE 0 1 §Xs=¢4 the number of points allotted to that slot as shown in the
diagram below.
1-1
ype 0 %iXi=6
i pees
byTa

0 2 §Xa=aa
taba 1 xd=& It is possible for both balls to settle in one slot and it may be
assumed that each slot is equally likely to accept either
ball. The player’s score is the sum of the points scored by
aad 0 Xt=«a
each ball. Draw up a table showing all the possible scores
and the probability of each. If the player pays 10p for each
The probability distribution for Y is
game and receives back a number of pence equal to his
y ee ate 0 1 2 score, calculate the player’s expected gain or loss per
50 games.
1 12 38 12 1 (©)
pt) “4 6 & & 6 3 Inacertain gambling game a player nominates an integer x
E[X,J=1 Var[Xi]=4 from 1 to 6 inclusive and he then throws three fair cubical
E[X,]=1 Var[X2]=4 dice. Calculate the probabilities that the number of x’s
thrown will be 0, 1, 2 and 3. :
E[X,—X=2] E[X] — E[X2]=1—-1=0 The player pays 5 pence per play of the game and he
— X2] = Var[X,] + Var |X] =4+4=2
Var[X, receives 48 pence if the number of x’s thrown is three,
15 pence if the number of x’s thrown is two, 5 pence if
The faces of an ordinary die are re-numbered so that the faces only one x is thrown and nothing otherwise. Calculate
are 1, 2,2, 3, 3, 3. This die and an ordinary, unaltered die are the player’s expected gain or loss per play of the game.
thrown at the same time. The score, X, is the sum of the
numbers on the uppermost faces of the two dice. Show
VJ)
1 an 4 Arandom variable X has the probability distribution given
that the probability of X being 3 is 1D and of X being 4 is e in Table 1, and 2Y =X—18. Find E(Y) and E(Y’). Deduce
the values of E(X) and Var(X).
List the values that X can take and determine their respective
probabilities. Hence, obtain the expected value of X, correct to
Table1
three decimal places. X 12 MOM Wome). 24
If the dice are thrown three times, determine the probability,
correct to three significant figures, that none of the three values P(X) i is 3 3 is
“ X exceeds 3. (L)
 a)

74 Continuous Probability Distributions

D efinitions, Expectation, Variance, Two random variables, Cumulative distribution function

Definitions Let X be a continuous variable taking only values in [i] Construct the probability distribution for the
the ranges x up to x2, x2 up to %3,... , X, up to ranges 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, for the continuous
Xn+1, With probabilities pi, p2,. . . , Pn respectively. distribution defined by the pdf, f(x) =8x(3—-x),
0<x<3.
X is called a continuous random variable if ~ pi=i. 1) OR ee ed
;
i function
ili density eit P(0<X<1)=|re2 x@Q-x) dx=2 | 4 | —
The probability (pdf) of a continuous Ou ot. 27
random variable X is a function that allocates ; at Be 43
probabilities to all of the ranges of values that X can E | Paap _2 ok 28
take. . P(1<X2) 9X x) dx of2 31, 27
Let f(x), the pdf for the A ayhgh og
random variable X, be p(2<x<3)=| Gee eet [=<] a
defined over the range ) I Anas Te a 2
Ae as pg So the probability distribution for X is
P(a<x<b)= |f(x) dx. Range of X | 0 up to +up to ,up to 3
x b ei
and ie dx=1. oe Figure 1 és Probability 27 od a
Note: The sum of the probabilities is 1.

Expectation For a continuous random variable X with pdf f(x), Li] For the situation above:
the expectation of X is E[X]=]| xf(x) dx. 3 473
allx E[X]=| x 22(3-x) de=2]°-* |ws
E[X] is interpreted as the mean value u of X. eo 9 4|o 2
Properties of E viveues
E [a] =a where a is constant B[ x4 = x2. 5G —x) dc=? |= -2| _27
E[aX]=aE[X] . 9L4 S54, 10

E[G(X)] -| G(x) f(x) dx E[3X*-—2X]=3E[X4 -2E[X]

eee = 3(2.7) -—2(1.5)=5.1
E[F(X)+ GX)J=ELF(XYIFE[GX)]
where F(X) and G(X) are any two functions of X.

Variance The variance of a probability distribution is [i] For the situation above:
Var[X] = E[(X—)”] where w= E[X].
Computational formula: Var[X] = E[X?]—(E[X])”. Var[X] = E[X?] - (E[X])?
Properties of Var =2.7—(1.5)?=0.45
If a and b are constants: Var[a] =0 Li] For the situation above:
Var[aX] =a’ Var[X] Var[aX +b] =a? Var[X]
Var[4X —8] = 4? Var[X] = 16x0.45 =7.20

Two random If X and Y are any two random variables and a and b [il] If X and Y are two independent random
variables are constants, then variables with E[X]=0.3, E[Y]=0.4, Var[X]=0.2
E[aX+bY]=aE[X]+bE[Y] and Var[Y]=0.3, find: (a) E[4X—3Y]
If X and Y are also independent, then (b) Var [4X—3Y].
Var[aX + bY] =a* Var[X]+b* Var[Y] (a) E[(4X-3Y]=4E[X]-3E[Y]
From this last result: = 4 x 0.3-3x0.4=0
Var[X + Y] = Var[X— Y] = Var[X]+ Var[Y] (b) Var[4X—3Y] =4?Var[X]+3°Var[Y]=5.9
Cumulative The cumulative distribution function is defined by Li] For the random variable X with pdf
distribution 3 f(x)
function A= [ f(x) dx O<-<3
Y P(x) 3

tj
where f(x) is the pdf. =0 otherwise
As a varies so does A, the cumulative distribution function is
i.e. A=F(a)
Figure 2 F@)=["pear
So F(a)= [:f(x) dx =P(X<a) 0 x<0
which gives F(x)=43x O0<x<3
1 x23
F(a) is the cumulative distribution function
Clearly f(x) =F'(x). The graph of F(x)
If M, Q:, Q3 are the median, lower and upper F(x) against x 1
quartiles of x, then is shown.

F(M)=5, F(Q:)=7, F(Q:)=*. 3

Figure 3
x

148
 Continuous Probability Distributions
Worked example and Exam questions

RSS SS I a TS ES SI en rg aR er cinerea
WER continuous random variable X has a probability density If Fy(x) is the cumulative distribution function for Y, then
function defined by Fy(x) = P(Y<x)=1-—(1—-x) and if f(x) is the probability

density function for Y, then fy(x) -< Fy(x) =3(1-x)?

xX
=0, otherwise.
(a) Find the variance of X.
(b) Find the cumulative distribution function of X. 1 A continuous random variable X can assume values only
between 0 and 2 inclusive and itss probability density
(c) Y= 122 pra function is given by f(x) =k(4x—x’), 0<x<2, where kisa
positive constant.
@ P(Y>X), (i) Using the fact that P(O<x <2) =1, find the value ofk.
(ii) the probability density function of Y.
Using this value of k, find
(ii) the mean value of X,
(iii) the variance of X, and
(iv) the probability that the value of X exceeds 1.0, i.e.
P(X > 10): *(W)
2 A continuous random variable X can assume values only
between 0 and 4 inclusive and its probability density
function is given by f(x) =4—ax (0<x <4), where a is a
constant.
(i) Calculate, in terms of a, the value of P(O<x<4).
(ii) Using the result of (i) above, determine the value of a.
(iii) Find the mean and variance of the random variable X.
(iv) Find the probability that the value of X lies between

F124
Var[X]=EL?]-
(a) 1 and 2.

3 The random variable X has a probability density function

*(W)

ities
aa =s;
E[X]= [-terar- [2 given by
4a 0 4 Tele)
Pole kx(i-—x*) (0sxs1),

E[X"]= |x flx)dx = |Se ae 0 a

0 elsewhere,
k being a constant. Find the value of k and find also the
varix = 4. 3x 83% 16—-9x5
(%#)'- x pale3a” mean and variance of this distribution.
Find the median of the distribution. (O & C)
4 80 80
4 The lifetime 7, in hours of a certain type of electric lamp is a
(b) Let F(x) = [roa be the cumulative distribution function random variable with distribution
of X. fd) =Aert Pr) Vst— oe)
o3¢ 1 + Oe3 =()), <0
F(x)= | =dt=—|P] =
&) |a a i : Find the value of A and show that the mean and standard
deviation of T are both 1200 hours. To test the reliability of
(c) x the production a random sample of 40 bulbs was tested and
a) Y=1—— found to have a mean life of 1020 hours. Does this indicate
a
at the.5% level of significance that the batch from which
P(Y>X)=P(Y—X>0) the sample was taken was sub-standard? (S)
eee ee as SE 6 5 The random variable X has probability density function
a a
given by
i.e. a> X(1+a)
1 SxS
eee (ba) where b>a.
l+a f(x) =
Q otherwise
a I+a I+a 3x
Show that the mean is (b+a)/2, and the variance is
P <:t) = f(x)dx= ee ths
( eee 0 0 : (b—a)*/12 for this distribution. Given that the mean equals
1 and the variance equals 4/3 find:
ee jt
(i) P(X<0),
(1+a) (ii) the value of z such that P(X >z+0,) =4, where 9, is
the standard deviation of X. (A)
(ii) por<i)=P(1 -%<:) =P(X>a(1—-2))
a 6 A continuous random variable, X, has probability density
=1—P(X¥<a(1-—2)) function A sin x (0<x<z7), and zero outside this range.
Find a value of the constant 2, the mean, the variance, the
a(l—r) u(l—f) 3,2
median, the quartiles. What is the probability that a
Pix<ai-0)= | fxyar= | ast random observation lies within one standard deviation of
10) Q the mean? (OLE)
=(1-—1)°
P(Y <t)=1-(1-0°
NY
149
 75 The Binomial Distribution
Definition, Binomial situations, Expectation and variance, Binomial recurrence formula, Fitting a
binomial distribution.
T
SAE a A ENN a PO SS
Definition A discrete random variable X having a probability Li] Bin (4, 3) has n=4 and p=.
density function (pdf) of the form: eres (‘(y(Q)"- (‘)(2)'

p(X=x)=(") pp)" where x=0, 1,2... att X/\2/ \2 x) \2

Verifying this gives the following probability table:
is said to have a binomial distribution.
We write X is Bin(n, p). x Os sseilidiiveres quiche
n and p are called the parameters of the distribution. ji x i ;
n is a positive integer and 0<p<1. P(X=x) 16 A) 18s | CA8% | ey ate

Binomial Any situation having only two possible, mutually Lil Seeds have a probability of germinating of 0.9.
situations exclusive outcomes, often labelled ‘success’/‘failure’, If six seeds are sown what is the probability of five or
is called a binomial situation. The probability of a more seeds germinating?
‘success’ (or ‘failure’) is usually known.
This is a binomial situation with n=6 and
P(success) = P(germination) =0.9

1 P(v=xye ($0.90. 1)o"

P(5 or more germinations) = P(X=Sor 6)
=P(X=5)+P(X=6)
= ($)(0.9)*@.1) + (6)(0-9)%0.1)°=0.88
Expectation If X is Bin(n, p), then: Li] For Bin(6, 0.9):
and variance the expectation of X is ELX]=np, E[LX]=6x0.9=5.4
the variance of X is Var[X]=np(1—p) Var[X]=6 x0.9 x(1—0.9) =0.54
Binomial The binomial recurrence formula is [i] Foe Bin (
4, ;), P(X=0)= (5)(5)() ot.
recurrence nox p 2 OV \2) \2ien 16
formula P(X =x +1) 2 — P(X =x) : .
Ro ep) By the binomial recurrence formula:
43 j Dg
This enables successive probabilities to be more easily P(X=1)=—-—- P(X=0)=4x—=—
calculated once the initial probability is known. 13 16 16
PR= ee =
Z 20 16 WG

P(Xesee 1 =D) ee
5 3 16 16

P(ve4) == 1.P(Xx=3 si
4 4 16 16

Fitting a To fit a binomial distribution to a given frequency [i Fit a binomial distribution to the following:
binomial distribution:
distribution (a) Find the values of the parameters n and p: BG P2a Sen sl oral
n is the largest value of x,
F VALS 20112 P50
p=, since ¥~E[X]=np.
n
The largest value of x is 4. Take n=4.
(b) Generate the binomial probability distribution for
X as Bin(n, p). Dfx=94, Df=50S*=1.88. Take pu =0.47,
(c) Multiply the probabilities by the total frequency
of the given distribution to find the expected Assume X is Bin(4, 0.47).
frequencies.
PU=2y= (£)(0.47)(0.53)">
P(X¥=0)= (5)(0-47)"(0.53)'=0.0789
By the binomial recurrence formula:
P(X=1)=0.2799, P(X =2) =0.3723,
P(X=3) =0.0488, P(X =4) =0.0488.
2f=50 gives this table of expected frequencies:

x | SOR 3 +o

jis PG MAO Tl) 2 50

 The Binomial Distribution
Worked examples and Exam questions

eS I CO eno eso ROE SN ale ASi)

(3 The probability that a marksman will hit a target is 3. He fires 9 1 Previous experience indicates that, of the students entering
shots. Calculate, correct to three decimal places, the probability upon a particular diploma course, 90% will successfully
that he will hit the target (i) at least7times, (ii) no more than6 complete it. One year, 15 students commence the course.
times. If he hits the target exactly 6 times, calculate the prob- Calculate, correct to 3 decimal places, the probability that:
ability that the three misses are with 3 successive shots. (i) all 15 successfully complete the course;
(ii) only 1 student fails;
P(hitting target) = P(success) =2
(iii) no more than 2 students fail;
(iv) at least 2 students fail. =(€)
P(not hitting target) = P(failure) ="
2 (i) There are 8 red apples and 2 green apples in a bag. If 2
Taking the nine shots to be independent events the probability apples are taken out at random, determine the probability
distribution of X, ‘the number of targets hit’ is that just one of them will be red.
(ii) It is found by experience that 20% of the electric
es
Bin(9, a and so P(X=x)= (°)Cu toasters made by a certain manufacturer are faulty. The
toasters are packed in boxes, each box containing 10
toasters. Calculate the probability that in a box selected at
(i) P(atleast
7 targets hit) = P(X =7)
+ P(X =8)+ P(X =9) random (a) just 3 will be faulty; (b) just 2 will be faulty.

=tx2 (6) (6) *2(6)(@)+(@)

Determine the most likely number of faulty toasters to be
=—— {=} {=} +9{=}) (=)+(= found in a box chosen at random. *(OLE)
1x2 \6 6 6 6 6
(2) E 45 25 (2) 106, 3 State the conditions necessary for a Binomial Distribution
=(=) |—+—+—]=(+]) x— to result when a series of events occurs. Illustrate your
6/ |36 36 36 6 36 answer by means of an example.
=0.822 Four ordinary dice are thrown. Find:
(ii) P(no more than 6 targets) (a) the probability that at least one of the dice shows a six;
(b) the probability that the highest score showing is a two.
= P(X=0)+ P(X¥=1)+P(X=2)+...+ P(X =6)
=1—P(X=7)—P(X=8) —-P(X=9)
*(S)
4 A company has ten telephone lines. At any instant the
=1—0.822=0.178 probability that any particular line is engaged is 1/5. State
The number of ways of hitting the target exactly six times is the expected number of free telephone lines. Calculate for
°C.= 84. The three misses happening with three successive any instant, correct to two significant figures, the
shots can occur in 7 ways i.e. 123, 234, 345, 456, 567, 678 or 789. probability that
(i) all the lines are engaged,
.. P(6 targets and 3 misses with successive shots) -3" x. (ii) at least one line is free,
(iii) exactly two lines are free. *(A)

WE] Groups of 5 people are chosen at random and the number, x, of 5 (a) Berg and Korner have a long rivalry in tennis: in the
people in each group who normally wear spectacles is recorded. last 25 games, Berg has won 15 times. They start a new
The results obtained for 400 groups of 5 are shown in the table. series of 8 games. Assuming that the binomial model may
ae I 2 3 4 5 be applied, what is the probability that Berg will win at
least 6 of these?
(b) Prove that the mean of the binomial distribution is np.
i 34 106 130 90 36 4
Aset of 100 pods, each containing 4 peas, was examined to
see how many of the peas were good. the following were
Calculate, from the above data, the mean value of x.
the results:
Assuming that the situation can be modelled by a binomial dis-
tribution having the same mean as the one calculated above, No. of good peas in pod 0 1 2 3 4
state the appropriate values for the parameters n and p.
Calculate the theoretical frequencies corresponding to those in No of pods 7 20 35 30 8
the table.
(i) What is the probability of getting a good pea?
(ii) Calculate the theoretical frequencies of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
2f good peas, using the associated theoretical binomial
n=5, pete distribution. (S)
5
6 (i) Ina certain large population the numbers of red and
The probability distribution of X, ‘number in group wearing
blue elements are in the ratio 9:1. Find, to three significant
figures, the probability that in a random selection of ten
spectac les’ isBin( 5, ~
es 1S DIN c) 5 , an apix=n=(° (22) . 5 5
there are exactly 5 of each.
(ii) In another large population there are red, blue and
The theoretical probability distribution is shown in the table
green elements in the ratio 9:1:2. Find the probability
below that, in a random selection of 15, there are exactly 5 green
2 | 0 1 Z 3 4 5 elements.
Find the probability that, in a random selection of 15,
P(X =x) | 0.078 0.259 0.346 0.230 0.077 0.010 there are 5 of each colour. Find also the most likely
distribution of colours in a random selection of 15. (A)
The theoretical frequencies are found by multiplying each
probability by 400, giving
~] Prove that the mean number of successes in a series of n
XG | 0 1 2 3 4 5 independent trials, each of which has a probability p of
success, is np. Show that the standard deviation is
fr SBN 103.6 138.4 92.0 30.8 4.0 V{np(1—p)}. (O&C)
juss
nn ne ESEEEEEeeeeee el
151
 a)

76 The Poisson Distribution

Definitions, Uses, Poisson or binomial, Additive property.

ESSE SGN BSN PLR a 7 AT a IRI DT ST

Definitions A discrete random variable X having a probability Lil For Po(1.5), w=1.5
density function (pdf) of the form 1.5)"
ue P(X=x)=e !5-+— where x=0, 1, 2,...
P(X =x) =e “:— where x =0, 1, 2,... x!
x! This gives the following probability table:
eSsaid fo may¢an distribution. fe 0 1 ) 3 del monueed
e write X is Po(u re
u(>0) is the parameter of the distribution. P(X=x)} 0.223 0.335 0.251 0.126 0.047 0.018
Note: There is no upper limit to the value of x. This
is usually determined by practical considerations.
If_X is Po(u), then E[X] =U and Var[X] =U. [i] For Poor E[X]=1.5 and Var[X]=1.5.

The Poisson recurrence formula is

u [i] For Po(1.5), P(0)=0.223.
P(X=x +1) Pape Ok ee) forx=0,1,... By the Poisson recurrence formula:
i
Re
This enables successive probabilities to be more easily P(1) =—— P(0) =1.5 x0.223 =0.335
calculated once the initial probability is known. 0+]
etc:

Uses _ There are two main uses of the Poisson distribution. Li] Telephone calls arrive at a switchboard at the
rate of 50 per hour. Find the probabilities of 0, 1 or 2
1. Estimation of probabilities of random events calls arriving in any 5 minute period.
which have a small probability of occurrence.
Typical applications of this are telephone calls The average rate of calls per 5 minute period
arriving at a switchboard, insurance claims, accident =50+12=4.17 calls
rates, flaws in manufactured material. If the random variable X is ‘the number of calls in
Usually the mean rate of occurrence per unit time any 5 minute period’, then X is Po(4.17).
will be given, although this may be scaled s
accordingly. P(X=x)=e%" GAN
x!
P(X=0) =0.02, P(X =1) =0.06, P(X =2) =0.13

2. Approximation to a binomial distribution with the Li] A large population has 0.5% defective. A
same mean, i.e. u=np, and usually n>50 and p<0.1. sample of 200 is taken at random. Using a Poisson
approximation find the probabilities of 0, 1 or 2
defectives in the sample.

This is a binomial situation with n=200, p=0.005.

So u=np=200 x 0.005 = 1.00
If X is ‘the number of defectives’, then X is Po(1).

P(X=x)=e7! Cy

x}
P(X=0) =0.37, P(X =1) =0.37, P(X =2) =0.18

Poisson or Given a frequency distribution of the binomial/ Lil The expected frequencies for a theoretical
binomial Poisson type, the decision on whether to fit a binomial and Poisson fit are compared with a given
binomial or Poisson distribution is often made by distribution below.
considering the mean and variance of the
San eeweies x 0 1 2 s) 4 total
distribution. 1 18
The closer these two are in value the more likely a f 18 24 J 3 1 50
Poisson distribution is applicable. le 0 18 «8 ; : Bs

For the given distribution <=0.9 and s?=0.97.

The Poisson fit is more appropriate.

Additive The additive property of the Poisson distribution: Lil An item is made of two manufactured parts A
property if X is Po(x) and Y is Po(y), and B. Flaws in A occur randomly and with a mean
then X+Y is Po(x+y). rate of 7.8 per 1000, while flaws in B also occur
randomly (and independently of those in A) with a
mean rate of 5.6 per 1000. Assuming Poisson
distributions for the flaws in A and B, the item
composed of A and B will have flaws distributed
Po(7.8+5.6)=Po(13.4).

152
 The Poisson Distribution
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

EP a 5 RN RS CT RUNNER,
WE) Telephone calls reach a switchboard independently and at 4 Define the Poisson distribution and derive its mean and
random, external ones at a mean rate of 1 in any 5 minute variance. In the first year of the life of a certain type of
period, and internal ones at a mean rate of 2 in any 5 minute machine, the number of times a maintenance engineer is
period. required has a Poisson distribution with mean four. Find
Calculate the probability that there will be more than 2 calls in the probability that more than four calls are necessary. The
any period of 2 minutes. first callis free of charge and subsequent calls cost £20 each.
Find the mean cost of maintenance in the first year.
Let the random variable E be ‘the number of external calls per
2 minute.period’, E is Po(0.4). VJ)
Let the random variable / be ‘the number of internal calls per A footballer finds that the number of goals he scores in a
2 minute period’, J is Po(0.8). match has a Poisson distribution with mean 4. What is the
Using the additive property of Poisson distributions, distribution of the number of goals he scores in n matches?
E+T is Po(0.4+0.8) i.e. Po(1.2). How many matches must he play in order to be 95% sure
P(E+1>2) =1-—P(E+1=0) — P(E+J=1)— P(E+/=2) of scoring at least 20 goals? (OLE)
P(E+1=0) =e !*=0.301 A random variable X has a Poisson distribution given by
R(X =/)=p,=ey' Air! r=0, 1,2, «7 «Prove thatthe
P(E ah= 1) = eke x7 =0.361 mean of X is A. Give two examples (other than that
suggested below) of situations where you would expect a
2
P(B4i=2)=6|? x C2 -o21 Poisson distribution to occur.
The number of white corpuscles on a slide has a Poisson
distribution with mean 3.2. By considering the values of r
i P(E +1>2)=1—0.301—0.361—0.217
for which p,,/p,>1 find the most likely number of white
=0.121 corpuscles on a slide. Calculate correct to 3 decimal places
. P(more than 2 calls in any 2 minute period) =0.121 the probability of obtaining this number. If two such slides
are prepared what is the probability, correct to 3 decimal
The frequency distribution of the number of accidents in each places, of obtaining at least two white corpuscles in total
week in a period of 104 weeks in a factory is given in the table. on the two slides? (S)

Number of accidents(x) | 0 1 2 3 4 5 Derive the mean and the variance of a Poisson distribution.
Two types of flaw, A and B, may occur in a manufactured
Frequency(f) | 30 45 20 6 2 1 cloth. The numbers of flaws of type A and of type B
occurring per metre length of the cloth are independent
Fita Poisson distribution to these data, calculating the frequencies random variables having Poisson distributions with means
it predicts. 0.5 and 1, respectively.
(a) Find the probabilities, to three significant figures, that
Calculate x the mean number of accidents per week. Then the a length of 1 metre of the cloth will have:
random variable X ‘the number of accidents per week’ is (i) 2 or fewer flaws of type A,
Po(x). (ii) no flaw of either type.
Calculate P(X = 0) =e“ and then use:the Poisson recurrence (b) Show that the probability of a length of 1 metre of the
formula to find P(X =1) to P(X¥=5). cloth containing 1 flaw only is exactly three times that of it
Multiplying each of these probabilities by 104 will give the containing 1 flaw of each type.
predicted frequencies using a Poisson model. (c) Removing a type A flaw from the cloth costs 8 pence
and removing a type B flaw costs 2 pence. Find the mean
1 Sketch the frequency polygon of a Poisson distribution and the standard deviation of the cost of removing flaws per
with mean 2. Telephone calls arrive at a switchboard at 1 metre length of cloth. (W)
random intervals at an average rate of 24 calls per hour.
Find the probability of receiving: Explain under what conditions it is appropriate to apply a
(a) no calls in 5 minutes; Poisson model to describe a distribution. Referring to your
(b) more than 4 calls in 5 minutes; project work if you wish, give brief details of two situations
(c) Estimate the probability of receiving more than 50 in which you used this model. It is known that 0.1% of
calls in 13 hours. *(O & C) people having an influenza injection of type A suffer an
adverse reaction. If 2250 people are to receive the
2 The frequency distribution of the number of accidents in injection, what is the probability that
each week in a period of 2 years (104 weeks) in a factory (a) exactly two people will suffer an adverse reaction;

eee
is given in the table. (b) more than 3 people will suffer an adverse reaction?
—
Given that 2000 people receive an injection of type B and
Number of accidents 0
no one suffers an adverse reaction to this injection, is this
sufficient evidence to suggest that there is a smaller
Frequency 33 42 |19 8 1| 1
probability of an adverse reaction to type B than to type A?
Fit a Poisson distribution to these data, calculating the Give reasons for your answer. (L)
frequencies it predicts. State why the binomial distribution
is not appropriate in this case. *(A) A large number of screwdrivers from a trial production run
is inspected. It is found that the cellulose acetate handles
3 Show that the variance of a Poisson distribution is equal to are defective on 1% and that the chrome steel blades are
the mean. The number of bacteria in 1 ml of inoculum has a defective on 13% of the screwdrivers, the defects
Poisson distribution with mean 2.0. If at least 3 bacteria occurring independently.
are needed for a dose to be infective, find the probability (a) What is the probability that a sample of 80 contains
that a dose of 1 ml will cause infection. Find approximate more than two defective screwdrivers?
limits, symmetrical about the mean, between which lies (b) What is the probability that a sample of 80 contains at
95% of the distribution of the number of bacteria in least one screwdriver with both a defective handle
100 ml of inoculum. (O & C) and a defective blade? (O & C)
er

153
 :

77 The Normal Distribution

Definition, Standard normal distribution Use of tables, Using the standard variable.

Definition A continuous random variable X having a probability The normal distribution

: curve is a characteristic ‘bell
density function (pdf) of the form shape’ symmetrical about x= (the mean).
|
‘| (x—p)?,. op f(x) The area under
= = a Roam ee)

fe) oV 20 exp 20° the normal curve

is said to have a normal distribution. is unity (1).
We write X is N(u, 07).
u(—%°©<u<) and o(>0) are the parameters of the
distribution. m
E[X]=u and Var[X]= 0 Figure 1

Standard The normal distribution with w=0, o=1 is called a (x) P(Z<x) is the shaded
normal standard normal distribution. The corresponding N(0,1) area in the diagram. It
distribution _ variable is usually denoted by Z, so Z is N(0, 1). ; is usually referred to as
1 fy ®(x). The integral
The pdf for Z is $(x) = exp = which gives this area
shes V 2m 2 under the curve is
By definition : ; > difficult to evaluate but
‘ 7 mae ‘ it is given in normal
> fiCRs i V2 exp( 2 )ax pai distribution tables.

Use of tables Most normal distribution function tables are given Li] Find the values of:
only for x20. Other probabilities are derived by (a) (1.85) (b) ®(-0.63) = 13)
(Cree
suitable transformations. When evaluating =
probabilities using these tables, draw a sketch to Oe Oe Aad igen
ensure that the correct quantity is being evaluated. (a) (1.84) =0.9671
Fora pivena=0. ne direct from tables /
P(Z<a) = (a)
This is simply the value
in the table at x=a a
(b) &(—0.63)=1— (0.63)

RZ>a)=1-8(9
since the total area under
aa seem
=1-—0.7357

-0.63
1)ee0.63
the curve is equal to 1.

(c) P(Z>-1.5)=1-—@(-1.5)
P(Z>—a)=®(a) f=(1—0(15))
P(Z<-a)=1-®(a) Tae a (1.5)
by the symmetry of the 0.9332 45
normal curve =

(d) P(0.5S<Z<1.8)
For b<c, (c)—®(b) = @(1.8)— (0.5)
P(b<Z<c)=®(c)-®(b) é >» Sete er a Z
Ses O59 1:3
pac
p (RP (-2:1<24<1h6
Figure 3 eae arcs s
=0.9821—(1—0.9452)
The tables may also be used ‘in reverse’ to find z if = 0.9273 2.1 1.6
®(z) is known. . Figure 4

Using the Probabilities associated with any given normal Lil An industrial process mass produces an item
standard distribution may be found by using the standard whose weights are normally distributed with mean
variable variable as follows. 18.5 kg and standard deviation 1.5 kg. What is the
1. Transform the given random variable X, which is
probability that an item chosen at random weighs
more than 21.5 kg?
N(u, 0”), into the standard variable Z, which is
N(0, 1) using: The weights are N(18.5, 2.25).
_X-u e
Z= 7 The standard variable is Z = ~_——

2. Use the standard normal distribution function Dl al Ses |

tables to find the probabilities of the transformed “. PW>21.5)= P(z> 135
values as shown above. :
=P(Z>2)=1-6(2) :
= 0.0227 Figure 5

154
 The Normal Distribution
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

WE Ze industrial process mass produces items which are normally where A =number of breed A in units of 100
distributed. 11.55% of them weigh over 20 kg and 5.89% and B=number of breed B in units of 100.
weigh under 10 kg. Calculate the mean weight and standard From this equation we obtain the required ratio, A:B =0.86:1
deviation for this distribution.

Ww 1 Observation of a very large number of cars at a certain

Retr Zi— f be standardised variable, where uw and o are , point on a motorway establishes that the speeds are
normally distributed. 90% of cars have speeds less than
the mean and standard deviation for the distribution. 75.7 mph and only 5% have speeds less than 60 mph.
When W=20, ®(Z29) =1—0.1155 = 0.8845 Determine the mean speed w and the standard deviation o.
1.€. Z29= 1.198 (from tables) Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places. Because
of a fuel economy drive the mean speed of motorists is
hence iiggeel es [1] reduced. Assuming that the standard deviation o has
to}
remained unchanged and that 2% now exceed 75 mph, find
When W=10, (zo) = 0.0589 the new mean speed. What percentage of motorists now
i.e. B(—Z49) = 1—0.0589 = 0.9411 exceed the 70 mph speed limit?
SO —Z 9=1.564 (from tables)
*(W)
sia ee a, [2]
o 2 Ina given manufacturing process, components are rejected
Solving [1] and [2] for « and o gives u=15.66 and o=3.62. if they have a particular dimension greater than 60.4 mm
or less than 59.7 mm. It is found that 3% are rejected as
being too large and 5% are rejected as being too small.
|GE zea are classified by weight according to the following table:
Assuming the dimension is Normally distributed, find the
mean and standard deviation of the distribution of the
Class D 3 4 5 6
dimension, correct to 1 decimal place. use the mean and
standard deviation you have calculated to estimate the
Weight (grams) | 65-70 60-65 55-60 50-55 45-50 percentage of rejects if the limits for acceptance are
100 hens of breed A are found to lay eggs at the rate of 180 per changed to 59.6 mm and 60.3 mm.
day, the eggs being of mean weight 63 g with standard deviation *(W)
5 g. 100 hens of breed B lay 210 eggs per day of mean weight 52 g
and standard deviation 6 g. What ratio of hens of breed A to 3 The length of an engine part must be between 4.81 cm and.
hens of breed B should be kept in order that equal numbers of 5.20 cm. In mass production it is found that 0.8% are too
eggs of class 3 and class 5 should be produced daily? short and 3% are too long. If these lengths are normally
Assume that the weights of eggs from each breed of hen are distributed about mean mw with standard deviation o, find
normally distributed. two equations of the form w+ Ao=B. Solve these
equations to find the mean and standard deviation. Each
Summarising diagrammatically the information for breed A, part costs £4 to produce; those that turn out to be too long
and breed B gives: are shortened, at an extra cost of £2; those that turn out to
be too short have to be scrapped. Find the expected total
cost of producing 100 parts that meet the specification.
(0&©)
N (63,25) N (52,36)
4 A sample of 100 apples is taken from a load. The apples
have the following distribution of sizes.

Diameter to nearest cm 6 2 | ie
Frequency 11 13

50 55 60 65 50 55 60 65 Determine the mean and standard deviation of these

Class 5 Class 3 Class 5 Class 3 diameters.
Assuming that the distribution is approximately normal
with this mean and this standard deviation find the range of
Z,= Z3=———
Wa 63 WR- 52

Pais wig 6 size of apples for packing, if 5% are to be rejected as too

small and 5% are to be rejected as too large.
Calculating the probability of obtaining a class 3 egg gives (O&©
P(—0.6<Za <0.4) + P(1.33S Zp $2.17)
5 A machine packs flour into bags which nominally contain
(0.4) — (1— B(0.6)) + ®(2.17) — &(1.33)
1 kg but there is a variation in the actual weight (kg), which
0.6554 —1+0.7257 + 0.9850 —0.9082 is described by a normal random variable of mean yw and
0.3811 +0.0768 variance o”. Previous investigations indicate that
. the number of class 3 eggs will be o=0.03 kg and that the probability that a bag is
0.3811 x 180+ 0.0768 x 210 = 68.6+ 16.1 underweight is 0.02. Find the value of u at which the
machine is operating. An attempt is made to improve the
per 200 hens, 100 of each breed.
machine with the hope that, while it operates with the same
A similar calculation shows that the number of class 5 eggs value of 4, o will be reduced. Find the value of o which is
will be required to ensure that the probability that a bag is
0.3208 x 210+ 0.0491 x 180 = 67.4+8.8 underweight is 0.001. Assuming this improved value of o to
per 200 hens, 100 of each variety. have been achieved, show that the new probability that a
For the same number of class 3 eggs and class 5 eggs we require random bag will weigh more than 1.1 kg is just less than
68.6A + 16.1B =67.4B+8.8A 0.03. (L)
eee ne ree a = ————=

155
 a)

Uses of the Normal Distribution

Fitting a normal distribution, Normal approximation to binomial, Normal approximation to
Poisson.
Sees a ware em ce TT I aS NS

Fitting a There are two cases to consider when fitting a Lil Fit a normal distribution to this data:
normal normal distribution.
distribution i pogerpacts class upto 1S up 20up 25 up 30up 35 and
1. Given a frequency distribution 15. 1020 ta25<AteB0euio' SS wtover
(a) Calculate % and s* from the given data. Use them
as estimates of u and o”. f 5 12 % 34 16 z
(b) Note the upper class bound for each class.
(c) Standardise the upper class bounds using Take the first class as 10 up to 15
Lan, and the last class as 35 up to 40.
Se Using mid-class values:
; “fx =2575, Uf=100>x =25.75
(d) Find ®(z) for each standardised upper class Sfx?= 70075 >s?=37.7 ands =6.14.
bound. This gives a set of cumulative
iliti
probabilities. The upper class bounds are:
(e) Obtain class probabilities by subtracting 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, ©
successive ®s. The standardised upper class bounds are:
(f) Calculate expected frequencies by multiplying —1.74, —0.94, —0.12, 0.89, 1.51, ©
each probability by the total given frequency. ® for each standardised upper class bound:
2. Given p and 0” 0.0409, 0.1736, 0.4522, 0.7549, 0.9345, 1
(a) Determine a practical range, i.e. ~-30to ut+30. The probabilities for each class are:
(b) Divide this range into about 10 classes. 0.0409, 0.1327, 0.2786, 0.3027, 0.1796, 0.0655
Ope ca jes i cls Zf=100, so the expected frequencies are:
4, 13, 28, 30, 18, 7 (total 100)

Normal The normal distribution may be used to approximate Li] A machine manufacturing nails makes
approxi- the binomial distribution when n is large (n>50) and = approximately 15% that are outside set tolerance
mation p is not too big or small (0.2<p<0.8). If n is very limits. If a random sample of 200 is taken, find the
to binomial _large, then the approximation is good even if p is probability that more than 20 will be outside the
near to 0 or 1. tolerance limits.
If X is Bin(n, p), then X is approximately f ; ;
N(np, np(1—p)) since E[X]=np and If the random variable X is ‘number of nails outside
Var[X] = np(1—p). limits’, then X is Bin(200, 0.15).
To compensate for the change from a discrete E[X ]=200x 0.15 = 30 and Var[X]=300.85=25.5.
distribution (the binomial) to a continuous So X is approximately N(30, 25.5).
distribution (the normal), a continuity correction is We require P(X>20.5) using the continuity
made. The discrete integer value a in the binomial correction.
distribution becomes the class interval [(a—0.5) up to 5 i era +30
(a+0.5)] in the normal distribution. tandard variable is Z= 5.05
So the discrete variable 3 20.5 —30
becomes the class interval 7ePCX=20-5)=P (z>a) =P(Z>-—1.88)
2.5 up to 3.5, and the 5.05
eee value ‘>5’ becomes = P(Z<1.88) = (1.88)
aN = 0.9699
oma gi i.e. It is almost certain that there will be more than
Figure 1 20 faulty nails in the sample of 200.

Normal The normal distribution may be used to approximate Li] An accident ‘black-spot’ averages 2 per week.
approxi- the Poisson distribution when uw is large (u>20). Find the probability that there are 24 or more
ag a If X is Po(u), then X is approximately N(w, 1) accidents in a 12 week period.
since E[X]=y and Var[X] =u.
Over a 12 week period the mean number of accidents
The continuity correction is also required because the would be 2X 12=24.
Poisson distribution is discrete.
If X is the random variable ‘number of accidents in a
12 week period’, then X is Po(24).
Use the normal approximation N(24, 24).

Standard variable is Z Se
4.90
We require P(X>23.5) using the continuity
correction.
P(X223.5) = p(z>=2—™ )=P(Z>-0.102)
4.90
= @(0.102) =0.541.
i.e. The required probability is 0.541.
ee eee
156
 Uses of the Normal Distribution
Worked example and Exam questions

ESS
S SEG ae
TA TUN
C SS RRR URNA
(a) Estimate the probability that a fair coin comes down heads Calculate the probability of his asserting that the die is
more than 290 in 500 tosses. (i) biased when it is, in fact, fair; (ii) fair when it is, in fact,
(b) Assuming that a biased coin comes down heads with prob- biased. What is the probability that his choice will be
of EQ Ce incorrect?
ability 500° estimate the least integer value of r such that the
If, instead, he decided to throw the die 240 times and will
assert that the die is biased if there are N or more sixes, use
probability of getting more than r heads in 500 tosses is less than the Normal approximation to the Binomial distribution to
1 estimate N if the probability of his asserting that it is fair
1000 when it is biased is to be 0-2.

(a) P(success) = P(a head) =4 (S)

Let the random variable X be ‘the number of heads in 500 (a) Estimate the probability that a fair coin would come
tosses’, then X is Bin(500, 4) down heads 270 times or more in 500 tosses.
np = 250 and np(1—p) = 125 (b) Assuming that a biased coin comes down heads with
-. since 7 is large and p is not too large or too small we take a probability 270/500, estimate the least integer value of r
normal approximation and let X be N(250, 125) approximately. such that the probability of getting r heads or more in 500
; ; X-p X—250 tosses is less than 1/1000.
The standard variable is Z =—_—— = ———
oO WAS (O&®
“. P(X¥>290) = p(z> 2) Note, the continuity Calculate the normal approximation to the probability of
VARS correction obtaining exactly 30 successes in 90 independent trials in
each of which the probability of success is 3. In a sequence
= P(Z>3.622)
of 100 independent identical trials the number of successes
=1-—(3.622) is 36. Estimate the probability of success at a given trial and °
= (0). 00022 ss the variance of the proportion of successes in 100 such
trials. Is the observed proportion of successes significantly
(b)
b) P(
P(success) )=
= P(aP(a head)
head) ane
= ——
different from 3?
Let the random variable X be ‘the number of heads in 500 (OLE)
tosses’, then X is Bin so,2) A machine manufactures glass bottles of which, on
average, 1 in 20 are found to be defective. If a random
np = 290, np(1—p)=121.8 sample of five bottles is taken from the production line,
calculate the probability that
.. since 1 is large and p is not too large or too small we take a (i) there is at least one defective bottle,
normal approximation and let X be N(290, 121.8) (ii) there are at most two defective bottles.
approximately. If a random sample of 1000 bottles is taken from the
production line, calculate the probability that there are at
The standard variable is je a i —
least 35, but no more than 55, defective bottles.
(A)
px>1)=P(z> AU) - ~ (“a
Explain, briefly, the circumstances under which a Binomial
<0.001 distribution may be approximated by:
(a) a Normal distribution, (b) a Poisson distribution.
of =e Give examples, from projects where possible, of the use of
these approximations.
Neutrophils and basophils are two distinct types of white
ee en, and r=323.71
cells. The proportion of white cells which are neutrophils is
0.55, and the proportion which are basophils is 0.005.
Hence the least integer value of r is 324. Calculate the probability of there being more than sixty
in all of the two types (neutrophils and basophils) in a
1 The probability of success in each of 5 independent trials is random sample of 100 white cells. Calculate also the
p. Show that the mean number of successes is Sp. (If you probability of there being three or fewer basophils in a
quote a formula for the mean of a binomial distribution, random sample of 200 white cells.
you should prove that it is correct.) A farmer has 5 cows in
calf. Assuming these calves are equally likely to be bulls or (L)
heifers, find the probability that there will be at least 2 In a certain factory 70% of the microprocessors produced
heifers. He estimates bulls to be worth £200 each and are found to be imperfect and have to be discarded. Find
heifers to be worth £300 each. Find the expected value of the probability that, in a randomly chosen sample of 5
the 5 calves. A second farmer has 50 cows in calf. Use the microprocessors produced, the number of perfect
normal distribution to estimate the probability that they specimens will be: (i) 0, (ii) 1, (iii) 2, (iv) 3, (Vv) 4, (vi) 5.
will produce at least 35 heifers. Verify that the probability of more than 3 perfect
*(0 &C) 1
specimens is less than 30° If a sample of 200 is taken from
2 One of two dice is loaded so that there is a probability of
0.2 of throwing a six with it, nothing being known about the the same set of microprocessors, find the probability that
other scores. The other die is fair. A person is given one of there are at least SO perfect specimens.
these dice (which is just as likely to be the fair as the biased (A)
one), together with the above information and is asked to
discover which die it is. He decides to throw the die 10
times; if there are two or more sixes he will assert that the
die is biased, otherwise he will assert that it is fair.
a

157
 79 Sampling
Random sampling, Sample statistics, Sampling distributions, Sums and differences, Finite
population sampled without replacement.
e
RE a TT
a OS
Random A sample is a subset of a population. Li] A random sample of 5 is required from 50
sampling A random sample is one in which each member of observations labelled 0 to 49.
the population has an equal chance of being selected. a: h
Tables of random numbers are often used to From a ees Een ey : came
construct random samples. Cet de n ee d
The numbers outside the allowed range are ignored.

Sample A sample statistic is any quantity which depends only Li] A die was thrown 4 times and the mean score
statistics on the data of the sample. calculated. This was repeated 50 times and gave rise
If a large number of random samples, of the same to the sampling distribution below.
size, are taken from the same population, then the ,
same Statistic calculated for all of the samples will 5 dU aad a ih nha eh ge WS itl aa NEEDS
form a distribution, called the sampling distribution
of the statistic.
The standard deviation of a sampling distribution is ; 2
called the standard error of the sample statistic. For this case 07=0.6256
So the standard error is 0;=0.79.

Sampling moe , o ie Li] A sample, of size 16 is drawn from a population

distributions Mean: x is approximately N(u Ph This is the with mean 52 and variance 64. Find the probability
Central Limit Theorem. If the parent population is that the sample mean is greater than 55.
normal this is an exact result. The standard variable ; oe :
ll : The sampling distribution of sample means is
Z= is N(O, 1) approximately. ba
o approximately N(52, ~); i.e. N(52, 4).
a 16
= : bee)
Proportion: P is approximately n(n y for P(Z>55) = p(Za ) NGee.
n
n=30 and II is the population proportion. a ;yee

The standard variable Z=—+-—4 is N(O, 1) = 0.0668

T1(i—Tl) Figure 1
n
approximately.

Sums and If X and Y are two independent random variables i] A girl travels to college by walking part of the
differences which are N(, ot) and N(u2, 03) respectively, way and travelling the rest by train. Over a period of
then X+ Y is N(t1 +h, 0% +03) time she estimates that the walking time and train time
and X—Y is N(wi—tb, of+ 03). are approximately N(12, 3) and N(20, 6) minutes
Tic resi exeaciiviexendene diem (pett 5 respectively. Find the probability that if she leaves
random variables which are N(i 0?) Le ves home 40 minutes before a lecture starts that she will be
then EX; is N(Zpu, E02). ee:
; ne : Assume the two components are independent.
ae ALS, “ aN gee as Op re ainately The distribution of the total journey time is
N(us- te, 4-2) for n=30. N(12+20, 3+6)=N(32, 9)
my no 40-32 N(32, 9)
Ag te P(T>40) =P(Z> )
iiheetanceydsenablers ae 3
of =i=@(:33)
hy oe Figure 2
is N(O, 1) approximately.

Finite ‘ If a sample of size n is taken from a finite population Li] A random sample of 20 is taken from a
population of size N and the sampling is without replacement, population of size 80 without replacement. Find the
sampled then for the sample mean <x, expectation and variance of the sample if the
without i,t . o(N-n population mean is 2.85 and standard deviation 0.07.
replacement E[x]= wand Var[x]= RTE
For the sample mean £:
where w and o” are the population mean and E[%] = u=2.85

vain
ea) arCae
variance.

158
 Sampling
Worked example, Guided example and Exam questions

The inside diameters of bearings supplied by a factory have a standardised upper class bounds (as in the method of Unit 78,
mean of 21.04 mm and a standard deviation of 0.03 mm. The Uses of the normal distribution). The random numbers are
diameters of axles supplied by a second factory have a mean then allocated as above. It will be easy to see the interval in
value of 20.92 mm and a standard deviation of 0.05 mm. What which the random observation lies, simple proportion in this
is the mean and standard deviation of the random variable interval gives an estimate of the random observation.
defined to be the diameter of a bearing less the diameter of an
axle? Assuming that both dimensions are normally distributed, 1 The number 1437 is obtained from a table of random
what percentage of axles and bearings taken at random will not digits. Use it to select an observation at random from each
fit? of the following distributions. Your method should be
clearly indicated by your written working, and your
Let Dg be the random variable ‘diameter of a bearing’,
solution should contain as many significant figures as the
HMa= 21.4 and OR = 0.03
given random number permits.
Let D, be the random variable ‘diameter of an axle’, (a) Rectangular distribution with range 13 to 15.
Ma = 20.92 and o, =0.05 (b) Binomial distribution with parameters 4, 3.
Then the random variable Dg—D, is ‘the diameter of a (c) Poisson distribution with mean 2.5.
bearing less the diameter of an axle’ and (d) Normal distribution with mean 11, variance 4.
E[Dg— Da] = E[Dg] — E[Da] = 4p —4 = 21.04—20.92 (OLE)
=0.12 mm
2 A discrete random variable X has probability distribution
Var[Dg— Da] = Var[Dg] + Var[Da] = 03 +04
given by P(X=0)=0.1, P(X=0 or 1) =0.3;
= 0.037+0.05? = 0.0034 mm? P(X=0 or 1 or 2)=0.7, P(X=0 or 1 or 2 or 3)=1.0.
Assuming Dg is N(21.04, 0.03”) and D, is N(20.92, 0.057) Obtain the expectation and variance of X. Describe how
then (Dg—Dz,) is N(0.12, 0.0034) with standard variable you would use a table of single-figure random numbers to
a 4) 012, generate a random sample of size n from the above
ZL distribution.
0.0583 Use your procedure, for the case n= 10, with the
If axle and bearing do not fit Dg— D, <0, i.e. the axle is bigger random numbers given below, to obtain unbiased
than the bearing. estimates of the expectation and variance of X.
=O? Random numbers: 0, 9, 3, 3, 3, 7, 4, 7, 5, 6.
P(D,—D,<0)=P| z< (C)
SE et Lo) ( a)
= P(Z<-—2.058) 3 In a packaging factory, the empty containers for a certain
=1-(2.058) product have a mean weight of 400 g with a standard
=1—0.9802 deviation of 10 g. The mean weight of the contents of a full
=0.0198 container is 800 g with a standard deviation of 15 g. Find the
expected total weight of 10 full containers and the standard
“. 1.98% of bearings and axles will not fit.
deviation of this weight, assuming that the weights of
containers and contents are independent.
The random number 482 is obtained from a table of random Assuming further that these weights are normally
digits. Use it to obtain a random observation from each of the distributed random variables, find the proportion of
following distributions, quoting as many significant figures as batches of 10 full containers which weigh more than 12.1 kg.
are justified in each answer. If 1% of the containers are found to be holding weights of
(a) Poisson with mean 1.6. product which are less than the guaranteed minimum
(b) Normal with mean 4 and variance 4. amount, deduce this minimum weight.
(O&C)
(a) We assign the random digits 000 to 999 to the distribution
Po(1.6) in proportion to the probabilities corresponding to the 4 A population of size N has mean uw and variance o”.
values of X, the random variable which is Po(1.6). Random samples of size n are taken without replacement.
The working is set out in tabular form below, with the first two Write down the expectation and the variance of the means
rows only shown. of these samples.
In the game of bridge hands of size 13 are dealt to each of
four players in such a way that each hand can be considered
Cumulative
to be a random sample without replacement from a
probability Allocation of
standard pack of 52 cards.
Probability (to 3 d.p.) random numbers
Each player has to decide upon a ‘bid’ for his hand, and to
help him to do this one particular player decides to allot
Pox =0)=e, <0 points to his cards. An ace receives 4 points, a king 3 points,
= 0.2019 0.202 001-202
a queen 2 points and a jack 1 point; all others receiving
1.6 0 points. He thus arrives at a total score for this hand.
P(X=1) oo ,
Calculate the expectation and variance of the mean score
= 3.3230 0.525 203-525 and deduce the expectation and variance of the total.
Assuming that the distribution of this total is normal,
calculate the probability of a total score greater than 18.
The random number 482 is in the range 203-525
corresponding to the value 1 of the random variable X which is (A)
Po(1.6).
(b) The distribution to be considered is N(4, 4).
Take 4+ 6 (approximatelyw + 30) i.e. —2 to 10 as an effective
range. Divide this range into 8 classes. Find the upper class
bounds, the standardised upper class bounds and the
cumulative probability corresponding to each of the

159
 80 Estimation
Point estimation, Interval estimation.

Point Point estimation involves using a statistic from a Li] Some important results are:
estimation random sample to find an estimator for the
corresponding population parameter.
Note: ‘Estimator’ is used for a statistic; ‘estimate’ is sample best estimator
used for the numerical value of that statistic. statistic for population
An unbiased estimator is a sample statistic whose
expectation is equal to the population parameter. mean
The best or most efficient estimator is the unbiased variance
estimator which has the smallest variance.
proportion

Interval Interval estimation involves using the data from a Li] The weights of each of ten specimens of a
estimation random sample to find an interval within which an certain type of beetle were found to be (in grams):
unknown population parameter is expected to lie with 14.3, 13.8, 13.6, 14.6, 15.4, 14.8, 13.1, 14.2, 16.8,
a given degree of confidence (probability). LSet
The interval is called a confidence interval and the Given that the weights are approximately normally
two extreme values are called the confidence limits. distributed with variance 1.44, construct a 95%
confidence interval for u, the mean of the population
If x is the mean of a random sample of size n from weights.
N(u, 0°), where o° is known, then a symmetric B%
confidence interval for u
pas, Ae,
n 10
3(100-B
1
)%9 3(100-B
1
)%3
is given by x+z.—=
oO

z Vn ; ; : . aCe coy Iw
oO fol
SoS = 75e Sa en Oe Figure 1 For a 95% confidence interval, z is the (100—95)%
=2.5% point of N(0, 1).
where z is the 3(100— B)% ®(z)=1—0.025=0.975z=1.96
point of N(0, 1). “.a 95% confidence interval for y is given by:

If a large sample (n=30) from any distribution has a 14.57 =1.96 x212 ye 14s tho1.2
sampling distribution which is approximately normal Vio? V10
N(u, o?/n), where yu is the mean and o° the variance ee JIYeskS IGS
of the parent population, both unknown, then a
symmetric B% confidence interval for p is i] Before a by-election, for which there are two
5 A)
candidates A and B, a survey was made of 350 voters,
FO 8 IVS eh chosen at random, and it was found that 198 of them
ne Van intend to vote for A. Give 95% confidence limits for
where X, s* are the mean and variance of the sample the percentage of voters favourable to A at the time of
and z is the 3(100— B)% point of N(0, 1). the survey.
Using proportions the property to be considered is ‘is
If r is the proportion of a random sample of size n
an A voter’.
from a population that has a particular property, then
an approximate B% confidence interval for the Assuming that the total population votes for either A
population proportion II having the property is or B, the sample proportion is given by

(pH Mle, plas

role?) r _198 = 0.566
350
n n
where z is the 3(100— B)% point of N(0, 1). For a 95% confidence level, z is the $(100—95)%
=2.5% point of N(0, 1).
@(z)=1—0.025=0.975>z=1.96
. a 95% confidence interval for I is given by

0.$66:21.96 |25560-0568)
350
i.e. 0.514<IT<0.618
ee 51.4% and 61.8% of voters would vote for

DE te
160
 Estimation
Worked examples and Exam questions

SL a TRIE CE RO
WE) A bag contains 10 balls of which 3 are blue and 7 are yellow. A Find the mean and the standard deviation of these
random sample of 3 balls is taken, without replacement, and p measurements. Assuming they are arandom sample from a
denotes the proportion of blue balls in the sample. normal distribution, find 99% confidence limits for the
Tabulate the probability distribution of p, and hence verify that population mean, correct to the nearest 0.02 g.
p is an unbiased estimate of the population proportion. *(O & C)
Let the random variable X be ‘the number of blue balls in a 3 A point whose coordinates are (X, Y) with respect to
sample of 3’. rectangular axes is chosen at random where 0< X¥<1 and
=() = P(RRBR) = x8 x5 = 38 0<Y<1. What is the probability that the point lies inside
ete .KeAes ISAO Si Fat ee igh ee the circle whose equation is x*+y”=1? In a computer
(X=1)=P( B)+ P(BBB) asP(BBB) =3XtoX9X B= 120 simulation 1000 such points were generated and 784 of
P(X =2) = P(BBB) + P(BBB) + P(BBB) = 3x 4) x8 X3 = to them lay inside the circle. Obtain an estimate for 7 and give
P(X =3) = P(BBB) = 4% X3Xé= 10 an approximate 90% confidence interval for your estimate.
-. the probability distribution of p is Show that about 290 000 points need to be selected in
order to be 90% certain of obtaining a value for 7 which will
be in error by less than 0.005. (S)
x 0 3 3 1
4 In the production of an item of furniture, part A fits into
: - A a Fi part B. For part A, the relevant outer dimension is x, and
P(p =x) 120 120 120 120 for B the corresponding inner dimension is y. Both x and y
are normally distributed, having means 1, “4 and standard
E[p]
==xP@ =x) deviations 0,, 0, respectively. State the mean and variance
Oijy—2%
= 0X io +4 X fio +3 X feo +1 X a0 = Be It is given that u,=2.05 cm, wy =2.10 cm, 0, =0.03 cm,
0, =0.04 cm. In assembly, a part A is selected at random
=(.3, the population proportion.
and an attempt is made to fit it into a part B, also selected
.. p is an unbiased estimator for the population proportion. at random. Find the percentage of pairs so selected which
must be rejected because part A is too large to fit into
part B.
A certain city has about 1 million adult inhabitants of whom an In order to reduce this percentage, the setting of the
unknown proportion p have never spent a holiday in a foreign machine which produces part A is adjusted so that the
country. A random sample of 1000 of the adult inhabitants is mean , is altered, the variance remaining unchanged. A
taken, and 735 people in the sample are found never to have sample of 50 of part A has a mean value for x of 2.01 cm.
spent a holiday in a foreign country. Find a 95% confidence Write down a symmetrical two-sided 99% confidence
interval for p. interval for the new value of “,, giving the limits to two
decimal places. Calculate the corresponding range of
The attribute of interest is ‘has never spent a holiday in a values of the percentage of pairs for which part A is too
foreign country’. large to fit into part B. (J)
Tis)
Th e samplele proportion
proportion isis ——=0.735.
1000 5 There are ng fish in a lake. A random sample of m of these
The 95% confidence interval for p is fish is taken. The fish in this sample are tagged and released
unharmed back into the lake. After a suitable interval, a
second random sample of size n is taken. The random
n variable R is the number of fish in this second sample that
ie
where p,=0.735 are found to have been tagged. Assuming that the
probability that a fish is captured is independent of whether
n= 1000 it has been tagged or not, and that np is sufficiently large for
Substituting and evaluating leads to a binomial approximation to be used, obtain the
0 .708<p<0.762 as the 95% confidence interval for the expectation of R in terms of m,n and no. Suppose that
population proportion p. m= 100, n= 4000 and that the observed value of R is 20.
Obtain an approximate symmetric 98% confidence
interval for the proportion of fish in the lake which are
1 Explain briefly what the standard error of the mean is used tagged. Deduce an approximate 98% confidence interval
for. Among the first 150 customers at a new snack bar 90
for no. (C)
order coffee. Assuming that this is a random sample from
_7\2
the population of future customers, estimate 95%
Distinguish between the expressions 2K) and
confidence limits for the proportion of future customers n
who will order coffee. If the proportion of future customers X(x—x)*
, both of which are used in connection with
who order coffee is exactly 60%, find the probability that A=
2, 3 or 4 of the next 5 customers will order coffee.
variance for a set of observations. A random sample of 100
*(O & C) observations is taken from a distribution. The sum of the
observations is 1000 and the sum of their squares is 19 900.
X is a random variable. Define var (X), the variance of X, (a) Explain how you would estimate the mean and the
in terms of E(X) and E(X’). Deduce that variance of the distribution from which the random sample
var(aX +b) =a’ var(X), where a and b are constants. was taken, and give the values of these estimates.
The weights in grams of the contents of 200 packets of soap (b) Estimate the mean and the variance of the distribution
powder are summarised in the table below. of the mean of random samples of size 100 from the original
distribution.
(c) Construct a 95% confidence interval for the mean of
Weight (Centre of Interval) 899 900 901 902
the distribution, and use it to test whether this mean could
Frequency 40 90 58 12
be:9: (OLE)
JUHU UH Uti el

161
 a)

81 Hypothesis Testing
Statistical hypotheses, Critical regions, Types of error.

Ee
See
Statistical A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about the [i] The sample distribution of the mean =
is
hypotheses _ value of a statistic of a distribution. N(u, o*/n) with standardised variable z= re
A null hypothesis, Ho, is a statistical hypothesis which : j ; alvin
can be tested in some way. Typically Hp will be an assumption about fhthe
An alternative hypothesis, A, is the one which is pe oataae pig bot rathi a igre ES
accepted if the null hypothesis is rejected. assumption
A test of a null hypothesis, or significance test, 1s a Possible alternative hypotheses in this case are:
rule, based on the results of a random sample, Mia a ae
whereby acceptance or rejection of Ho is decided. Be hee ea ee

Critical The critical region corresponding to every test must Li] Nails produced by a machine have a mean length
regions be found. of 1.50 in. A random sample of 100 nails has a mean
If the sample value falls in the critical region, then Hy /ength of 1.51in with a standard deviation of 0.05 in.
is rejected, otherwise it is accepted. Do these results indicate that the mean length of se
A test statistic is said to be significant if it falls in the ?” oduced has changed at the 5% significance level:
eaucak Erion SinemNse ves hom naniticint. The sampling distribution of the mean X is
The critical region depends upon: N(1.50, o2/n).
(a) the significance levels of the test, 7
(b) the nature of H,, the alternative hypothesis. Since o” is unknown, estimate 6° = 2
The significance level of the test gives the probability (n—1)
assigned to rejecting Ho. where s is the sample standard deviation.
There are two types of alternative hypothesis, one- 6 (0.05)? 6 _ 0.05
tailed and two-tailed, which give rise to two types of So —=— “= =— == 0.005
test. A one-tailed test considers only an increase or Le 99 Vn V99
only a decrease in the parameter and there is only 4
one critical region whose area is equal to the level of Take ¥~N(1.50, 0.005)
significance. A two-tailed test considers any change in : f ; x—-1.50
the parameter and there are two equal critical regions With standardised variable Z= 0.005
whose area sum is equal to the level of significance. .

Consider the following tests based on Ho; u= fo. Bre atcha hae mSne “21-50.
Gog t= a f(z) Significance level is 5%.
ie UF Lo This is a two-tailed test since any change in yp is to
ee ay, 2% be considered.
Significance level «% y f(z)
A two-tailed test
since any change in critical | critical 2 2.5% 2.5%
is considered. rer ePal SAS ah
(ii) Ho: U= Mo fiz) z A
My: U> Ho a% Figure 2
Significance level ~%
A one-tailed test 2
since only an increase jeritical 2 The sample mean ¥=1.51 in.
in w is considered. he a 1.51-1.50
(iii) Ho: u= po f(z) Zier Ta roe Bar d.p.)
Ay: u< Uo %
Significance level «% ®(z.) =1—0.025 =0.975
A one-tailed test Z-= 1.96
since only a decrease critical | m
in pis considered. region | ele 96 S725 1296
Figure 1 Ztest = 4.12>1.96, which is significant
so Ho is rejected.

Types of A Type I error is made when the null hypothesis Ho is rejected when it should have been accepted.
error The probability of making this type of error is the level significance of the test.
We write: P(Type I error) = «.
A Type II error is made when the null hypothesis Hp is accepted when it should have been rejected.
The probability of making this type of error is not usually easy to calculate.
We write: P(Type II error) =.
The power function of a test of some statistic is the value of (1—) and indicates the power of the test to
reject a wrong hypothesis.

162
 Hypothesis Testing
Worked examples and Exam questions

WE ae O-level results in mathematics from a large school, con- 2 Two hypotheses concerning the probability density
sidered over a number of years, showed an average of 57% function of a random variable are
passes. In 1987 from a group of 100 students taking the examina-
tion the number of passes was 64. Test, at the 1% level, the 1 k= ey)
Ho: = :
hypothesis that this was a significantly high number of passes. o:flx) ( otherwise;

Let the O-level mathematics candidates over the period of

Bille athee
years be the population from which each year’s candidates are
considered to be drawn. fa) = { otherwise.
Let R be the proportion of pass candidates in this population. Give a sketch of the probability density function for each
We have Hp:R=0.57, H,:R>0.57 (the test is one-tailed). case. The following test procedure is decided upon:
A single observation of X is made and if X is less than a
If r is the sample proportion, the test statistic particular value a, where 1<a<2, then Hp is accepted;
—R
Z=——— is N(0, 1) where n= 100
otherwise H, is accepted. Find a such that, when Hp is true,
the test procedure leads, with probability 0.1, to the
R(—R) acceptance of H,. With this value of a, find the probability
n that, when H, is true, the test procedure leads to the
acceptance of Hp.
0.64—0.57,
Zest = =1.414, 24, = 2.33 (C)
0.57 0.43
100 When you are testing a hypothesis, explain the conditions
under which you would use (a) a one-tailed test and (b) a
SINCE Ztest = 1.414<2.33 the result is not significant and we do two-tailed test. Give an example of a typical problem for
not reject Ho. Thus it cannot be concluded that the 1987 each of (a) and (b), referring to your projects if you wish.
students are significantly better than normal. The breaking strengths of a particular brand of thread are
known to have a normal distribution with mean uw and
The top forms of two junior schools both took the same standard deviation 1.4 units. A random sample of 36 newly
examination on transfer to secondary school. In school X there produced pieces of thread are found to have a mean
were 32 pupils and the mean mark obtained was 51. In school Y breaking strength of 9.3 units. Test, at the 5% level of
there were 37 pupils and the mean mark was 46. The standard significance, the null hypothesis that «=9.7 units against
deviation for marks in this examination, calculated from alarge the alternative hypothesis that u<9 .7 units. We are given
number of primary school candidates, was o= 11.5. that x is a typical breaking strength for the above random
Test the hypothesis that the pupils from school X were better sample and that =(x”)=3240. Assuming that neither the
than those from school Y, using a 5% significance level. mean nor the standard deviation of the population of
breaking strengths had in fact been known, find estimates
Let “x and wy be the population mean marks for the of the population mean and variance.
examination candidates from the two schools. (L)
We have Ho:uxy=Uy, Hy:ux>My (the test is one-tailed)
Assuming that the mean and variance of a random variable
The test statistic is Z=
(¥x—Xy) — Ux—-Hy) X having a Binomial distribution with parameters n and p
are np and np(1—p) respectively, prove that the mean and
[ox , oF
2

variance of a proportion based on a sample of size n are p

Ny Ny
and p(1—p)/n respectively, where p is the true proportion.
Of a random sample of 50 shoppers in a certain city store 13
where xy=51 and ny =32
stated that they lived more than 10 miles from the city
Xy=46 and ny =37 centre. Of arandom sample of shoppers from another store
Or =07= 11:5 in the same city 9 lived more than 10 miles from the city
and “y—uy=0 if Ap is true. centre. Stating your null and alternative hypotheses and
using a significance level of 5%
51—46 (i) test that the true proportion in both stores could
Ci eee SFP = 1.801 and z5., =1.65
be 0.15;
11.5, (— (ii) show that the two samples do not offer evidence of a
By, BH
difference in proportions between the two stores.
Since Ztest = 1.801 >1.65 the result is significant at the 5%
level and we reject Ho in favour of Hj.
(S)
Thus is can be considered that the pupils from school X A person claims that he has an almost foolproof system for
performed significantly better than those from school Y. identifying the suit of a playing card placed face
downwards. To test whether the person is merely guessing
1 The mass of jam in a jar is x grams, the mass of the jar is he is asked to identify the suits of 4 playing cards placed
y grams and the mass of the lid is z grams. x, y and z are face downwards. It is agreed to accept his claim only if he
independent and normally distributed with means 502, 90 correctly identifies at least 3 of the 4 cards. Viewing this as a
and 10 and standard deviations 0.60, 0.24 and 0.07 hypothesis testing problem, write down an appropriate
respectively. Deduce the mean and standard deviation of null hypothesis and an appropriate alternative hypothesis.
the total mass of the jar full of jam, complete with lid. Calculate the significance level of the test and the
These full jars are packed in boxes of 25. Find the mean and probability that the person will be regarded as merely
standard deviation of the mass of the total contents of a guessing when in fact his system has a probability of 0.8 of
box. correctly identifying the suit of a card.
The average mass of jam per jar in a box is found to be V)
502.2 grams. Test, at the 5% level, whether or not this is
(i) significantly different from the expected value,
(ii) significantly greater than the expected value. (/)
ae eee ee eee eee eee ee eee ern. ————————— eS
 |
$2 Linear Regression
Observations and errors, Method of least squares, Equations of the lines of regression.

ES eR a ee I OS

Observations A linear relationship between two variables x and y can be represented mathematically as y= a+ Px.
and errors In many practical situations x, the independent variable, can be measured with little or no error, while y, the
dependent variable, is subject to random experimental error. These random experimental errors may be due
to limitations in any experimental apparatus used and/or random fluctuations in experimental conditions.
If an experiment is performed for n values of x, x; fori=1,2,...,n, then there will be n corresponding
equations for y, given by y;= a+ Bxit &.
The ¢; are error terms which take into account random experimental errors, and are usually considered to be
independent (the error of one experiment has no effect on the error of another experiment) and to be
distributed normally with zero mean and known variance.
E
2

Method of If the n pairs (x;, y;) for an experiment are plotted on

least squares a graph, then the points are scattered about a straight
line.
The method of least squares ‘fits’ the ‘best’ line AB to
the points by making =(P;Q))’ a minimum (i.e.
minimising the sum of the squared deviations of each
point from the ‘best’ line). This is called the line of
regression of y on x.
If =(P;R;) is minimised, then the corresponding line
of best fit is called the line of regression of x on y.
Figure 1

Equations of The line of regression of y on x (used for predicting Li] For the following set of bivariate data
the lines of y-values given x-values) is
regression Gs PCN Yea Sai 2 I,
Valea tat)
= ota YG ianlicsads 5
Se Ne i 2X;
where y yar Rann
pd (a) calculate the two least squares regression lines,
Coen. (b) calculate an estimate for x when y=7.

Co = =x? — nx”
; ; Ce 5 =. 68
Note: Since C,,=ns?, i.e. s3=—~ is the variance of x, (a) 2x=68 x= aie 17
n
Cy :
—=s,) is called the covariance of x and y. Ly = 33:7 y= =8.495
n
=x?= 1454 Ly? =339.07 Lxy =699.4
The line of regression of x on y (used for predicting Cyx = Zx*—nx* = 1454—4x 177 = 298
x-values given y-values) is Cyy = Zy*—ny* = 339.07-—4 x8.4257 = 55.148
Cy = Xxy —nxy = 699.4—4x 17x 8.425
apa eco = 126.5
Cy The line of regression of y on x is
where C,,=Zy*—ny’. even by
Since (X, y) satisfies both equations for the lines of — 8.425) = ee Ly
Ca nare 298 Cie?
regression, it follows that both lines pass through the ed y=0.42x-1.21
point (x, y). The Ii :
e line of regression of x on y is
C, given by
b=— and a=y-—bzx are often referred to as the least 126.5
ae (Cr a (y — 8.425)
squares estimates for 6 and a in the equation 55.148
y;= a+ Bx; + &;. ines x =2.29y—2.33
Suppose there is a large number N of independent (b) Use the line of regression of x on y.
sets of n experimental pairs (x;, y;) and from each set When y=7, x =2.29(7) —2.33 = 13.70.
determine estimates a and b for w and B. The set of
values of a so formed will have a sampling
distribution, as will the set of values of b.
It can be shown that with the four assumptions made
above about the errors ¢, then
a=
~N(0, 1)

164
 Linear Regression
Guided example and Exam questions

GENE a heathland region there are a large number of silver birch 4 The values of the dependent variable y corresponding to
trees where the ground is dry but very few where the ground is values of the independent variable x are shown in the
marshy. The number x of silver birch trees and the ground following table:
moisture content y are found in each of 10 equal areas (which
have been chosen to cover the range of x in all such areas). The Pie Wg adsleet a a4
following is a summary of the results of the survey:
=x = 495, Ly = 425, Tx? = 31475, Uxy = 17300, Ly* = 20125. TEN c2h cases
ees
Find the equation of the regression line of y on x. Estimate the Find the equation of the line of regression of y on x and
ground moisture content in an area equal to one of the chosen hence estimate the value of y when x =3.5. Explain in
areas which contains 60 silver birch trees. what sense the line of regression is a line of best fit to the
data. (O & C)
The equation of the line of regression of y on x is
5 (X;, Y;), i=1, 2,..., nis a sample from a bivariate
y-y= 2 — 2) population. The least-square regression lines of Yon X and
X on Y are calculated. Why would you not expect the two
where C,y = Zxy—nxy and C,, = Zx*—nx* lines to coincide? Under what circumstances would they
Using the given information C,, and C,, can be calculated and coincide? In the table, Y; is the mass (in grammes) of
hence the required regression line found. potassium bromide which will dissolve in 100 grammes of
Substituting x = 60 in the regression line gives the water at a temperature of X;°C.
corresponding value of y, the ground moisture content.

xX 10... .20..;30, 40, 50

1 The principle of least squares is used to find the regression
be 6b 664.070. 137 7s
line of y on x. Illustrate the distances the sum of whose
squares is minimised on a rough sketch showing the x- and
y-axes with a few points and their regression line. From 20 Find the equation of the regression line of Y on X. Find,
pairs of values of x and y the following were calculated: also, the product-moment correlation coefficient between
X and Y. (S)
24= 5028 = 140, Sry =27, Sy — 24.
(a) Find the mean values of x and y. 6 In an investigation into prediction using the stars and
(b) Find the line of regression of y on x in the form planets, a celebrated astrologist Horace Cope predicted
y=atbx. the ages at which thirteen young people would first marry.
(c) Draw a graph showing this regression line for the range The complete data, of predicted and actual ages at first
O<xS. *(O & C) marriage, are now available and are summarised in the
following table:
2 Eight candidates sat examinations in Mathematics and
Physics. Their corresponding marks were: Person Predicted age Actual age
x (years) y (years)
Mathematics (x)| 63} 72 41 56 | 44 | 89 | 70 | 45
A 24 23
Physics (y) 48} 71| 50 46 | 35 | 92 | 42 | 48 B 30 31
Cc 28 28
(i) Plot these points on a scatter diagram. D 36 55
(ii) Calculate the equation of the regression line of y on x E 20 20
by the method of least squares. FE 22; 25
(iii) Calculate the coordinates of the points at which this G 31 45
regression line intersects the lines x= 10 and x = 90. H 28 30
(iv) Hence plot the regression line on your diagram. I 21 22
*(A) df 29 27
K 40 40
3 The maximum value, in parts per million (PPM), of L 25 27
atmospheric carbon dioxide in Hawaii for each given year is M P| 26
shown in the table below.
(i) Draw a scatter diagram of these data.
PPM of (ii) Calculate the equation of the regression line of y on x
Year (x) carbon dioxide (y) and draw this line on the scatter diagram.
(iii) Comment upon the results obtained, particularly in
1958 318 view of the data for person G. What further action
1961 320 would you suggest? (A)
1964 322
1967 320 7 Toeach value of x, there corresponds a value y of arandom
1970 329 variable Y. Forty observations (x, y) are summarised thus:
1973 333 2 =96, Dy = 26, 2x = 270, Shy = 98, ay = 18,
1976 335 (a) Find the line of regression of Y on x in the form
y=a—bx.
Plot a scatter diagram, and obtain the equation of the (b) Draw a graph for 0<x <6 showing the regression line;
regression line of y on x by the method of least squares. show also on your graph the point (X, y). Indicate roughly
Show this line on your diagram. Use your equation to on your graph a region in which you would expect almost all
estimate the mean annual increase in atmospheric carbon the observations (x, y) to lie.
dioxide and the year in which the proportion of carbon (c) For what value of x would the mean value of the
dioxide may be expected to reach 350 PPM, if present corresponding Y be zero? (O & C)
trends continue. aA)
eT
165
 833 Correlation
Bivariate distributions, Correlation coefficients, Fisher’s transformation, t-test.

A population with two variables gives rise to +ve correlation No correlation —ve correlation
Bivariate
distributions bivariate distributions. two or more
es) pairsof
In such distributions it is often necessary to know any ae values
interdependence or correlation. x
x
If the variables are plotted in the xy-coordinate
plane, the result is a scatter diagram.
Figure 1

Correlation The product moment correlation coefficient is given Li] For the data given below, calculate:
coefficients by (a) The product moment correlation coefficient,
(b) Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient.
pao ae Nae ee ar he

where C,,=Zxy —nxy, 5Ae ae Pome eesha Ts)

Geel.
(a) From the above data:
Cy =Zy?—ny?. Yx=15, LTy=15, Lx?=55, Ly?=59, Exy=S5.
r takes the sign of C,y.
It can be shown that —1<rS1. From their definitions:
r=1 for perfect positive correlation. ¥=3, Y=3, Cy =10, Cyy=14, Cy =10.
r=0 for no correlation.
r=—1for perfect negative correlation. So r=. 845 (+ve because Cy, is +ve)
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is given by
(b) s and ¢ are the ranks of x and y and d=(s—t)
jnaGude
r=
n(n?—1) Sinn 4; 2 1 . 1 BOERS)
where d is the rank difference for each pair of values. £14 5) 2:66 25 Tet OL ©5024)
For tied ranks it is conventional to give both places ad? \1 1 (O0,2560,2506 =0.875
the average rank of the equal values.

Fisher’s Fisher’s transformation, z, of r is given by Li] A random sample of size 45 is taken from a
transform- RNP nC [ery : bivariate normal distribution and has a value of
ation =r) ioe ron a7 r=0.78.
(1-7) Test Hy: p= 0.65,against He p> 0.65.
and z is approximately N(tanh7!p, 1/(n—3)).
To test hypotheses about the population correlation Z, =Fi(r) = Fi(0.78) =1.045
coefficient, p: Zp =Fi(p)=Fi(0.65) =0.7675
(a) Transform r and p to obtain z, and Zp. 1.045 —0.7675
Bere =H 138
(b) Calculate zte=—-2—~.
ee V1(n—3) i one-tailed test
(c) Test Ztes: against N(0, 1). 42
2. 5%
If r; and r2 are the correlation coefficients of two am aS SNe ata
independent random samples, then R seal = 283304 164
Z,=Fi(r,) and z.=Fi(r2) are approximately SIS S203 Figure >
N(tanh™!,, 1/(m,—3)) and N(tanh“!~, 1/(n2.—3))
a 1 1 Lil The correlation coefficients from two
and z;—z2is N (tanh (pi- p2), aa = independent samples of sizes ny=50 and n2=45 are
: q m3) r,=0.65 and r2=0.45. Test Ho: 01= 2 against Hy: pi#
approximately. Qn.
To test the hypothesis that two samples come from : :
the same population: 2, = Fi(r,) = 0.7675 and z= Fi(r2) =0.485.
(a) Transform 7; and r, to obtain z; and z2 rege Oe 33
—- 1 1 ; two-tailed test
(b) Calculate Ztest= 1
Re 1
—+—
47 42
a
25% 1
25%
+
(m—3) (m3) From tables, ® (1.96) =0.975 A
Stet
1.33 lHGs 0 ae
(c) Test Ztes against N(0, 1). Accept Hp. Figure 3

t-test The t-test is used to test the hypothesis that the true
population correlation coefficient is zero (0=0). li For the data of the first Lil above test the null
ypothesis Ho: p=0 at the 1% level.
r(n—2)
(a) Calculate t= ,n is the sample size.
Cisrs) a pine =2) =7.49, tia(3)=5.
(b) Test against toz,(n—2) where «% is the level of (1—0.845?) ig ae a
significance, and is the w percentage point of the
t-distribution. Since 7.49>5.84 reject Ho: p=0 at the 1% level.

166
 Correlation
Worked example and Exam questions

WEE WD 61.9) Sel 42aSsligS 6) 7006813. 9:3 10:0010:95-12.1

Moisture Crushing load
y 5 i 6 6 8 er en ae () 43 60
(i) Calculate the product moment correlation coefficient for 0.6 1.5
these data. Tepe 41
(ii) Assuming that the above data comprise a random sample :; re
from a population with a bivariate normal distribution, test the 9.6 Ae
hypothesis Ho: p =0.95, where p is the true population correla- 12
tion coefficient. Use a 5% level of significance. 25 bs
(iii) Calculate Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. 84 23
“3 asi 3.0
where Cy = Ixy —nky 5.9 3.8
G) 73=———"—
CuGy ON ary ha
Cy = Zy*—ny” Convert these data to ranks and find Spearman’s rank
sy > correlation coefficient. Plot a scatter diagram of the
X¥=—=6.56, y= “Y= 16.75 original data. Comment on your results. Is there a
12 : 2 relationship p between the crushing & load and the moisture
Exy = 1856.5, Dx? = 660.71, Ey? = 6601 content? AOeS®)
Cy = 1856.5—12x ooo 16.75 =537.94 2 In the two papers of an A-level Higher Mathematics
Cyx = 660.71 —12 x 6.56° = 144.31 examination, ten candidates gained the marks shown in the
Cy = 6601 — 12 x 16.75? = 3234.25 table below.
gpm SOTA me
SO SOE TET ee Candidate |A) B|C|D|E|F/G/H|1]J
=) one ; wf Paper I 95 | 83 | 74 | 92 | 84 | 89 | 36 | 71 | 49 | 71
r=0.79 (positive -. C,, is positive) Paper II 78 |92 |72 | 84 |81 |93 |63 |63 |66 |73
(ii) Let z= Fi(r); Ho: 9=0.95, H,:p#0.95 (two-tailed test) Calculate: (a) the product-moment correlation coefficient;
z, = Fi(0.79) = 1.072, from tables (b) Spearman’s coefficient of correlation by ranks. ;
z, = Fi(0.95) = 1.83, from tables 4)
fe keg era: Th ks of eight candidates
in English and
Zy, AS N(tanh 'p, = with standardised variable s Pee ok i Pacha ae ead be Sige oat

sa, Candidate | ee ane: SL,Oe ay ei ee3)

—- English (x) 50°” 58) 35=586 6 76° 434 40.7260
y ! Mathematics (y) 65 72 54 82 32 74 40 53
Ras
Rank the results and hence find a rank correlation
: coefficient between the two sets of marks.
eo Le et) = —2.297 (b) Using the data in part (a), obtain the product-moment
| correlation coefficient. To assist in the lengthy calculation,
9 you may use the information S, = 16.67. (S)

4 The heights h, in cm, and weights W, in kg, of 10 people are

The critical value for a two-tailed test with a 5% significance measured. It is found that 2h = 1710,
2W = 760,
level is +1.96. Since Z,-.,= —2.297 < —1.96 the result is - Zh’ = 293 162, ZAW = 130 628 and ZW" = 59 390. Calculate
significant so we reject Hp that the sample comes from a the correlation coefficient between the values of h and W.
population with correlation coefficient p=0.95. What is the equation of the regression line of W on h?
(O & C)
(iii) F
The items in a sample each have associated with them the
i Omo 04a Sle oe GeO ears) 29.See 0/0 10i9: 125
variables X and Y. Explaining any symbols that you use,
6 5 4 3 D |
write down a formula for the sample product-moment
LT 2 A 20) 43 60
correlation coefficient between X and Y and the equation
“sO 6
~ 5 4 3 2 I
of the regression line of Y on X.
Oi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
State the conclusions that you would draw if you obtained
values for the correlation coefficient of (i) 0, (ii) —1.
Note: d=r—s For a sample of 100 such items, the following data are
n 5 known.
pee ee ey FOAM 51999 Sx =36, Sy=25, Sxy=21,
n(n°—1) 12x 143 Xx? = 1012.96, Ly?=366.25.
(x, y are actual values taken by the variables respectively.)
Representing the mean values of X and Yfor the data by x
and y respectively, calculate 2(x—X)(y—Yy),
=(x—x)’, =(y—y)* and the sample product-moment
EX) 1 The moisture contents in per cent and the crushing loads in correlation coefficient between X and Y.
tonnes of 10 test specimens are given in the following Given that the equation of the regression line of Y on X for
table: the data is y=a+bx, calculate a and b. (J)
Nee ener ceca
167
 84 %x’ distribution,
1)

Tables, Goodness of fit.

In many statistical situations observed frequencies, O, are compared with expected frequencies, E.
Spent . oS (OEY
eee In such cases it is possible to calculate the statistic gov

The x’ distribution is a function of v, the number of degrees of freedom. v is an integral valued parameter.
For a particular value of v, the appropriate 7° distribution is denoted by 7(v).

Tables The 7x distribution is tabulated as percentage points. wre

A percentage point of a 7 distribution is that value of
x¢ which has a specified percentage of the distribution 0%
lying to its right.
The p% point of 7°(v) is written 7%(v) and is that
value of 7(v) which has p% of the distribution lying ;
to its right (see diagram). Xpx(V)
The tables for the 7 distribution are usually given for Figure 1
those selected values of v and p which are found to
be adequate for most practical purposes. [i] From suitable tables verify (a) ;ex(4)=9.49,
(b) xi%(4) =11.34 (c) xi0%(1) =2.71.

To calculate y3s,(v) for v>100, use the result Li] 99,(110) =4(1.645 + V220—1)?
x6a.(v) =4(1.645 + V2v-1)? = 135.20 (2 d.p.)

Goodness The 7x distribution is used to test the goodness of fit Li] Four identical coins were tossed 160 times and
of fit of a given table of observed frequencies to a the observed frequencies of the number of heads per
theoretical model. It is often used to test whether or toss is shown in the table.
not a given distribution is binomial, Poisson or
normal. Number of heads oe OLIN ree
To apply the test it is usual to have a total frequency
of at least 50 and a minimum class frequency of 5. Observed frequency (O)|10 46 54 37 13
If class frequencies fall below this minimum level, Test at the 5% level if the coins are biased.
then two or more adjacent classes should be
combined. Let Ho: P(H)=3 i.e. the coins are unbiased.
For a given distribution, which is thought to be The random variable X ‘the number of heads per
binomial, Poisson or normal, proceed as follows. toss’ is Bin(4, 3). This probability distribution is
(a) Calculate the expected frequencies, E, under Hp, calculated (see Binomial Distribution p. 150) and
the null hypothesis that the distribution is given below.
binomial, Poisson or normal. DS 0 1 2 3 4
(b) Combine any adjacent classes so that no
expected frequency is less than S. If this has to P(X=x) 0.0625 0.235 "0S7S" is 00625
be done combine the corresponding classes of the
observed frequencies. Multiplying each of these probabilities by 160 gives
SS 2 the following table of expected frequencies.
(c) Calculate er for each class.
Number of heads = T Aes 4
= 2
(d) Calculate the statistic hn DOU where Expected frequency (E) 10 40 60 40 10
the sum is over all classes.
The calculation of ¥ is set out below.
(e) Determine v. In general y=number of classes
(n) — number of restrictions.
For a binomial distribution: 37
(i) if p is known (by hypothesis), then vp=n—1, E 10 40 60 40 10
(ii) if p has to be estimated (using ¥=np) from the (O=E) '2 . 6 =G “33 3
observed frequencies, then v=n—2. (= 2

For a Poisson distribution: ( 4) 0.4 0.9 0.6 0.225. 570:9

(i) if Ais known, then v=n-1,
(ii) if A has to be estimated (using ¢=A) from the
ho = > eet)
are 3.025
observed frequencies, then v=n—2.
For a normal distribution:
(i) if wand o are known, then v=n-1, v=4 since there are 5 classes with one restriction, the
(ii) if w and o have to be estimated from the total frequency.
observed frequencies, then v=n—3. So test Yer =3.025 against 7%,(4) =9.49.
(f) Find y4«(v) from tables, where a% is the
significance level assigned to the test. Since Yes: =3.025<9.49 this is not significant so do
(g) Compare Yes with y4,(v). not reject Ho, i.e. accept it.
If Yiest>Xax(v), then reject Ho, otherwise accept There is no evidence that the coins are biased.
it.
eee
168
 Wa

Worked example and Exam questions

RASS SN I SRA WSO A RBS eG Ae oe oe rer rn aicey

For a period of three months 100 similar gerbils were given a 1 (a) A gambler threw 15 ones and 45 larger numbers in 60
new type of food. The table below shows the recorded changes throws of a 6-sided die. Use y” and a 5% significance level
in mass. to test his assertion that this die is biased.
(b) Whatever the result of your test, assume that the die
Change in mass Observed is biased and find approximate 95% confidence limits for
(g) frequency the probability of obtaining a one in a single throw.
G
*(0 &€)
—0 <x —15 2
2 Over a period of 50 weeks the numbers of road accidents
= by<eas — 10) 3
reported to a police station are shown in the table below.
—10<*=—5 8
—)<x=0 14
O<x<5 16 No. of accidents 0 i 2 3
S5<x<10 24 No. of weeks 23 13 10 4
10<x<15 IS)
IS<x<20 9 Find the mean number of accidents per week.
20<xs25 6 Use this mean, a 5% level of significance, and your
25<x<0 3 table of x’ to test the hypothesis that these data are a
random sample from a population with a Poisson
It is thought that these data follow a normal distribution, with distribution.
mean 5 and standard deviation 10. Use the x? distribution at the (O &C)
5% level of significance to test this hypothesis.
Describe how the test would be modified if the mean and 3 A manufactured article can be made by three different
standard deviation were unknown. methods A, B, C. The numbers of defective articles found
Let the random variable X be ‘change in mass over three in random samples taken from trials of each method are
months’, Hp:X is N(5, 10°) and H,:X is not N(5, 107). shown in the table:
Assuming Ho the expected frequencies for the given class
intervals can be calculated. This calculation is set out in Method A B C_ Total
tabular form below. Defective 14 11 5 30
If X is N(5, 10”) then the standardised variable is Total 30 40 30. =. 100
1S
Use x’ and a 5% significance level to determine whether
10
there is evidence that the percentage of defectives is not
Standard the same for all three methods.
Observed
Upper
class
upper
class Class
Expected
class (O; &i€)
Class frequency bound. bound. D(z) prob. frequency
4 Fora period of six months 100 similar hamsters were given
—o<7=—15 2 =—15' =2:0° 0.0228 0.0228 2S a new type of feedstuff. The gains in mass are recorded in
—15<x=—10 3 —10 -1.5 0.0668 0.0440 4.4 the table below:
==) <a) 8 —5 -—1.0 0.1587 0.0919 9.2
py OES) 14 0 -0.5 0.3085 0.1498 15.0
Gain in mass Observed Gain in mass Observed
0<x<5 16 5 0.0 0.5000 0.1915 19.2
(g) frequency (g) frequency
5<x<10 24 10 0.5 0.6915 0.1915 19.2
oY G
10<x=15 15 15 1.0 0.8413 0.1498 1520
15<x=<20 9 20 1.5 0.9332 0.0919 92
—o<x=—10 3 10<%=15 16
20<x<25 6 25 2.0 0.9773 0.0441 4.4
—10<x<-5 6 15<x<20 14
25<x<@ 3 00 ea 1.0000 0.0227 23
—5<x<0 9 20x25 8
0<x<5 15 25<x<30 3
Combining adjacent cells where necessary so that no cell has a
5<x<10 24 30<x<0 2
frequency less than 5 gives rise to the following table of
observed and expected frequencies.
It is thought that these data follow a normal distribution,
O 5 8 14 16 24 15 9 9 with mean 10 and variance 100. Use the 7 distribution at
E Gime 1510, Oe OD 1520 DION 16:7 the 5% level of significance to test this hypothesis.
O-E | pues 9 Sa =iA Pia: am | mama 0 7 Describe briefly how you would modify this test if the
mean and variance were unknown.
(O=E)* 0.431 0.157 0.067 0.533 1.200 0 0.004 0.790
(A)
5 Analysis of the goals scored per match by a certain football
team gave the following results:

We test this against yeo,(7) = 14.07

No. of goals persmatchs” .0° (las 2 Seed oc5e), 6: 47
Note: there are 7 degrees of freedom, 8 cells less 1 restriction. No. of matches: 145 [h<s20 eS telOwd 3. 1
ect = 3.182 <14.07, . we do not reject Ho that the data
follow a normal distribution with mean 5 and standard Calculate the mean of the above distribution and the
deviation 10. frequencies (each correct to 1 decimal place) associated
If the mean and standard deviation were unknown they would with a Poisson distribution having the same mean. Perform
be estimated from the given data and used to recalculate the a x” goodness of fit test to determine whether or not the
expected frequencies; the test would be as above except that above distribution can be reasonably modelled by this
there would be two degrees of freedom less. Poisson distribution. (S)

169
 7)

85 Contingency Tables
Definitions, Testing for independence.

Definitions A contingency table is an array which displays data Lil Two schools enter their pupils for a
relating to two factors. mathematics test with the results shown in the table
A table with m rows and columns is called an mXn
contingency table. School

factor B

Test Passi 75. 63 This is a

result |Fail} 21 26 2x2 contingency table.
fu fr
factor fu fn
A One factor, which relates to the schools, is shown as
the column headings. The other factor, which relates
to the test result is shown as the row headings.
ken a

Testing for To test if the two factors are independent in a i] For the above 22 contingency table, test if the
independence 2x2 contingency table. factors ‘School’ and ‘Test result’ are independent at
(a) State the null hypothesis Ho: the two factors are the 5 per cent level of significance.
independent.
(b) Calculate the row totals, column totals and the Null hypothesis Ho: the two factors ‘School’ and “Test
grand total (=sum of the row totals=sum of the result’ are independent.
column totals).
(c) Calculate the expected frequency E for each cell The totals are given in the table below.

De z
of the table using
_ cell row total x cell column total
E
grand total
(d) Calculate (O—£E) for each cell of the table where
O is the observed frequency.
(e) Calculate the value of x25 using
:
96 | 89 185
O-E|-0.5)"
rest =z ( ) The expected frequencies are given in the table
below.
(see 7 p. 168).
(f) State the number of degrees of freedom v. For a
2x2 contingency table v=1. This is because,
although there are 4 variables (the expected
frequencies), there are 3 restrictions (3 of the pHel|( eee le Se
four row and column totals must be given), so 185 185
v=4—-3=1.
(g) Compare the ys value with the 77(1) distribution 1 96x47_4, 89x47 _,,
(since v=1) at the appropriate significance level. 185 185
(h) Apply Yates’ continuity correction if necessary.
When the 7 test is applied to a situation with 96 89 185
only one degree of freedom, i.e. v=1, Yates’ (O-—E) values are given in the table below.
continuity correction should be applied. It gives
~~ (lO=E\-0.57
Xe eae
Pass 75 -72=3 63—66=—3
Since 2 is always less than 7 it is not necessary to Fail 21-—24=-3 26—23=3
apply the correction if Ho is accepted. If an
uncorrected x” would reject Ho while 2 would
accept Ho, then it usually indicates that a larger
sample should be taken. Using vist == (Q=E)
E

To test if the two factors are independent in a ae 2 = 2 AF 2 2

mXn contingency table. 12 66 24 23

Proceed as with the 2x2 contingency table but the =1.03 (2 d.p.)
number of degrees of freedom is given by
v=(m-—1)(n-1) Since it is a 2x2 contingency table v=1
Yates’ continuity correction is not needed here since 7% (1) =3.81. So xen = 1.03 <3.81.
v4.
. Accept Ho, i.e. the two factors ‘School’ and ‘Test
result’ are independent at 5% significance level.
Yates’ continuity correction is not necessary because
Ho is accepted.

170
 Contingency Tables
Worked example and Exam questions

RSS ESS aT TDS GNIS LP RR oR ONAN

WE a machines are used to manufacture items which are then If the numbers of people who watched this programme
graded into three categories. A summary of the production for a bear the same proportion to the total population in each of
given period is shown in the table below. these towns, show that the number in the town A sample
who would be expected to have watched this programme
Machine is 20. Hence or otherwise use y? to show that it is
Grade A B C D reasonable to assume that the proportion of people who
watched this programme was the same in both towns. Find
Top .. 16 US) 23 42 approximate 95% confidence limits for this proportion.
Ordinary- 11 6 q 26 *(0 & C)
Reject S 15 10 12
A random sample of 100 housewives were asked by a
Find the expected frequencies on the hypothesis that there is no market research team whether or not they used Sudsey
difference in the quality of the product from each machine. Soap. 58 said yes and 42 said no. In a second random
Use the x? distribution and a 5% level of significance to test the sample of 80 housewives, 62 said yes and 18 said no. By
above hypothesis. considering a suitable 2 x 2 contingency table, test whether
these two samples are consistent with each other.
Let Ho: grade and machine are independent.
In the table of expected frequencies shown below the row and (Q&C)
column totals are first computed, then the total of the row Children from five schools are entered for an examination
totals (which is also the total of the column totals) is also in which four grades are awarded. The table gives the
recorded. frequency distribution of the results.
Each expected frequency is then calculated using the standard
result
cell row total x cell column total ae
~ E g = =I
grand total 6 © = 4 Oo re

where grand total means total of row totals.

:
Ss
%
oO
3
oO
E
H
=
jo)
5
oD

So, for example, the expected frequency for top grade items a < laa Oo al aa]
Grade A 55 45 SS) 40 55
from machine A is a = 15,5. Grade B 45 60 50 40 5)
200
Grade C 50 90 55 10 45
Expected Machine Grade D 50 105 40 10 45

Frequencies A B G D {Totals Test whether the proportion of entrants obtaining the

various grades varies significantly among the schools. If the
Top 16.5 US 22.0 44.0 110 schools are of equal size and can be assumed to enter their
Ordinary Tes 125 10.0 20.0 50 best pupils, explain why your test does not give a fair
Reject 6.0 10.0 8.0 16.0 40 comparison of academic standards in the schools. Do you
think the above data provide any information about
Totals 30 50 40 80 200 relative standards? If you do, conduct a test and state your
conclusions. (OLE)
The following table records observed frequency minus
expected frequency for each cell. Inflatia, in common with many other Western countries, is
in the middle of an economic recession. As part of a
Machine nationwide enquiry into which economic measures will be
most acceptable to the general public, a survey was
O-E A B C D
undertaken in the town of Tucville. The responses to the
Top =0.5 eS 1.0 —2.0 question ‘Would you support an incomes policy based on a
Ordinary Be) =(5)5) Sal) 6.0 flat rate increase of £500 per annum for every worker?’ are
Reject —3.0 5.0 2.0 —4.0 summarised below, together with the employment status of
the respondents.
Thus from the tables above we can calculate
Employment Status

X= »
(O=E) =A)
Skilled Skilled Unskilled Unskilled
and and non and and non
This value is tested against y2.,(6) = 12.59
Union Union Union Union
Note: there are 6 degrees of freedom, a 34 contingency Response Member Member Member Member
table has (3—1) x (4—1) degrees of freedom.
Vo = 13 AS 1259 Yes Tl 7d 9 12

.. there is some evidence to suggest that we should reject Ho, No 24 21 9 11

i.e. that there is some association between grade and machine. Don’t Know 29 27 14/ Di

1 Fifty people were chosen at random in each of two towns Use the x” distribution and a 5% level of significance to test
and asked whether they had watched a certain TV pro- the hypothesis that there is no association between
gramme. Their replies are summarised in the table below. response to the above question and employment status.
Form a new 2 X2 contingency table from the above data by
Watched Did Not
omitting all the “‘Don’t know” responses and then pooling
Programme Watch Totals
the remaining responses to obtain one column for
Town A 24 26 50 “Skilled” and one column for “Unskilled”’. Use a 5% level
Town B 16 34 50 of significance to test the hypothesis of no association
Totals 40 60 100 between the factors in this new table. (A)

171
 :

86 Special Graph Papers

Logarithmic graph paper, Poisson probability chart, Arithmetic probability graph paper.

eR mg i i OP a eS Na

Logarithmic Logarithmic graph paper uses scales which are [iJ

graph paper graduated logarithmically. By plotting original data ae
a efld ee logarithmi We
Mose Abas Ll41516 c scale
on a logarithmic scale, logarithms are automatically 1 2 3 810
taken and plotted in a single process. plotting here gives log 3
A logarithmic scale may have one or more cycles. |+—— one cycle——=|
Each cycle is graduated from 1 to 10 and may be
1 2 3456 81 2354516731 20 3*45|67
8)
used to represent 10” to 10"*!, where n is an integer. n=0 1 10
n=1 10 100
The number of cycles used and the values to be n=-—1 0.1 1
marked on them are determined by the range of the The range of values 0.3 to 6.7 needs 2 cycles:
data. 0.1 1 10

There are two basic types of logarithmic graph paper. Figure 2

1. Full logarithmic paper (or log-log paper)

On this paper both axes are marked with logarithmic
scales. A relation of the form y=ax" gives a straight i] The given data are
line if x is plotted against y on log—log paper since thought to behave as
log y=log a+n log x. The gradient is n and the y=a'. Use log paper
intercept on the y-axis is a. to estimate a.

Note: Use an ordinary ruler to measure the distances

used to calculate the gradient. Do not use the
numbers marked on the logarithmic scales.

2. Semi-logarithmic paper (or log—linear paper)

On this paper one scale is linear and the other is
logarithmic. A relation of the form y=ab* gives a
straight line if x is plotted on the linear scale and y From the graph:
on the logarithmic scale since log y=log a+x log b. 4.1 cm~1 log cycle
The gradient is log b and the intercept on y-axis is a. 5.8 cm~1.4 cycles
Note: Use an ordinary ruler to find the gradient as Fe ]8 Me,ay
aN 0.35
before. The length of one cycle is taken as one unit
of length on the logarithmic scale. >a~2.24

Figure 3

Poisson The Poisson probability chart is used to find P(X2c) Li] A company making microprocessor parts has
probability —_for a distribution which is Po(a). It gives the 1% of its production faulty. What is the probability of
chart probabilities for different values of a and c. getting at least S defectives in a box of 200?
The chart is used in the following way.
(a) Determine a (using a=np). ‘p scale’ n=200, p=0.01, so a=np=2. p
Find its position on the ‘a scale’. Verify on a Poisson chart
(b) Find where the ordinate at that for a=2 and c=5,
a cuts the curve marked c. p=0.015. 0.015 >= 5
(c) read the corresponding value So the probability of getting
of p on the ‘p scale’. This Epa at least S defectives in a 2 a
gives the probability for x=c. : acca’ _ box of 200 is 0.015. Figure 4
Figure 1

Arithmetic Arithmetic probability graph paper has one linear and

probability one non-linear scale. It is designed so that when the 99.9 normal
graph paper cumulative frequency of a normal distribution is
plotted (on the non-linear scale) against a variable —ve skew
the result is a straight line. This gives a method of
frequency
testing if a sample is from a normal population. ©
a
-
cumulative
%
—-O00
Note: If the distribution has been transformed, then
the transformed variable must be used. variable
Skewed distributions result in curved lines as shown.
The mean yu can be estimated since it is the value of
the variable corresponding to 50% cumulative
frequency.
The standard deviation can be estimated using
40=x(97.72) —x(2.28) frequency
or 30=x(93.32)—x(6.68) cumulative
%
where x(97.72) is the value of the variable
corresponding to 97.72% cumulative frequency, etc. variable
The range of values of the variable determines which
of these results is used but the first is preferred. Figure 5

172
 Special Graph Papers
Worked example and Exam questions

SA a ae PE IER TRS a Cy ROT ou oe Ee RRNA

WE) The following is a random sample of size20, which it is believed 3 (a) Nine men of similar briefly how the method of
may be from a normal population. build were given x least squares might have
bid) ISO 812A) 2255. EO sO tail. 20.4. 34.6, 18:5. standard units of alcohol, been used to find estimates
26.8, 2.6,.1.1, 7:0, 21.0, 7.61.19.6,.36.4, 36.3, 21.9. allowed to rest for one of a and b.
Plot this sample on arithmetic probability paper. hour, and then asked to (b) The table below gives
Estimate from this graph the mean and variance of the sample. complete a simple task. the masses, in kilograms,
‘The time y, taken to of 150 working coalminers
Inspecting the given set of values indicates 0 to 40 as a suitable complete this task was of similar height.
range, this range is divided into eight equal classes each of measured, in seconds, for
width 5. A frequency, cumulative frequency and percentage Mass
each man. The results are
cumulative frequency table is constructed as shown below. (kilograms) Frequency
given below.
Amount of 50-54 4
Class 0O- 5 10 15 20 25 30 35-40 alcohol x Time y 55-59 8
Frequency 2 3 2 4 4 1 2 2 60-64 25
teal 1.4 65-69 33
C lati
Re
requency
ERY porbe et ibe eds P16 lish} 20 1.8 4.5 70-74 35)
33 11.2 75-79 27
Percentage 3.9 19.0 80-84 9
cumulative | 10 25 35 55 75 80 90 100 5 31.4 85-89 5
frequency 6.5 45.9 90-94 4
6.7 55.6 Using arithmetical
The percentage cumulative frequency is plotted on arithmetic 8.0 76.8 probability paper, verify
probability paper as shown below. On the assumption that the 9.1 97.1 that it is reasonable to
sample is from a normal population an estimate for the mean of It is thought that the model assume that these data
the sample is obtained by reading the value of the variable for these data is of the form came from an underlying
corresponding to 50% cumulative frequency, and this is ~ y=ax’. Verify that this is a normal population.
estimated to be 18.2 from the graph. reasonable assumption by Estimate from your graph
We use plotting the above data on the mean and standard
log-log paper. Estimate deviation of this
‘ _ *(93 .32)—x(6.68) distribution.
to estimate s, the standard deviation of the parameters a and b
3 from your graph. Indicate (A)
the sample, where x(93.32) is the value of the variable
corresponding to 93.32% percentage cumulative frequency,
and similarly for x(6.68). 4 (a) Allschools in the county of Kentwall were involved ina
SANS 05 “Sponsored Pumpkin Grow” during the summer of 1980.
From the graph s = Tee = 11, so the variance of the Each pupil was given two pumpkin seeds and asked to
come back at the end of the summer at which time the mass
sample is estimated to be 121. of their largest pumpkin was recorded in kilograms. The
.. the sample has estimated mean 18.2 and estimated variance table below gives the results for two random samples of
121. (See graph overleaf.) pupils, one from the Much Wopping School and one from
Markum School.
1 The frequency distribution of 200 masses, each recorded to Much Wopping Primary School
the nearest gram, is given in the table.
6.07, 8.32, 9.40, 6.68, 4.24, 8.45, 10.00, 7.79, 5.79

Mass (g) 11 12 13 14 Markum High School

Frequency 16 28 118 22
5.86, 2.78, 6.61, 4.57, 6.50, 7.72, 2.30, 8.45, 4.41, 5.86, 3.35
Use arithmetic probability paper to fit a normal
distribution to the data, stating its mean and standard Using the same sheet of arithmetical probability paper:
deviation. Find the frequencies predicted by the fitted (i) plot the sample from Much Wopping Primary School,
distribution for the groups in the table. (ii) plot the sample from Markum High School. Compare
*(A) the distributions.
(b) The number of misprints on 200 randomly selected
2 The number of cosmic particles per minute arriving at pages from the 1981 editions of the Daily Planet, a quality
an apparatus was recorded over a period of 1000 newspaper, were recorded. The table below summarises
minutes and these observations are tabulated below. these results.
Number of misprints per page
No. of particles 0 1 2 3 At 16
No. of minutes. 300 372 201 9725 4 «1 Number of more
misprints Del] ih |) A] Sh 2b i Se @ | oF ed |] are
Use Poisson probability paper to estimate the mean rate of PEL PEE. 8
arrival of cosmic particles. State the variance and find the Fegueney
probability that, in any given interval of one minute, the >| 22311-4038) 29°) 225).14 5 4
rate of arrival has a value which is more than five standard
deviations from the mean. Also determine the probability Use Poisson probability paper to verify that the Poisson
that, in any given interval of three minutes: distribution with mean 4 is a reasonable model for these
(i) no particles arrive, data. Determine graphically an estimate for the probability
(ii) no more than two particles arrive. (A) of more than 11 misprints on a page. (A)
ee
Part III
Answers
Guided Examples Answers 27 Differentiation
(a) (i) e*(cos x+sin x),
.. 3x*(1+sec x) —x? sec x tan x
(i) ee
(1+sec x)
ee
(b) x4(1+5 In x) —sin x
1 Polynomials
29 Applications of differentiation
P(x) =2x?+3x-2
(a) 1s,3s; (b) 4m,0m; (c) -6ms-7,6ms’;
ig=e Ol (d) -3ms'
y,
3 Quadratics
30 Changes

ap=5 1%.
(i) x7-4x+8=0 31 Special points
(ii) (x—5)(x?-—4x+8) =0 Stationary points: Inflexion at (0, 0), Minimum at (3, —27);
4 Sequences and series Inflexion at (2, —16).
1 32 Curve sketching
r=-——
2

5.24 3
6 Permutations and combinations
6!
213!
Se!
DIQ\
!
3! + 3B!
!
oe
8 Inequations
x<lorx24
x<1 or x24or 25x53
33 Integration
10 Exponential and logarithmic functions
1st ete
2x — 4x? +3
17 1
8x"; |x| = (a) 5%,58, (0)(b) -,17.)
(c) F
1
—- Sekdy
es”
34 Methods of integration
13 The circle
4x _
C, centre (0, 8), radius=4V2 (a) a (8x7-4x+1)+c; (b) x-5In ee
C, centre (9, —1), radius =5V2
(4, 4); 167° (c) Injx+ V(1+x’)| +c.
23 Vectors 35 Applications of integration
(a) OU=(u+A\litj)
mad

—.
(a) 647 cubic units; (b) 647 cubic units.
ST=(u—A)(i-j) 36 Differential equations
(b) O is the centre of mass of triangle POR. y=2(x+1)
24 Vectors and geometry
40 Matrices
A:w=1:6 k=a’+be
r=i—2j+k+¢t(13i+4j—5k)
p= —12i—6j+6k 43 Graphs in kinematics
25 Complex numbers
Speed-time graph for C Speed-time graph for D
(i) 1—i or 1+; 14+2i or 2+i; 1—2i or 2—-i. 12.5
26 Complex numbers and graphs g

= 2(c0s Ui sin a 3
4 4 & (m/s)
Speed

w= 6 co(Fi sin (#)); | é

0 on (2) (2)
he 1080
time (s) time (s)

(a) 4500 m, 0) 13.3 m/s (48 km/h), (c) 0.0165 m/s? or

sales(Gy)+780 Ge)
0.0592 km/h?.

it) Yoo (32) +n (=)

44 Relative motion
N31-4°E, 12.41 pm, 9-5 nautical miles.
45 1-D particle dynamics
(a) 4930 N, (b) 680 N.
47 Work and energy
(i) 20N m, (ii) 48
N m, (iii) 28
N m, (iv) ae > mM:
0 49 Impulse and momentum

790 KN; A. 2h
SIN 25
176
53 Vertical circular motion 65 Suspending and toppling
V[2ag(1—cos 6)]; mg(3 cos 9-2). (a) 1cm;(b) 3cm from AB, 3.8 cm from AE; (c) 38-3°.
54 Variable forces 73 Discrete probability distributions
(i). = (se; 7).
55 Simple harmonic motion

20 ae a; : above O.
g 2
PX=x) eee ee
57 Coplanar concurrent forces
‘E[X] = 5-833
2 N along GP.
P(X=2 or 3 for 3 throws) = 0-00137
58 Moments
76 The Poisson distribution
(i) 5 kg; (ii) 2 kg. Predicted frequencies, 34-1538: 5 Die? 7-9) 2-2, 035,
59 Equilibrium

Force from wall, 15V3 N; force from ground, 1683 N;

79 Sampling
For the 8 classes; less than —2, —2 up to 0, 0 up to 2,
force from rod, 373 N. 2up to4, 4up to 6, 6up to 8, 8 up to 10, greater than 10, the
allocation of the random numbers 001 to 000 to the classes
60 Three force problems is 001, 002-023, 024-159, 160-500, 501-841, 842-977,
Tension, 30 N; Reaction, 18 N. 978-999, 000.
The random observation is in the class 160—500 and simple
61 Friction proportion gives the random observation to be 3-894.
(a) H=W tan 2a; (b) =a.
82 Linear regression
63 Equivalent systems of forces y = —0-536x + 69-033
(a) R=5N, S=8N; (b) R=5N, S=2N; 11V3N m. For x = 60, y = 36-873
64 Centre of mass

5 1/(1—2x) —8/(2—x).
Answers to 6 2/(2+x)+1/(1—2x).
7 4/(2+x) + 1/(1—2x) +2/(1-2x).
Examination Questions 8 3/(1—3x) —2/(1—2x).
9 4/(1+2x)+2/(1—x) +3/(1—x/y.
1 Polynomials 10 1/(x+7)—1/(x+9).
Uh A/(e+2)+ 1/43).
1 a=—9, b=7; (x-2)—3)(2¥+1). 12 4/(x—4) + 1/(x+2).
2 a=-1, b=6. 13 16/(x—2) —14/(x-1).
3-7. 14 3/(x+1)—2/(x +1)’.
4 (i) —12; (ii) —60; (iii) 0; 2x+1 is factor; (x—3)(x+1). 15 —4/9(x+1) + 4/9(x—2) + 2/3(x—-2).
5 a=8, b=5; a8 5). 16 —U3(1+2x) + 5/3 +2) — Al(x+2)°.
6 —18, b=8; (x—2)(x+4)(2x-1). 17 —1/(x+1)+x/(x? +1).
7 —10. 18 1/2(x—1) + (x +1)/2(x7 +1).
8 a=—21, b=8. (b) P=6, OQ=-8, c=4. 19 14+3/(x+4) +5/(x—2).
9 —34; (2x—1)(2x +5)(2x—3). 20 (x—3) —1/(x +1) + 8/(x+2).
ie
illl —9, b=2, c=8.
1 0 a>
3 Quadratics
11 (a) st yz
i—a. s... ne b) 2x+3. 1 —4<x<4;
2 gx’ +pxt+1=0.
q=3 or 4.

12 3x-2; x-1. 3 (a) 2<k<6. (b) —7, 11. (c) 11x?—27x+11=0.

13 (3-—x)(1—x)’; x= 1 or x23. 4 (a) (i) 2. (ii) 5. (iii) 4x?-21x+1=0.
14 (i) a=b=—1, c=0. (ii) x 3447 6x4+4.
(b) 5/2; m= —S/2; n=5
2 Rational functions
Sy ue,
1
1 A=3/2, B=—S 6 (i) —11/4. (i) 4x?+11x+9=0.
2 7 (a) 4<x=<5.(b) —6<k<6,
2 2/(2+x) —1/(1 +x’). 8 n>3 orn<—3.
3 Wx—1) +3/(x+2) —5/(x +2)’. 4 Sequences and series
4 1/(1+x)
+ 2x/(1—2x’).
=-—8, r=-.
2
177
 IN WHIBY. 9 Indices and logarithms
3 (a) d=2, a=3. (b) 1,1,1 or 4,6,9. ire. 2t
4 (i) £1656.03. (ii) n=500 001. 1 (a) (i) z=3; (ii) 2=3 (iii) ae (iv) y=-1.
5 —cos 2a.
(b) z?—4z+3=0, y=0 or 1.
6 x+1 valid if > {c)le
x1
2 (a) raat

(b) (i) 5 Gi) -*.

iy Sia Gtice=:
1
3 (i) 34; (il) Ds
10 100; 2046; 2146.
11 Gi) 7(p+1) (ii) 7(p+1)C0p+
11). 4 (a) 20) var?
5 (a) x=625 or (625)'. (b) y=2.
5 Summation of series
6 (i) x= —2-06; (ii) y=8.
1 (a) (i) en(n+1)(4n~1). (ii) 2x(1— 2x)" 2x). 2
7 (a) xy =3*7, * = 3-2,
q

(b) (i) 2"*!-2—n; (ii) 6. (b) x=In 2.

2 73710. 8 (a) (i) 0; (i) 3.

(b) x=In (3).y=—lIn 6.

8n?+8n+1. 9 (x,y) =(3,9) or (9,3).

10 (a) y=1.983; (b) 0.69897.
Permutations and combinations
(i) 40320; (ii) 6720; (iii) 907200; (iv) 1152
11 (i. k=2-303, i
dy
—=10 In 10;
(a) 5040. (b) 1440. (c) 144.
840; 96. (ii) g(x) =In x, Bax (1+In x).
(a) 120; (b)-60.
3240. 12 (x,y) =(8,2) or (2,8).
50. 10 Exponential and logarithmic functions
10080; 30.
(i) 12; (ii) 12. 11--x;
8 1
<=,
9! or 362880; (i) 91/5! or 3024; (ii) 5!x4! or 2880. ee ley
A Binomial theorem
DA
COBAIAMAEWNHKE
RW
IAM ie
2147+ —+-—F2..
ms Ge
x ;
1 2! 4! «6! (2n)! (2n)!
— 32—40x + 20x?—Spit ——x°; 31.208.
8 32 ;
3 (a) ge eee ¢
n (a) 1—2x—2x?—4x°; ~i<x<i 3.91918. (b) +8. 2 hams n!

—192x>—432x. (b) igre

2 8
Ww
> 1—6x +24x?—80x?.
4 (a) -2x-20 2 (b) —3x-5 2-94"

6 245/64.
3x2-+ 10x3; 1(2(3)"—3(2")); |x| <.
n
7 256—3072x+ 16 128x*; 253.
5 1 1
8 32—80x+ 80x’; 32.808. 5 (a) x +—x3—=x*;
ry a= —— —1<x<1.
q aaa, o3 (b) 0.099 5 504.
(b)

9 ‘Loararucae a cle 16 64
ie 1G 6 Anti ee x°; 0-510 82.
10 (a+ bn+cn(n—1))/n!; a=2, b=4, c=1.
11 Coordinates and graphs
:
11 (i) De Dues
(i) 1l+=x-=x?;
y & (i ) 1+ Be
(ii) +=x?;
fe 1+.x x +47; 3.315. 1 (ii) Area=25; (iii) PR=5V5; perpendicular distance =2V/5.
2 (i) t=1; (ii) Area=10.
12 (i) 1t+x+x2+23: (ii)1 +20+3x24
4x3. 3 x=1.18; 3.71; x —4x7+4=0.
4 X(10,0) Y(0,5); Area=25.
8 Inequations
5 (1,1) y=18-2x.
1 (a) ¢=%<22. (6b) —1<x<1 or x>2. 6 (a) P(1,7,0) O(5,15,—8). (b) 1:3. (c) (4,6,
—18).
2 (i) x=—2; Gi) -2Sx<—1 or x21. 7 D(2,-4
3 x=0 or -1;x>0 orx<-1. 8 (i) B(10,9); (ii)1/V50; (iii) area=6.
4 (i) x<-—1 or x>2/3; (ii) x<—1 or 0<x<2/3;
12 The straight line
(iii) —1<x<0 or x>2/3.
§ —4ay<4. 1 (i) y=3x—-6; (ii) (2,0).
2 k=1,-2.
6 HEE et 3 k=9.
4
4 a=2V5, b=4V5.
7 5/6+I1n 4. 5 3y=2x4+11.
6 24x+32y =600; x? +y? —30x — 15y +225 =0; Or:

() 5 Gi)
eo
1a) — "yes:

/178
13 The
; circle 19 Trigonometrical graphs
1 x?+y? SOS) a 0; P(6,0) Q(-1,-7); 7V2.
2 10 units; x?+y?—6x—2y—15=0, 1 6=0-34 rad.
3 Pt of contact (3,2). CS
ee
3 0=45°, 165°.
4 y= ao: ie 16—x; x°-2x+y?—10y+1=0; aa
x Sedas =F, :x= 33, 327.
5 x°-4x+y? —12y+32=0; x?-12x+y* —4y+ 32=0. aha) x
P GQenkrtyx, y=4-x, y=12—x. 6 x coords 0, 1-87, 4-37, 5-67; sin S10
i) x?- aa —6y =0;
(ii) x?-4x+y? Bae 0. 7 €aye=12/13.4(0) 12/5 (cy S120) 13/12:

Renee
1 2hx —h?. oli!—=h2). (i ) y = -8x?. 9 =al6, +n/2,
=1/6, 5a/6; —tS 0<-n/2,
Xn, Sui6 1I6<0<n/2
OS —a/2, 1/6 SON 7/2,
=; cs aie o(;
4a” 3), CE eg 5m/6< OKT.
iii ; ee pee
2 A(9,6); tgt 3y=x+9; normal y+3x= 33; 20 ae ke, identities
F B(121/9,—22/3); DE=20 AE= V40 (=2V10) AD=6V10. 1 (a) cos @= ati 122-4°, 20-8°.
2
ns

4 Bey lige ax sin t—by cos

t= (a?+b?) sin
tcos f; 2 A=54-7°, fae 23427 B05 3k
vee —b*) cos t, (@ —b°*) sin 1); a’x? + b*y?
= (a?—b’)?. 3 (b) (i) —7/25; (ii) 1 :
5 pqytx=clp+q): ees 2pc. Page
6 y =x-3: 4% (@) 60°, 1207, 240°; 300°; (ii) 312, hie.
15 Loci (iii) 30°, 150°, 210°, 330°; (iv) 0°, 109.5°, 250-5°, 360°.
|e eis Sia at
6 (i) 5°, 45°, 125°, 165°, 245°, 285°; (ii) 19-5°, 160-5°, 210°, 330°.
2 (ii) (PZ, XB); area=is. V 13p0=33 1, 6
d= 3/72 VS)
2 8 V5sin (x—63-4); (i) [- Ay5,V5]; (ii) 90°, 216-8°.
32 9 48-6°, 131-4°, 210°, 330°.
2) Yeo 3e3 or y=" 1x. (ii) (5-4). 10 (i) 45°, 105°, 165°, 225°, 285°, 345°: (ii) 210°, 330°.
4 (i) 2y=x+4; (i)3y=50—4x 11 45°, 90°, 135°, 225°, 270°, 315°.
(x—8)2 + (y—6)?=50 or x2+y?—16x—12y+50=0. 12 7¢—10t+3=0; 46-4°.
: 108- 8. ; 21 Plane triangles
ree 21 (i) 2VIT7; 126-9°.
(a) 53-1°;
y =ax—-a. °, o
7 2y'y =3x—aP; (aP/4,—
= 3tx—at’; (at’/4,—at’/8) Exception if t=0. (ii) 16-1°.
16 Polar cogrdinates 4V3 3. (i) 222, 98°; (i) 530", 2702
cms
3 r==
1P Q:r a aoe 0; OP: 7)22, cosec 6/4 : is a 1-9°-513-8iems 3-2
A058 1212

2 (i) r=a; (ii) 0=a; (iii) r=c sin 6; 6 (b) aie.

(iv) r=d sin B/sin (O—B). i 111°31:58-m;

a Peep 9 (i) 242 m; (ii) 306 m.

10 124°, 28°, 28°.
17 Experimental laws 11 AP? =a?+c?—2ac cos (B+ 60°); A=3, w=2V3.
1 a=2-5, k=0°18. 22 3-D Figures
ay ere 0:7, y=1-6. 1 420-5 m.
3 b=1-56, a=0-78. yee
4 log y=log at+k log x; k=1-5, a=2-5. (a) 2-5. (b) 14. 3 (i) 22°, 98°; (ii) 30°, 270°.
5 a=30, b=—4, x<7°5. 4 69-8 m.
6 a=0-25, b=2+3 5 219-8 m; 138-6 m; 326-6 m; Area 11 668 m’.
7 (a) 2y+3x=4. (b) In5+Inx=y In 6. 6 51-2°: 7:79 cm; 70°5°.
Met on
9 b=0-35, a= 140.
7 (i) eeVIBB as (i) 20°7V3;
.
(ii) qe
6a! V3; (iv) 11/19.
= >p(qt 5,0 — tans * tan a
10 (i) log y=log a+(x+1) log b; (ii) px =1-— a(2)) :ECR LAS) Soke 2a r
x (Sa

18 Trigonometrical functions 10 93-6° away from OAB.

1 0.04 rad ,
2 (a) 0:499074. (b) 0-728580. (c) 1-493944. = SRL ey ed
3 (a)i3°45'21". (b), 60°42'22”. (c) 125°47'7’. Ipt+a|= be
4 (a) 7/4. (b) 1-288. (c) 3-067. oe! ee SOM OT=>%-
5 (a) 28°38'52”. (b) 45°. (c) 90°49’10", Poms 5 ae a3 ae
67 17°t1'19".
114°35’30".
Z
3 AB=b-—a, at
ye
re laa)
8 1.31. i wn iat 1 ‘ 1
9 1:318 m. (i) te As Bal deer ae
10 18-75 cm. ute
11 7-4cm. 4 AB:BC=1:2; OD=6q—4p; OE = —3q+5p.
12 8:12 cm. 1 1
13 sin=tan=0-0015, cos=1-0000. 5 (a) BaP 8), (b) y= (crap); (d) XY: ¥YZ=1:1.
14 sin=tan=0-0058, cos=1-0000. 1 Ory) ae |
15 (a) 3/5, 4/5. (b) 3/4, 3/5. (c) 7/25, 24/7. 6 (a) OM=-b; (b) OT==(at2b); (c) OX==(8atb);
16 (a) 0-0095 rad. (b) 0-0099 rad. (c) 0-1rad. (d) 0-14 rad. 2 3 6
17 0-0016 rad. (d) OV=<(8a+b).
18 0-07 rad. :
19 48-6°. = ie a nets tar
714 aly p); PQ:Q 3
20 339 cm?.
179
24 Vectors and geometry 8 (a) —2+4i. (b) =!. P6Q= 90°
16 =)
1 (i) (3); (ii) m=5, n=1; a.b=—4; = 9 x°+y*+10x+16= .
a
D5 Sey:
10 1, tan7! (3)— 7; radius 1, centre (0,0).
z oF 3V2; o( | (3);el 4
Z. —2 2 10
11 arg (z—(1+i))=a
3 (a) AC:CB=5:3. y 2

4 54-7°; OP=i+3j—2k; r.(4i+3j—3k)

=19. 6
5
Required arg(z—(1+i)}=7
4
= Mar s z-(3+i) =3
5 (i) 30°; PO=| -3+p |; p=1, q=-2. 2
S+q-p 1

6 (a) 3j+4k; (b) r.(3j+4k) =0; (c) (=),

26

25 Complex numbers
27 managed
1 32+47i; 32—47i; (6—Si)(6+
5i)(7 +2i)(7—2i). x74+2x-1
Deiat \/3, a Me) agg en
3 z=2-i, w=24+3i. 2 (a) 12x+1; (b) 4x°- = (Co——
see).
4a) —5(1+-V3i), ‘Uae 3
4 (a) = (b) 2x(3x+2); (c) 345
5 pss } ee yee es
2 iz 2 2
ENE 2 aed 15 Ee. Ze ed
2 Z 5 (a) (i) rane (il) Pe ee

= (at sae dye ail

xe+ y? x+y?
y? V2
b) yaxt, kor
(98 ===.oe
T (aye =x ++i Dry: Vi= a (1+i).
6
=v any l=
(b) = 5x2—14x+125=0. 7 (a) x2(3 Inx+1). (b) a
nip 41, q=1+7i; a=—3, b=—1.
9 2742745. eS for x>0; -1<yS0.
10 x?—2x+2; (1+2) or (1-1) or (—1+2i) or (—1—2i). dx” (2c FA)
11 p=3,q= 5: Viet dy2x7+4) 1 5
12 +(3+2i) and +(3—2i); 2=5+3i or 2+1; 5—3i or 2=7.
13 p=3, gq=1 or p=—3, q=-1.
de =4)08 4
14 A=B=~-1. 10 (a)

26 Complex numbers and graphs

(b) (2 -3v3), (=.3V3).
1 (a) a=b=+1; 21=2(0s a sin |, 6 6
28 Methods of differentiation

1 (i) x(3+4)(223—9x-+16); (i) SE"

4 So
z= V2eos
ati sin a}
2(x+1)? ”
za=V2 00(=) +i sin (=). a hy b\ Sia
(iii) -1(++) (:
-5) ez (x2+1)?’

(b) 2+i2V3; z4=2| o0s ati sin z), teal! : :

(iv) 5 098 5cos? x—3 sin ;cos? x sin x;
z= 4 cosisin A (v) 4 tan? 2x. 2 sec* 2x =8 tan” 2x sec” 2x.
3 3
3x+1
2 (i) (a) 6x(x*+1)?. (b) 12 sin? 3x cos 3x. (c)
25=2|c0 (==)+i sin (=) |. (2x+1)*
6 6 (ii) Bins) sin x
1 (=) be (=) x
2 =| cos | —]+7 sin |—] }.
Al 3 3
oe ee
ae sinees 2x.
3 (a) (co oa sin Z|.(b) jo (=) +i sin (=)|.
4 (i) 2x cos 3x —3x* sin 3x; (ii) e(In+1);
x
4 (a) 1,0; 2 cos g.E PASI
DeP SX
(iii) 6x(x* +2); (iv)
5 (i) disc, centre (0, 0), radius 1; (x2+1)*
(ii) disc, centre (1, 1), radius 2.
6 (a) 127°. (b) (i) circle, centre (1, 1), radius1; 5 (i) 8 tan? 2x sec” 2x; (ii) — aoe (ili) x(2 In x+1).
(ii) perpendicular bisector of line joining (1, 0) to (0, —1); By
(iii) half line, x=1 (y>0). @lce, Oe. (5)
7 (i) 1; Gi) 2423.
180
29 Applications of differentiation 5 (a) minimum at (0, 0), maximum at G =):
1o(a)) 127s: (b) 103 m.
2 (i) —28 m/s’; (ii) 0 and 12 s; (iii) 18 s. (b) —»<y<1. (c) asymptotes x=0 and y= +1.
3 9y =27x—16; 9y+2=0. qf 1 Tn

LS IU ee 6 Minimum (ae te cuts )maximum (, a Gh |e

4 (a)
(a) 18x+9x?+1. Oe
(b (-, 3).(33), Aa VD: V2
apes) 5
7 yoO0 asx +, yoto asx];
5
maximum at (- -4),minimum at (—2, —1).
Peas
Thy i d
ie F 8 oY = 8x3—2y: maximum at (0, 1), minima at (-5 i
dx aes
7 y y=x-=+2;
5 y y=—x4-.
x 3
and (a ‘))
2 8
8 (4).6 tan 3x sec? 4x: (11) 72) Gait) -2 scey’ 1 a
(t+1) 9 (ii) rs = ees for all x; (ii) 2.
1—yo-—2xo
Xo+2yo—
® (a) ytx=$. b) 0.1), (3-2), 33 Integration
9
(c) max y=1, min y= -* (d) (1, 0), (- 3)
ay:
= (b) 138.
30 Chane
3 5
1 1007 cm? s“}. 3 (a) (i) es tate (ii) t+ 2a!te,
2 (a) r=4 cm. (b) 87 cm?/s.
3 2800 m/s.
4 (a) 0-127. (b) 0-05 cm.
(=
: i Bb- 3
54cm’s!. 4 (i) (a) === =a +e, (b) -Fa- 3x)i tc.
Dg x x

6 (i) 107 m? s~?; (ii) ===, (iii) 3s.

y © 2-6 HM Ew oY
5 (i) hte; Gis *.(ii) a+5
8 164s; ae cm/s. 9 0-02 10 2T.
6 (a) —44; (ii) 156; as
es
31 Special points 2
ee= +e; (it)
re eee Cs
1 (i) p=2, q=1; (ii)
6. 7 (i) In sec:x:-e; (Gil) ke C.
2 a=-2, b= ‘.
3 Depth: 32x? cm; width 3-42 cm, length 13-68 cm, co sm
8 —cos x— +c.
depth 2-74 cm.

4 2=3, maximum.
9 p=2, q=1; : Ine sine
5 (a) x=0, maximum; x= —4, minimum. 10 a=3.

6 Borat e Baran t2422+2") oF,

e 34 Methods of integration
oH
minimum at (0, 1). 36
i (-1,5) 8 (i) min (a, 0), max (x=#4), 2EO mG:
3 2 if
3 (a) 338. (b) - (c) In (2).
(ii) max (a, 0), min (x=),
9 4 (i) te J(ii) 4 In 2:

10 0< Veena
81 5 (a) (i) —In 2; (ii) Get). (b) 2e-¥* +c.
32 Curve sketching
1
2 x=0 or —2; minimum at (0, 0), maximum at (—2, —4).

3 (i) Inflexion at #00

327
(0, 0), maximum a t (2,=): 7 (i) VORFI) +6; (i) $F In [2x41] +05
hetpear te
ce e
(iii) =r In at
; 1
(ii) asymptote x = —2, maximum at (0.i).
-1
8 (a) 2 (b) x e” Ste, (c) ——+in=
4 (i) y>lasx—>+®; (ii) a<y <2;
2 a 1 x
(iv) maximum at (—1, 2), minimum at @ 3). ae IN EC
Xo, xtlie ae+1) x

181
 1 Roe bas of
35 Applications of integration 3 (a) f pen eae dell (b) (i) 3° (ii) 5/3.
1 30. ——_——
1 5 (a) f(0)=0; f(1)=56, (b) 977 —5*?,
>» (EN) (O)
( ) (i) (CEO)) (CLO)) (Ge
(
O)e Cp) =
) ( ) 4
jl
6 (52,0) 87 Os eelaigs ; wer. x#1);

WI : 4 be
3 (a) Inflexion at (0, 0), minimum at (-2, -7). flixa wERs, a>1); 2 I

1 x4 (rER,); A xa Sha) tf (x) =a* +a" 0.

(b) (-1, 0), (0, 0); (©) 10° x
1797 : i If 3S Pe
4 cubic units. 8 Periods 7,7,7 Range [—1, 1].
6 aes
5 (i) (1, —4) and (25, 20); (ii) 144 square units. 10 b>-9; x=11, —5; Non-commutative.
544 | 11 x—sin x; domain D.
6 A(6, 8), B(—6, 8); 80-35 square units; cubic units.
3 40 Matrices ' _ i GG
14 488 ae te. 3 —-5 eu = ).ma | )
7@ =3 Gi) 15
—S. hea (a
:
3) (i 19 i\ 499
T V3 : x=2, by a

& —-+ —— square inits, 0 42

12 8
9 2-15 cubic units.
a (5 a)eon
ve
36 Differential equations 2 (i) (13, 19), (ii) a( 3 oi (iii) a=2, Dea,
eee 10\-2 4
eae (iv) (5a, 5a), (v) y=x.
een ae ns
PS eae. 3 (yale(ble a
0 1 3
3 2y=In (+x).
4 (a) m=—L, y=0.
4 Se ke ae sin 2 1+m,
ee at 5 4x+5y=0; y=2x; x+2y=0.
5 tan y=In (1+x)+1.
s 41 Force diagrams
e
oe 1+e* 1
y 1 20 W-weight
7 In x)“(+2 1; as t>, ae N, R—normal reactions
os F— friction
See inet
BV a(3+eP")
37 Numerical solution of equations 2 (a)
Und-03: W-weight of ladder
2 2 roots; 3-98; —1-06. N, R-normal reactions
328028 F— friction
4 1-179747 P— normal reaction
510-537 between man and
6 18-5. ladder.
TWO" Gis eae (b)
38 Numerical integration
: w-weight of man
1 10/9. P— normal reaction
2 0-467; 0-475; 0-476; 3-114. - Z
3 —0-026. ;
4 57-3; 57-29. yy
5 0-867. N p
6 3-69; 6-71. 3 P— pull
7 OSIS 0815. W-weight
8 0-160. F N-— normal reaction
9 2-4948. Mi F— friction
39 Functions
1 (a) Max=5. (b) (—®%, 5). 4 : F Q- push
2 (i) fg; (ii): gh; (iii) g; (iv) fs (v) of. = W-weight
Ww N- normal reaction
F- friction

182
5 (a) 11 (a)

W-weight of large
a W-weight

sphere b
(0) direction W-weight
N, R, S—normal reactions R of motion
—= a oe R- resistance

a i.
12 (a) AN,
W,-weight of top brick
w-weight of N,— normal reaction
small sphere
S, Q-normal
reactions Za

(b)
W,-weight of
6 (a) W- weight bottom brick
N,—normal reaction N,, N3—normal
F, — friction reactions

13 (a)
w-—weight of man
W- weight R,, Ro—normal reactions
O
N>-normal
reaction For (i) R,+R,>w

F,- friction aN (ii) Ry +R »=w

(iii) R,+Ro<w
W-weight (b) T
N,, N2—normal reactions W-weight of lift
P— propulsive force R,, R»—normal reactions
(at the driven wheels) T-— tension in lift cable
R- resistance
For (i) T>R,+R.+W
(ii) T=R,+R,+W
R, R,
(ii) T<R,+Ro+W
W- weight of car
N,, N»—normal
reactions W,-weight of
T— tension in engine
coupling N,-— normal reaction
P— propulsive force P— pull
R,-resistance T- tension in
coupling
w- weight of R,-— resistance
caravan
Q- normal W.-weight of train
N, +
reaction N>- normal reaction
T—- tension in T— tension in
coupling R, coupling
R,—-resistance W, R,- resistance

W-weight
T- tension 42 1-D kinematics
1 (a) 1-12 m/s?. (b) 31-25 s.
2 (i) 9 m; (ii) 4 m/s.
3 (a) 14-48. (b) 36 m/s.
4 (a) 3s. (b) 10 m/s, 2:5 m/s.
W-weight of rod
SLs 24 sn llOuseey, ma)Ss
N,, N2—normal reactions
F,, F,— frictional forces 4 ;
6 —ms 2; 8163 m
7s)
7 320 m; 55 m/s.

43 Graphs in kinematics
(b) 1 (i) 48 km/h; (ii) 64 km/h/min.
2 (ii) 3s; (iii) 15 m/s; (iv) 13 m/s”.
w-weight of cylinder
1 =
N>, N3—normal reactions 3 (i) =m so Ri) —ms’;
a (iii) 17250 m;(iv) 64.7kmh7!.
F,-friction
rer)
“9Bre 7V(atr)r)
ANB) CG) re (iii) oy
7

5 (>re ™
183
 5 Sy +x —-x
44 Relative motion 5 tan at+tan B ==) tan a tan B= y2 ,tan(at+f) ay
16ms_! from S60°E; from S41°E. ni ; ;
2 11-1 knots on bearing 339°; 340-6°. 52 Motion in a horizontal circle
S22 hy 26 yl <4 hh:
1 ;kg; 76-4 revs/min.
4 P(30t—10, 0), O(0, 10-402), PO =10 (25r°— 144+2),
approximately 17 minutes past noon, 50 km per hour at
536-9°W. 2 (a) = (b)
45 1-D particle dynamics F
1 5-6N. 3 Ps a+lw? sin’ a), Oe, eae
: 9% m/s”; (ii) 16-25 N;A 95 m.
2 (i) smu 5 Seats cos a
3 (i) 167: 5 N; (iy?2°58 ms ~. 4 PLA
op ae
4 (i) 48s; (ii) 102m. | oa 8 9a 8
551): 0.24 8-4 ma _
(ii) 25 m; 612 N, 600 N 576 N. 2 Am 4eee OO Be
6 1-2 kg, 5 m/s?. gxiass ore
7 0-4, 0-225 ms72. 53 Motion in a vertical circle A
46 Connected particles 1 60° to upward vertical; h =—.
22 16
1 (i) 133N; (ii) 1a
2 (ii) u2=-8 ye 5 7%,
2 (a) 2ms”*, i (c) 3:6 m. 2 2
ee (b) 2-52N. i eae 2ag

4 (i) 5aaywns.; (iii) =mgh; (iv) %

a at )
a oN4 a
4 5 v=V[2ag(1+sin 6)] (b) 6=30°, v= V3ag;
5 3:92 ms *, 42N; 7 S.
6 0-994m; clock gains 8 minutes; new length 1- 00sm.
47 Work and energy
1 ee [2er(1— cos @)] towards the centre.
1 52 J; (i) 25d J; (ii) 40d J; d=0-8 m.
2 (i) 10-08 kJ (ii) 24 kJ; 82-8N RIE ie
ee 2kx t
3 (i) mgd; (ii) V2gd; (iii) zmed; (iv) 3mgd. 1 (+5 (kw*—g)} .

axa 2k met 2 (i) 482 m; (ii) 24s.

mg 2E ee U 1
48 Power 3 (i) v=Ue 70 “Thue (iii) x= oe, In (1+ Ukt).

1 400 N. dv_ v?
2 (i) 840 N, 240 N; (ii) 3590 N, 990 N; (iii) 12-6 kW. 4 a =e I+ ;
3 (i) 1500 N; (ii) (a) 0:05 m 5-2; (b) 1650 N, t
(c) 24-75 kW; (iii) 33-33 kW. In 2.
4 500 N, 15 kW. S (i)WP Lo WG(ii)
2-77; v ee 3 %0-8 = 4 In 2, xo.6=2 =
510ms_',0-2ms”. - : 4+e
6 (24+u) e*-2.
6 1-8 kW; = ms *; 25 minutes. (: u) k

49 Impulse and momentum 55 Simple harmonic motion

1 (i) 6 m/s; (ii) 24 Ns; (iii) 5832 J. 1 (i) (a) Vi0 m; (b) 78; (c) 2V10 mis; (d) = s;
2 (a) 2120 Ns. (b) 10-6 KN. 4
(ii) (a) —8 m/s?. (b) 64 N; (iii) x= V10 sin 2¢ m,
3x=- y=-
PG, cA ee 10 i il 10
t,=4sin ,b= —|s,
5 (i) 15ms~', 900 ms_}; (ii) 6m s~}; (iii) 0 ms}; pote 10\'@. 244 10
(iv) 94-5 kJ, 9000 Ns. ee ear gaye
50 Impact 2 (i) x=3, v=—-12; (ii) x=5. 3 OE=R
: = + (1) /25 S:)30's: Gi) 6s m: : <
te ese i). 8, 30's; Gi) aan 4 (i) 0-08 m; (ii) 0-6 ms7!;3N.
a1 5 ¢=-5ms
7;7 cm.
2
3 et. 56 Vectors in dynamics

4 (i) . 1
: a i
ees! Co 4 a
3t 2+37/]’ \3/(2x104
5 4V, 45 mV’; —V, 14V. 3 3
v4=40- ore = 4166+); 5 lage el 2 2V5N, 8i+16j, 12i+ 18}, g ——
€ Bee
AS
3 4i+6jms”;
>ie al 2V13 ms~".
51 Projectiles I Te, 4 4A
1 (i) 39-3 m; (ii) 60 m; (iii) 4-V3s;(iv) 98-6 m. SO hie, Vii+tR) Va+Ry’
2 (a)ars 27 m. (b)AG: 24m.
-
(c) 72°. scenes Ait
ii) 341+ 44, ———4-———_j
3) Jo-3 ms29-9 mises. J Vita). Vee”

Sa 4t 4t
ke
2g ——> |-1-30i+
(aos) (8-———--41
yi (s Va+a) Jj; Sis:
ai
184
4 (i) (1+40i+ (4+40j, (4+ P)i+ (1420+ P)j; (ii) 1h,4km; 62 Bodies in contact
(iii) 3h; (iv) 10 km h“?, in direction tan-1(4/3) N of E. 1 coe broken at C.
yp salad la
6 penuh
RNS 3
my, 2p, at 30° clockwise from x-axis.
2 (i) C; (ii)+
= V+9.2) at tan! (3y) to vertical;

7 (i) F.v; (ii) iF.v dt; —4a sin 2t i+ 2a cos 2t j; (iii) tan7? (2),
0
1
—8ma cos 2t i—4ma sin 2t j;P=12ma’ sin 4t; 6am; 5 3 ik

57 Coplanar concurrent forces

63 Equivalent systems of forces
1 P=24N, Q=12V3N.
2 8-83 N at 316° 34’; P=8-83 N, O=0-24N. 1 7 N at 38-2° to AC; 4-5 m.
3 P=10N at 090°; 203° 34’; 22:9N. 2 (a) 2V10 N at tan“! 3 to x-axis. (b) 71-6°.
4 (i) 302-4 .N at 41° 24’; (ii) O=3P. (c) a=83 m, y=3x—26.
5 F\=9i+ 12), F)=3i—-3j, F;=8i+4j, 3 48 Nm in sense ABCD.
Fr =20i+ 13j; moment —1 Nm.
. > 4 V65 N at tan! 8 to OA; line of action :m from O in
6 (a) (i) AC=a+b; (ii) AD = 2b; (iii) AE =2b-a;
direction OA and 3 m from O in direction CO so y= 8x+3;
(iv) AF=b-—a. (b) 7i-j; OA = 4i+3); 3 N in direction BA.
OB = 141-2), CO = — 61+ 8j; 15 N.
5 k=>; 43-2 cm.

58 Moments and couples 6 (i) 10 P; (i) =5

Gi) 3
“. (iv)
1 F,=3i+6j, F,=i-—2j, Fp=4i+4j; moment is zero.
2 X=25 g, 65 g, 45 g. (v) 30a in wae ’ ABCD. (vi) 6P N, 33P N, 45PN.
3 5 kg, 10 kg; (i) 300'N; (ii) 1-5 m.
4 2-75 m from A; 20:5 kg, 39-5 kg. 64 Centres of mass
5 (a) 147 N. (b) 1712.N. 1 (a) 33 cm. (b) 13 cm.

6 P= ae Uist eet (ii) 3 cm. 2 (a) = mm from O. (b) x=10, y=6.

7 (a) 2:4; (b) 50 N and 100N. S855/51cm:

8 (a) 10 N. (b) tan =f (;

“3 - 10°to) 54’.' (c) 10V7N; 3
ols

90 Nm anticlockwise. 65 Suspending and toppling

Ww W
9 20cof g at 5 from A; > and - 1 -

59 Equilibrium : =~from AD; 45°.

1 (i) 15V6N, 30 N (twice), 30V3 N;
(ii) spo) kg, 3 kg.

2 (ayi
—-Lee ie W at 73° 53’ to horizontal. 66 Pictorial representation
1ES09 eS ale elo
(c) us (d) 71° to horizontal. 2 UK: 144°; WE: 67°; Am: 48°; Aus: 39°; Others: 62°.
ge ae ea
4 A: 66°; B: 156°; C: 24°; D: 42°; E: 72°; 5-48 cm 6 cm 50°.
3 He N; x= 208 N; Y=290 N (down). So
68 Mode and means

60 Three force problems 1565) cos

1 (i) 64-5 N; (ii) 60° 15’. 2.51°6.
3 1011-3 millibars.
2 (i) 22°; (ii) 28 N and 41-5 N.
4 (a) (a) 3:5; (ii) 2-994.
3 (i) 40-9°; (ii) 50V7N. [i ae
A 2

6 (i) a+b; (ii) eC EBY: (iii) 100+ 104+; (iv) AB;

(v) A7B?.
Ta alia:
61 Friction 69 Median and quantiles
Os 1 (i) 46-25; (11) 29-80, 9-125%.
27: 2 (b) 233 thou. (d) 2-165 tonnes. (e) 516 250 tonnes.
27-SN]5 ms 2. 3 (ii) 35 years; (ili) Mean =38-75.
4 6-6, 4, 9-25.
5 437, 412-5, 453 kNm~

185
70 Measures of dispersion 78 Uses of the normal distributions
1 Mean 21-25 kg, s.d. 2:5 kg. 1 P(x>2) =0.8125; £1250, 0-0036.
2 38-7 g, 6:67 g; 42-7 g, 6-67 g. 2 (i) 0-515; (ii) 0-376; 0-445 N=43:
3 Mean 16, s.d. 37-9; (ii) mean 15, s.d. 50-7. 3 (a) 0-0404. (b) r=305.
4 (a) 0-700. (b) 4-44. 4 0-089; p=0.36; op =4.8; not significant.
5 mean 25-85 years, s.d. 1-99 years. 5 (i) 0-226; (ii) 0-9988; 0-7752.
6 median 89-27 g, Q3 93-62 g, 16 animals, mean 89-725 g, 6 0-0221, 0:99389.
s.d. 6°52 g. 7. Probs 0-168, 0-360, 0-309, 0-132, 0-0284, 0-00243;
0-9474.
71 Index numbers and moving averages
1175. £20 100 So who aos bo) (D, 132s5. 79 Sampling
2 a=45, b=21, c=29-25, d=22°5. 1 (a) 13-2874. (b) 2. (c) 1. (d) 8-872 (other answers
Sie an byWee aes(3 possible). :
2 Mean 1-9, Variance 0-89; mean 1-9, variance 0-54.
72. Probability 3 Mean 12000 g, s.d. 57-01 g; 0-0397; 765-1 g.
1 (i) 1/9; (ii) 1/5; (iii) 1/120; (iv) 1/20. 4 Mean score 0-769. 0-101. Total score 10, 17:07; 0:0198.
2 (a) 8/35. (b) 18/35; 3/35, 3/8. 80 Estimation
3 (a) (i) 1/21; (ii) 41/42; (iii) 1/30. (b) 1/31.
1 limits 0-521, 0-678; 0-835.
4 1/5, 1/5, 3/7, 1/4. (i) not independent, 2 900-21, 0-83 limits 900-06, 900-36 g.
3 w/4, r=3.136, limits 3-05, 3.22.
(ii) not mutually exclusive. 4 0.05 cm; 0.0025 cm?; 15.9%; C.I. 2-00, 2-02
Range 2-28 to 5-48.
5 (a) (i) 1/6; (ii) 1/9; (iii) (2/3)! (1/6); 1/2. (b) 31/56. 5 Interval for proportion 0-00241, 0-00759;
for number 13168, 41563.
6 (i) 5/192; (ii) 5/324; (iii) 63/64; (iv) 5/216. 6 (a) 10, 100. (b) 10, 1. (c) Interval 8-04, 11-96
73 Discrete probability distributions Mean could be 9.
1 Mean £7:57 Variance 12-96; £53, 3-00; £53, 99-0. 81 Hypothesis testing
2 4, 4/25; 6, 8/25; 8, 4/25; 9, 4/25; 11, 4/25; 14, 1/25; 1 602 g, 0-65 g; box 15050 g, 3-25 g. (i) Not significant;
7-6 pence; £1-20 loss. (ii) significant.
3 125/216, 75/216, 15/216, 1/216; 2 pence loss. 2 a=1-9; 0-837.
4 2/15, 34/15, 274/15, 2024/225. 3 Mean<9-7; Mean 9-3 units, Variance 3-61.
74 Continuous probability distributions 4 (i) 1st significant, 2nd not significant.
1 (i) 3/16; (ii) 5/4; (iii) 19/80; (iv) 11/16. 5 Ho p=> A, p>s sig level 5-08% 0-1808.
2d) e2— Sa; (ii) a (iii) mean : , variance S (iv) =
8 Bye 9 16 82 Linear regression
3 k=4; mean 8/15; variance 11/225; median 0-541. L(a) 2*5, 1:25y=@;:7—2-Qx.
4 A=1/1200, result not significant. 2 (ii) y=0-855 x+2-668. (ili) 11-23, 79-62.
3 y=x-—1641; mean annual increase y = 1-00 ppm; incorrect
5 (i) 2 (ii) z=5(3-V3), use of information.
4 y=0-9 x+2-2; y=5-35;
1 1 k ys ete ; 5 Y=0-43 X+56-3; r=0-9949.
6A =>, mean —, variance —-—2, median —, quartiles >
6 (ii) y=1-03 x +0-533.

in (#2)
2 Dp; 4 2}
7 (a) y=0-917—-0-11x. (b) X=2-4; y=0-65. (c) x=8-3.
4 83 Correlation
1 0-188; w,=0-34, not significant.
75 The Binomial Distribution 2 (a) 0-753. (b) 0-767.
1 (i) 0-206; (ii) 0-343; (iii) 0-816; (iv) 0-451. 3 (a) 0-143. (b) 0-152.
2 (i) 16/45; (ii) (a) 0-201. (b) 0-302; 2. 4 0-603. W=0-888 h—75-9.
3 (a) 671/1296. (b) 15/1296. 5 r=0-02; a=0-246; b=0-012.
4 8; (i) 0-00000010; (ii) 1-00; (iii) 0-000074.
5 (a) 0-315. (b) (i) 0-53 Fit0-049, 0-22, 0-37, 0:28, 0-079.
84
6 (i) 0-00149; (ii) 0-0624, 0-0000930; 11,1,3. 1 (a) %st=3,x (1)
=3-84, not biased. (b) 95% C10-140,
bgfat a 0-360.
2 Mean 0-9; yest = 2-90, 3%, (1) =3-84, Poisson population.
76 The Poisson distribution 3 6:63% defective is not the same.
4 3-24. Accept hypothesis.
1 (a) 0-135. (b) 0-0527. (c) 0-00783.
5 Mean=2:-3 goals/match; frequencies 10-0, 23-1, 26-5,
2 Frequencies 35, 98,21, 8, 2.0!
3 0-143; limits 172-3, 227-7. 20-3, 11-7, 5-4, 2-1, 0-7. Accept Poisson hypothesis;
4 0-371, £60.34. Tess = 4-426; 5% (4)=9-49.
5 113 matches. 85 Contingency tables
6 3, 0-223, 0-988. 1 2-67; Not significant, proportion the same 95% CI 0-304,
7 (a) (i) 0-986; (ii) 0-223. (c) 6 pence per metre, s.d. 2.45p. 0-496.
8 (a) 0-267. (b) 0-191 Insufficient evidence. 2 Significant at 1%. Not consistent.
9 (a) 0-323. (b) 0-0119. 3 Different proportions, highly significant.
77 The normal distribution 4 8-45. Not significant. No association; 8-03 Significant.
1 Mean 68-82 mph, s.d. 5-36; new mean 63-98 mph, 13-1%. 86 Special graph papers
2 Mean 60-0 mm, s.d. 0:2 mm, 9:0%.
1 Mean= 13 s=0-95. Frequencies 13, 48, 78, 48, 13.
3 Mean 5-03 cm, s.d. 0-09 cm, £409: 27.
4 Mean 8 cm, s.d. 1-16 cm, Range 6:09 to 9-91 cm. 2 Mean 1-19, Variance 1-19; 0-00024; (i) 0-028 (ii) 0-308.
3 (a) a=1-16, b=2; (b) Mean 70-4, s.d. 8-43.
5 1-06, 0-920.
4 (b) 0-0009.

186
Index Composite functions 78
Concurrent forces 114
Cone
Abscissa 22 hollow 104, 128
Acceleration 58, 84, 86, 90, 108, 112 solid 128
towards centre of circle 104, 106 Confidence interval 160
as function of displacement 108 Confidence limits 160
as function of time 108 Conic sections 28
as function of velocity 108 Conjugate 50
negative 84 operations 50
uniform 84, 86 Contingency tables 170
equations 84, 102 Coordinates 22
variable 86 polar 32
Acceleration—time graph 86 rectangular cartesian 22. 32
Addition rule for probability 144 Coplanar forces 114
Amplitude 110 Correlation 166
Angle Correlation coefficients 166
of depression 44 product moment 166
of elevation 44 Spearman’s rank 166
Angle measure 36 Cos"! 38
Arc, circular 128 Cosecant 36
length of 36 derivative 54
Arccos 38 graph 38
Arcsin 38 integral 66
Arctan 38 Cosine 36
Area 70, 86 derivative 54
Argand diagram 52 graph 38
Argument 50, 52 integral 66
Arithmetic mean 8, 136 Cosine rule 42
Arithmetic probability graph paper 172 applications 42
Arithmetic series 8, 10 Cotangent 36
common difference 8 derivative 54
first term 8 graph 38
sum formula 8, 10 integral 66
Averages Couple 116, 126
moving 142 moment of 116
weighted 142 Course 88
Axis of symmetry 6 Covariance 164
Critical regions 162
Bar chart 132 Crude rates 142
Bearings 44 Cumulative distribution function 148
Best estimator 160 Cumulative frequency curve 138
Binomial distribution 150, 168 Cumulative frequency distribution 138
expectation 150 Cumulative frequency polygon 138
fitting 150 Curve sketching 64
normal approximation to 156
variance 150 Deciles 138
Binomial recurrence formula 150 Definite integral 66, 68
Binomial situations 150 Degrees of freedom 168
Binomial theorem 14 Derivative 54, 58
applications 14 Derived function 54
approximations 14 Determinant 80
Bisectors 24 Deviation
equations 24 mean 140
Bivariate distributions 166 standard 140
Bodies in contact 124 Differential coefficient 54
Body 82 Differential equations 72
composite 128 first order 72
hollow 82 formation 72
rigid 82 solution 72
suspend 130 Differentiation 54, 60, 66
toppling 130 applications 58
uniform 128 higher derivatives 54
Boundary conditions 72 implicit 56
logarithmic 56
Cardioid 32 methods 56
Cartesian coordinates 22, 32 parametric 56
Categorical data 132 rules 54
Central Limit Theorem 158 standard results 54
Centroid 128 Direct impact 100
Chain rule 56 of spheres 100
Changing the variable 68 with wall 100
Chi squared (7°) distribution 168 Direction
tables 168 of resultant 114
Circle(s) 26, 28, 32 of total reaction 122
equation of 26 of vector 46
intersecting 26 Directrix 28
tangent to 26 Dispersion, measures of 140
Circular measure 36 Displacement 84, 86, 108, 110, 112
Class linear 110
boundaries 134 Displacement-—time graph 86
midpoint 134 Distance 84
modal 136 Distributions
interval 134 binomial 150, 156, 168
limits 134 bivariate 166
width 134 chi squared (y*) 168
Coefficient of restitution 100 frequency 134, 138
Combinations 12 normal 154, 168
Common chord 26 Poisson 152, 168
Compass directions 44 probability 146, 148
Complement of a set 144 range of 140
Completing the square 6 Distributive property of 2 10
Complex numbers 50, 52 Domain 78
imaginary part 50 Dot product 48
operations 50
real part 50 Eccentricity 28 187
variable 52 Elasticity, modulus of 94
Ellipse 28 General angle 36
Energy 94 circular functions 36
kinetic 94 Geometric mean 8, 136
mechanical 94 Geometric series 8, 10
potential 94 common ratio 8
Equations 6 first term 8
numerical solution of 74 sum
quadratic 6 of first n terms 8, 10
roots of 50 to infinity 8, 10
solution of 22 Goodness of fit (7 test) 168
Equilibrium 90, 124 Gradient, 22, 58, 86
conditions of 118 of line 22, 24
particle in 118 Graph papers, special 172
rigid body in 118 Graphs 22
three forces in 120 trigonometrical 38
Equivalence 126 Gravity, centre of 128
Error
random experimental 164 Harmonic mean 136
standard 158 Harmonic motion, simple 110
Type I 162 Hemisphere
Type II 162 hollow 128
Estimation 160 solid 128
interval 160 Hero’s (Heron’s) formula 42
point 160 Histogram 134
Event(s) 144 Hooke’s law 94
independent 144 Horizontal circle, motion in 104
mutually exclusive 144 Hyperbola 28
Expectation rectangular 28
of continuous random variable 148 Hypothesis
of discrete random variable 146 alternative 162
Expected frequencies 168 null 162
Experimental laws 34 statistical 162
Exponent 18 Hypothesis testing 162
Exponential equations 18
Exponential functions 20 Identity 40, 80
graphs of 20 Image 78
Exponential series 20 Image set 78
Extrapolation 22 Imaginary 50
Impact 100
Factor direct 100
linear 4 elastic 100
quadratic 4 inelastic 100
repeated linear 4 oblique 100
Factorial notation 12 Implicit differentiation 56
Factor theorem 2 Impulse 98, 112
Fisher’s transformation 166 equal and opposite 98
Focus 28 in strings 98
Force(s) 82, 90, 112 Indefinite integral 66, 68
towards centre of circle 104, 106 Independence, test for 170
constant 98 Index
coplanar concurrent 114 positive integral 14
in equilibrium 118 rational 14
equivalent system of 126 weighted 142
frictional 122 Index notation 18
as function of displacement 108 Index numbers 142
as function of time 108 Indices 18
as function of velocity 108 basic rules 18
like parallel 116 Inequations 16
producing S.H.M. 110 linear 16
resolving 114 quadratic 16
resultant of 114, 116 rules for manipulating 16
three 120 solution 16
tractive 96 Infinite series 20
triangle of 120 Inflexion, point of 62
unlike parallel 116 Initial conditions 72
variable 98, 108 Initial line 32
Force diagrams 82, 124 Initial values 74
Fractions Initial velocity 102
improper 4, 68 Integral(s)
partial 4, 68 definite 66, 68
proper 4, 68 indefinite 66, 68
Frequencies standard 66
expected 168 Integral valued parameter 168
observed 168 Integrand 66
Frequency curve 134 Integration 66
cumulative 138 applications 70
Frequency distributions 134 constant of 66
continuous 134 limits of 66
cumulative 138 methods of 68
discrete 134 numerical 76
grouped 134 by parts 68
Frequency polygon 134 Intercept 24
cumulative 138 Interpolation 22
Frequency table 134 Interval estimation 160
Friction 82, 122 Inverse function 78
angle of 122 Inverse trigonometrical functions 38
coefficient of 122 Isosceles triangles 42
force of 122 Isotype diagrams 132
Function of a function 56, 78 Iterative process 74
Functions 78
composite 78 Kinematics 84
even 78 graphs 86
graphs of 78 Kinetic energy 94, 112
inverse 78 Lamina 82
odd 78 triangular 128
one-one 78 Lami’s theorem 120
rational 4 Least squares estimate 164
188
Length Natural number series 10
of line 22 Newton—Raphson method 74
of perpendicular 24 Newton’s experimental law 100
Line(s) Newton’s laws of motion: 90
angle between two 24 Non-linear relations 34
equation of 24, 48 Normal 58
gradient of 22, 24 Normal distribution 154, 168
intersection of 48 fitting 156
pairs of 24, 28, 48 standard 154
Line of best fit 34 tables 154
Line of regression 164 uses 156
equations 164 Normal reaction 82
Linear regression 164 Oblique impact with wall 100
Linear relations 34 Observed frequencies 168
Linear relationship 164 Ogive 138
Locus 30, 52
Ordinate 22
equation: 30
Outcome 144
Logarithmic differentiation 56
Logarithmic function 20 Parabola 6, 28, 32
Logarithmic graph paper 172 Parameter 56
Logarithmic series 20
Parametric differentiation 56
Logarithms 18 Parametric equations 30
basic rules 18 Parametric value 30
common 18
Partial fractions 68
Napierian 18 Particle(s) 82
natural 18 connected 92
in equilibrium 118
Magnitude system of 128
of resultant 114 Particle dynamics 90
of total reaction 122 Pascal’s triangle 14
of vector 46 Pendulum, simple 106
Mass 90 Percentage change 60
centre of 128 Percentage point 168
Mathematical induction 10 Percentage relatives 142
Matrices 80
Percentiles 138
addition 80
Permutations 12
multiplication 80 Perpendicular distance 24
operations 80 Pictograms 132
scalar multiplication 80 Pictorial representation 132
Matrix 80 Pie chart 132
column 80 Plane, equation of 48
identity 80 Point estimation 160
inverse 80 Point of inflexion 62
null 80 general 62
order of 80 horizontal 62
row 80 Poisson distribution 152,.168
singular 80 additive property 152
square 80 normal approximation to 156
unit 80 uses 152
zero 80 Poisson probability chart 172
Maximum 6 Poisson recurrence formula 152
local 62 Polar coordinates 32
Mean Polar form 52
arithmetic 8, 136 division 52
geometric 8, 136 multiplication 52
harmonic 136 Pole 32
weighted 136 Polynomials 2
working 136 addition 2
Mean deviation 140 constant term 2
Mean value 70 degree of 2
Mechanical energy 94 factors 2
conservation of 94 multiplication 2
Mechanics 82 Position vectors 46, 112
Median 138 Positive integral index 14
for discrete variable 138 Potential energy 94
for grouped data 138 Power 18, 96, 112
Method of least squares 164 Power function 162
Midpoint pips Price relatives 142
Minimum 6 Principle of conservation of momentum 98
local 62 Probability 144
Modal class 136 addition rule for 144
Mode 136 conditional 144
Modulus 50, 52 multiplication rule for 144
Modulus—argument form 52 theoretical 144
Modulus function 16 Probability density function
Moment(s) 116 of continuous random variable 148
of couple 116 of discrete random variable 146
of a force 116 Probability distributions
about a point 116 continuous 148
principle of 116 discrete 146
resultant of 116 Product moment correlation coefficient 166
Momentum 98, 112 Projectiles 102
conservation of 98 angle of projection 102
Motion 84: direction and velocity 102
analysis of 102 equation of path 102
equation of 104, 106 greatest height 102
horizontal 102 range 102
in horizontal circle 104 time of flight 102
Newton’s laws of 90. trajectory 102
relative 88 Pull 82
simple harmonic 110 Push 82
vertical 84, 102 Pythagoras’ theorem 42
in vertical circle 106
Moving averages 142 Quadratic equations 6
Moving vehicles 96 discriminant 6
Multiplication rule for probability 144 roots 6
 Quadratic functions 6 Stationary point 62
Quadratic inequations 16 applications 62
Quantiles 138 tests 62
for grouped data 138 Statistical hypotheses 162
Quartiles 138 Straight line 24, 32
: equation 24, 48
Radian 36. gradient 22, 24
Radical axis 26 Substitution 68
Random experimental error 164 Sum of a constant 10
Random sample 158 Suspended bodies 130
Random variable 146 Symmetry 128
continuous 148 axis of 6
discrete 146
Range 78 Tana 36
of distribution 140 Tangent 36
of projectile 102 to circle 26
semi-interquartile 140 4 to curve 58
Rate of change 60 derivative 54
of displacement 58 graph 38
of velocity 58 Tension 82
Rational functions 4 Three dimensions 44
Rational index 14 Thrust 82
Ratio theorem 46 Time series analysis 142
Rectangular hyperbola 28 Toppling bodies 130
Relations Total reaction 122
linear 34 Track 88
many—one 78 Tractive force 96
one-one 78 Trajectory 102
Remainder theorem 2 Transcendental functions 22
Resultant Transformations 80
of coplanar forces 126 inverse 80
of frictional force 122 linear 80
of system of forces 114 Trapezium rule 76
of two forces 114 Trend 142
Retardation 58, 84 Triangle(s) 42
Right-angled triangles 42 area of 42
Roots isosceles 42
complex 50 ; right-angled 42
of quadratic equations 6 solving 42
Sample 158 _- special 42
random 158 Triangle law 46, 57
Sample statistics 158 Triangle of forces 120
Sampling 158 Trigonometrical equations 38, 40
random 158 general solution 38
without replacement 158 graphical solution 38
Sampling distributions 158 Trigonometrical functions 36
Central Limit Theorem 158 graphs of 38
mean 158 inverse 38
proportion 158 Trigonometrical identjties 36, 40
Scalar 46 applications 40
multiplication of matrix by 80 Trigonometrical integrands 66
Scalar product 48 Trigonometrical ratios 36
applications 48 special angles 36
Scatter diagram 166 t-test 166 |
Secunt 36 Turning points 62
derivative 54 Two graph method 22, 38
graph 38 Unbiased estimator 160
integral 66
Sector, circular 128 Variable
area 36 random +46
Sequence 8 standard 154
Series 8, 10 Variance 140
arithmetic 8, 10 of binomial distribution 150
exponential 20 of continuous random variable 148
geometric 8, 10 of discrete random variable 146
infinite 20 Variations 142
logarithmic 20 cyclical 142
natural number 10 residual 142
summation of 8, 10 seasonal 142
Sexagesimal measure 36 Vectors 46
S.H.M. see Simple harmonic motion addition 88
Significance level 162 direction 46
Significance test 162 in dynamics 112
’ Simple harmonic motion 110 magnitude of 46
amplitude 110 multiplication by scalar 46
basic equation 110 position 46, 112
forces producing 110 unit 46
frequency 110 zero 46
linear acceleration 110 Velocity 58, 108, 112
period 110 angular 104
Simple index numbers 142 average 84
Simple pendulum 106 constant 86
Simpson’s rule 76 initial 102
Sin-! 38 linear 104
Sine 36 relative 88
derivative 54 uniform 84
graph 38 variable 86
integral 66 Velocity—time graph 86
Sine rule 42 Velocity triangle 88
applications 42 Vertical circle, motion in 106
Skew 48 Volume of revolution 70
Small changes 60 Weight 82, 90
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient 166 Weighted averages 142
Speed, average 84 Weighted index 142
Standard error 158 Weighted mean 136
Standardized rates 142 Work 94, 112
Standard variable 154 Yates’ continuity correction 170

190
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