Lecture 1

Define Internet

The internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks that use standardized
communication protocols to facilitate data transmission and exchange across a variety of devices, such as
computers, smartphones, and tablets. It allows users to access a vast array of information, services, and
resources, including websites, email, social media, online shopping, cloud storage, and more. The internet
has become an essential part of modern life, connecting people from all over the world and enabling new
forms of communication, collaboration, and innovation.

Explain Internet concept

The internet is a vast, interconnected network of computer networks that spans the globe. It enables
users to connect and share information, data, and resources with one another, regardless of their location
or the type of device they are using.

The internet is built upon a set of standardized communication protocols, including TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), which allow devices to communicate with one another using a
common language. This allows for the seamless transfer of data and other information between devices,
such as sending emails, streaming videos, or conducting online transactions.

The internet is made up of millions of interconnected devices, ranging from desktop computers and
servers to mobile phones and IoT (Internet of Things) devices. These devices are connected by a complex
web of physical infrastructure, including fiber optic cables, satellite links, and wireless networks.

The internet has revolutionized the way we communicate, do business, and access information. It has
opened up new opportunities for education, research, and innovation, and has connected people from all
over the world in ways that were once unimaginable.

Explain historical background of the Internet

The origins of the internet can be traced back to the 1960s, when the United States Department of
Defense created the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) to enable researchers and
scientists to share information and resources over a wide area network.

The ARPANET was based on the concept of packet switching, which involved breaking down data into
smaller packets that could be transmitted over a network and reassembled at their destination. This
allowed for more efficient data transfer and made it easier to route data around network failures.

Over the years, the ARPANET grew in size and scope, connecting more and more universities, research
centers, and government agencies across the United States. In 1983, the ARPANET switched from the NCP
(Network Control Protocol) to the TCP/IP protocol suite, which has since become the standard for internet
communication.
In the 1990s, the internet began to enter the mainstream, as commercial providers began offering access
to the World Wide Web, which enabled users to access information and services through a graphical user
interface. This led to a massive increase in the number of users and the amount of data being transmitted
over the internet.

Today, the internet has become an essential part of modern life, connecting people from all over the
world and facilitating a vast array of communication, commerce, and entertainment. The internet
continues to evolve and expand, with new technologies and innovations emerging all the time.

Explain Intranet and Extranet

An intranet is a private network that is used by an organization to share information and resources among
its employees. An intranet is similar to the internet, but it is accessible only to authorized users within the
organization. Intranets typically use the same technologies as the internet, such as web browsers, email,
and file sharing, but they are secured behind firewalls and other security measures to prevent
unauthorized access.

An intranet can be used to improve communication, collaboration, and productivity within an

organization. It can provide employees with access to company news, policies, and procedures, as well as
tools for project management, knowledge sharing, and team collaboration. Intranets can also be used to
automate business processes, such as HR and payroll, and to store and manage digital files and
documents.

An extranet, on the other hand, is a private network that is used by an organization to share information
and resources with external partners, such as vendors, suppliers, or customers. An extranet can be
thought of as an extension of an intranet that is accessible to authorized external users. Like an intranet,
an extranet is secured behind firewalls and other security measures to protect against unauthorized
access.

An extranet can be used to improve collaboration and communication with external partners, such as by
sharing product information, pricing, and other data. It can also be used to automate business processes,
such as ordering and invoicing, and to provide customers with self-service tools, such as online support
and account management. Overall, an extranet can help organizations to improve their relationships and
interactions with external partners, leading to greater efficiency and productivity.

Distinguish between Internet, Intranet and Extranet.

Here is a table that compares and contrasts the features of the internet, intranet, and extranet:
Feature Internet Intranet Extranet

Public network accessible to Private network accessible

anyone with an internet only to authorized users Private network accessible to
Accessibility connection within an organization authorized external partners

Security measures in place, Firewalls and other security

but there is always a risk of Firewalls and other security measures in place to protect
unauthorized access or measures in place to protect against unauthorized access from
Security hacking against unauthorized access external partners

Improves internal Improves communication and

Enables global communication and collaboration with external
communication and sharing collaboration within an partners, such as vendors,
Purpose of information organization suppliers, or customers

Wide range of content, Company news, policies,

including websites, emails, procedures, digital files and Product information, pricing, self-
Content social media, etc. documents service tools for customers, etc.

Accessible only to authorized

Accessible to anyone with an employees within an Accessible to authorized external
User base internet connection organization partners

Supplier portals, customer self-

Google, Facebook, Amazon, Company intranet sites, such service sites, online ordering
Examples etc. as Microsoft Sharepoint systems, etc.

In summary, the internet is a global network accessible to anyone with an internet connection, the
intranet is a private network used by an organization to improve internal communication and
collaboration, and the extranet is a private network used to improve communication and collaboration
with external partners.
Lecture 2 – 3
Describe how the Internet works and how devices communicate

The internet is a global network of interconnected devices, such as computers, servers, routers, and
switches, that communicate with each other using a variety of protocols and technologies. At its most
basic level, the internet works by transmitting data in the form of packets between devices.

When a user sends a request over the internet, such as by typing a URL into a web browser, the request
is broken down into small packets of data. Each packet contains information about its destination, the
sender, and the data being transmitted. The packets are then transmitted over the internet using various
networking technologies, such as TCP/IP, Ethernet, and Wi-Fi.

As the packets travel across the internet, they are routed through a series of devices, such as routers and
switches, which help to direct the packets to their intended destination. Each device on the internet has
a unique IP address, which is used to identify and route packets between devices.

When the packets reach their destination, they are reassembled into the original request or message. The
destination device sends a response back to the sender using the same process, breaking the response
into packets, routing them across the internet, and reassembling them at the sender's device.

Devices communicate with each other over the internet using a variety of protocols and technologies,
such as HTTP for web browsing, SMTP for email, and FTP for file sharing. These protocols define how data
is transmitted and received over the internet, and they ensure that the data is delivered reliably and
securely.

In addition to these standard protocols, the internet also supports a variety of communication methods,
such as peer-to-peer networking, voice over IP (VoIP), and video conferencing. These technologies enable
devices to communicate with each other in real time, making it possible for people all over the world to
connect and collaborate in new and innovative ways.

Explain TCP/IP and Network Topology

A majority of the internet uses a protocol suite called the Internet Protocol Suite also known as the TCP/IP
protocol suite. This suite is a combination of protocols which encompasses a number of different protocols
for different purpose and need. Because the two major protocols in this suites are TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol), this is commonly termed as TCP/IP Protocol suite. This
protocol suite has its own reference model which it follows over the internet. In contrast with the OSI
model, this model of protocols contains less layers.
Figure − Comparative depiction of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

This model is indifferent to the actual hardware implementation, i.e. the physical layer of OSI Model. This
is why this model can be implemented on almost all underlying technologies. Transport and Internet
layers correspond to the same peer layers. All three top layers of OSI Model are compressed together in
single Application layer of TCP/IP Model.

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)

Internet Protocol is one of the major protocols in the TCP/IP protocols suite. This protocol works at the
network layer of the OSI model and at the Internet layer of the TCP/IP model. Thus this protocol has the
responsibility of identifying hosts based upon their logical addresses and to route data among them over
the underlying network.

IP provides a mechanism to uniquely identify hosts by an IP addressing scheme. IP uses best effort
delivery, i.e. it does not guarantee that packets would be delivered to the destined host, but it will do
its best to reach the destination. Internet Protocol version 4 uses 32-bit logical address.
TCP/IP is a set of protocols that are used to establish and maintain communication between devices on
the internet. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of protocols
that define how data is transmitted and received over the internet. TCP/IP is the foundation of the internet
and is used to establish connections between devices, route data between devices, and ensure that data
is transmitted reliably and securely.

TCP is responsible for ensuring that data is transmitted reliably between devices. It breaks data into
packets and sends them across the internet, tracking each packet to ensure that it is delivered to its
destination. If a packet is lost or damaged during transmission, TCP will request that it be retransmitted
to ensure that the data is delivered in full.

IP, on the other hand, is responsible for routing data between devices. It assigns each device on the
internet a unique IP address, which is used to identify and locate the device. IP is also responsible for
breaking data into packets and sending them across the internet, but it does not provide the same level
of reliability as TCP. Instead, IP is designed to be as efficient as possible, routing packets through the most
direct and efficient path to their destination.

Network topology

Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of a network. It defines how devices are
connected to each other and how data is transmitted between them. There are several different types of
network topology, including:

1. Bus topology: devices are connected to a single cable, with data transmitted in both directions
along the cable.

2. Star topology: devices are connected to a central hub or switch, with data transmitted between
devices and the hub.

3. Ring topology: devices are connected in a closed loop, with data transmitted around the ring in
one direction.

4. Mesh topology: devices are connected to each other in a complex, interconnected pattern, with
data transmitted between devices through multiple paths.

The choice of network topology depends on factors such as the size of the network, the number of devices
connected, and the type of data being transmitted. Each topology has its own advantages and
disadvantages, and network administrators must consider these factors when designing and maintaining
a network.

Briefly explain the OSI reference model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a conceptual framework that defines how
data is transmitted and received over a network. The model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and consists of seven layers, each of which performs a specific
function (using various protocols defined in it) in the transmission of data.
The OSI reference model is useful for understanding how data is transmitted and received over a network,
and it provides a common framework for network designers and administrators to work with. The layers
are:

 Application Layer (Layer-7) − This is where the user application sits that needs to transfer data
between or among hosts. For example − web browsing (HTTP), file transfer application (FTP) and
electronic mail (SMTP) etc.

 Presentation Layer (Layer-6) − This layer is responsible for formatting data in a way that can be
understood by applications on different devices, including encryption, compression, and data
translation.

 Session Layer (Layer-5) − This layer provides session management capabilities between hosts. For
example, if some host needs a password verification for access and if credentials are provided
then for that session password verification does not happen again. This layer can assist in
synchronization, dialog control and critical operation management (e.g., an online bank
transaction).

 Transport Layer (Layer-4) − This layer provides end to end data delivery among hosts. This layer
takes data from the above layer and breaks it into smaller units called Segments and then gives it
to the Network layer for transmission.

 Network Layer (Layer-3) − The network layer is responsible for carrying data from one host to
another. It provides means to allocate logical addresses to hosts, and identify them uniquely using
the same. Network layer takes data units from Transport Layer and cuts them in to smaller unit
called Data Packet. Network layer defines the data path, the packets should follow to reach the
destination. Routers work on this layer and provides mechanism to route data to its destination.

 Data Link Layer (Layer-2) − This layer takes the raw transmission data (signal, pulses etc.) from
the Physical Layer and makes Data Frames, and sends that to the upper layer and vice versa. This
layer also checks any transmission errors and sorts it out accordingly.
  Physical Layer (Layer-1) − This layer deals with hardware technology and actual communication
mechanism such as signaling, voltage, cable type and length, etc.

Interaction between OSI Model Layers

The data transfer from one device to another goes through each of the OSI layers. Each of them has a
connection and needs to communicate to function. Every layer interacts with two layers, its subordinate
and peer layer. For example – the data link layers will coordinate with the network layer to get the
information. And then it will pass on the information to the physical layer.

Summary of OSI Model Layers

Name Function Protocols

Application Gives access to network resources. SMTP, HTTP, FTP, POP3, SNMP

Responsible for translating, encrypting, and compressing

Presentation MPEG, ASCH, SSL, TLS
data.

Session Ensures establishment and termination of the session. NetBIOS, SAP

Enables data transport from source to destination

Transport TCP, UDP
machine.

Network Provides internetworking and packet movement. IPV5, IPV6, ICMP, IPSEC, ARP, MPLS.

RAPA, PPP, Frame Relay, ATM, Fiber

Data Link Organize bits into frames.
Cable, etc.

Responsible for providing mechanical and electrical

Physical RS232, 100BaseTX, ISDN, 11.
specifications.

Brief History of OSI Model

OSI Model is a structure to define the system of networking. It allows the transfer of data from one device
to another over a network. Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Systems was the one to suggest
the idea of the OSI model. Initially, it wasn’t accepted well because of Internet protocol suite
incompatibility. But over time, it became quite famous with international recognition. The history of the
OSI model dates back to the early 1970s.

The International organization of Standardisation took an initiative to conduct a program for methods of
networking in the 1970s. The United Kingdom undertook an Experimental Packet Switched System in 1973
that concluded the need for defining the higher-level protocols. The OSI model came out in 1983 intending
to provide detailed specifications of actual interfaces. But eventually, in 1984, ISO announced this model
as an international standard. It was after this that large IT companies and organizations started using this
model widely. It became prominent with its layer structure and efficient characteristics.

However, most modern networks use a simplified version of the OSI model, such as the TCP/IP model,
which combines some of the layers and eliminates others for greater efficiency and simplicity. The
TCP/IP uses the upper three layers or software layers as just one Application Layer. The data link and
physical layer make up the Link Layer in TCP/IP. TCP/IP has become the most commonly used model of
networking.

Difference between OSI and TCP/IP

OSI Model TCP/IP model

There is a clear distinction between interfaces,

There is no clear distinction between them.
protocols, and services.

The network layer defines routing standards and

It has only an internet layer.
protocols.

Physical and data links are present to define the function

It uses only the link layer.
of the bottom layer.

The transport layer is connection-oriented. It is both connection-oriented and connectionless.

Datalink and physical layer together make up the single

Datalink and physical layer are separate.
host-to-network layer.

5 bytes is the minimum size. 20 bytes is the minimum size.

Advantages of the OSI Model

 Enables standardization of hardware devices.

 The standardization reduces complexity in interfaces.

 It is useful for facilitating modular engineering.

 Ensure interoperable technology and evolution acceleration.

 The protocols are replaceable with technology changes.

 Supports connection-oriented and connectionless services.

Disadvantages of the OSI Model

 The protocol fitting is very long and dull.

 It is only useful as a reference model.

 It doesn’t follow a particular protocol.

 Many layers have similar or the same services.

 These layers can’t function parallelly and need to wait for information from the previous layer.