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Hing stamfing Js to Pee ahi dh edve tonpocktoma iyi 2 reurke ond te ; | dadan gray seco Qssfora roy acto, Sto ayer ating How aan a eae ae Tn tana ‘ent arias, i aint ie acto — seasons an opin So nea tei @ Scanned with OKEN Scannerke ee ff 11] we Timaskamh CB) > Loxegaat dime scree of omy /wotinaaab rot axcurted wiht CO) Re 22, Ro Thmactamb Ca) 2 Logik thre Il 4 (e) 3 TSeTeY < W-TSC@) SS er eh rect) % WAS C@ —> futhe “Subrepe is Udon _to_wydite_ omg raf ee Reece eee aes 7 et —= TS CT) <_w-TS¢Q) 3 Rajon oi) ZL RATS CQ) 5 ALUbh “rset 7 W-TS ca) 3 ep @ Scanned with OKEN Scanneras 4 the Concopi- Baud protocol ja _borsck on | A ae in ox push cked aces bo Shah | yosouncts, Com (b0 Shared dalody auithout Conflict | $0 -markuin siolfzabitity. : : wel 7 ; ~~ | Hise Trans actions Spee. the dada Ftums Aufoe | occa drum: Thay ur two modes (Cy Shad Lock cto) — Raosl only joo terGustur lok (XLo) > Road p wn Racasd | Fr phoned mode tue (an hawt eceoad On rdourch tn &xtusive moet emly ont Carn hove WKCars Or | Yano Wud ! i ' | PL C2 Prom Locking) | tr bromanction’ Uborban Js dividual Jnfo tas pws | G> Growing Phot > thd prose, Wa only | Aodk tre Jtum, ne dumboduing . “Wd Gaining Phase > oa ths phos WL ow i Umbout the ito , no — Louking Peint (May is \- Lacks ) tr? NEe a @ Scanned with OKEN Scannerae { hiv Reema Soma WBS sea liza bility ” By Lock Combaitility Jaulps that dlgboomninn 1 suuhathoe dwe roms ocHens com sold Loder ¢ ei ae: | dame cata. 13m ck $ho poms io or syete | Ss pees EE | hum en sue Lo, sthe_bams. Chacha [Wwe sch J tere olin ect Z epee ce 2 DA combat les bgt Hes one ae an = 7? SE net Combos th : seh. a rave speamyach oy Gvaire pod ee re ae ‘Lock Modt ~ | Shoal Moda exduitacwolt—— grou | Yon Combattls- | — nro Combat eat {Ne @ Scanned with OKEN Scanneroffve » ONS Growing Phone © Stok From oni techn) ae Ridorots > © Ne Sinking Praag” i @ Wedivecthy Commit | Ae That No dirty Paool = > oO Aji tid Rg ory ] @ -wrerinetyy Prove ewky for horns mood @® cade Ve WSL, sretly @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerGranularity of a data item Granularity of a data item refers to the level of detail or the size of the data unit being considered or manipulated. It determines the extent to which data is divided or aggregated. In the context of a database system, granularity is an important concept in data management and represents the level at which data is stored, accessed, or processed. It can vary depending on the specific requirements of the application or the nature of the data being dealt with. Here are different levels of granularity for data items: 1. Fine-Grained Granularity: * Fine-grained granularity refers to a smaller or more detailed level of data representation or processing. + Data items at this level are often individual attributes or fields within a record or entity. « Fine-grained granularity allows for more precise control and manipulation of data but may require more storage and processing resources. 2. Coarse-Grained Granularity: + Coarse-grained granularity represents a higher or more aggregated level of data. + Data items at this level are larger units, such as entire records, entities, or collections of related attributes. + Coarse-grained granularity can improve performance by reducing the number of individual data items to be processed but may sacrifice precision or fine-grained control. The choice of granularity depends on the specific requirements and characteristics of the application and the operations being performed on the data. Different levels of granularity may be used for different purposes within a database system. @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerExamples of granularity in different contexts: 1. Storage Granularity: « In storage systems, granularity refers to the size of the storage unit, such asa disk block or a page. « Fine-grained granularity would involve smaller storage units, allowing for more precise allocation and management of data. + Coarse-grained granularity would involve larger storage units, providing better performance in terms of reading and writing larger chunks of data. 2. Locking Granularity: In concurrency control, granularity relates to the level at which locks are acquired and released. Fine-grained locking involves acquiring locks on individual data items, such as fields or records, allowing for more concurrent access. Coarse-grained locking involves acquiring locks on larger units, reducing concurrency but simplifying management and reducing overhead. 3. Query Granularity: * In database queries, granularity relates to the level at which data is accessed or aggregated. Fine-grained queries retrieve and manipulate individual data items or small subsets of data. + Coarse-grained queries involve aggregating data at higher levels, such as summarizing data across multiple entities or groups. Determining the appropriate granularity for data items is a design decision that should be based on factors like performance requirements, data dependencies, concurrency considerations, and the nature of the application and data model. @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerPLS AL (Oran. Dotabmae Suppers + - yw . PLSOL fy difirod op Produ Sorgunge CHIEN |f Sal suskich ds a peuinyal DB }rOx*0mMiny nquage deal gnel for Grace @ 1 gus Sara Sevdwe of Whar and Haw } Sy rtoy s BEGIN DBMS _ OUTPUT. PUT. LINE CH”); END Proadincn / Jurttien Jinan od Fackuas ond vn doth a) tones by rocks danad an obs iy Tnhae scab, and poabllly of Crom dadow ‘roam wumbboes =24 7 tn sped Crum 2) =0 thon Gono —cudbu «fat le Cts, ana); Miss gatput pu Sia Cola, Nuria?) abn — Sond 52; nt LF THEN ' TF THEN ELSE Syrdes CASE STATEMENT LF con® THEN goo ; EN TF, @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerControl structures allow you to control the flaw of execution and perform conditional or iterative operations in your database programming. Let's look at some examples: + IF-ELSE statement: IF condition THEN -- Code block executed when the condition is true -- Perform desired actions ELSE -- Code block executed when the condition is false -- Perform alternative actions END IF; + WHILE loop: WHILE condition DO -- Code block executed repeatedly as long as the condition ds true -- Perform desired actions END WHILE; « FOR loop (example in PL/SQL): FOR counter IN 1..10 LOOP -- Code block executed for each iteration of the loap -- Perform desired actions END LOOP; Exception Handling Exception handling Is used to catch and handle errors or exceptional conditions that may occur during the execution of database programs. Here are some examples: @ Scanned with OKEN ScannerBEGIN -- Code block where exceptions might occur -- Perform desired actions EXCEPTION WHEN exception_type THEN -- Code block executed when a specific exception occur s -- Handle the exception or perform error handling acti ons WHEN OTHERS THEN -- Code block executed when any other exception occurs -- Handle the exception or perform error handling acti ons END; @ scanned with OKEN Scannerexecuted on the database server. They allow you to encapsulate and reuse commonly performed operations. Here's an example: -- Example of a stored procedure in SQL Server CREATE PROCEDURE GetCustomerDetails @customerId INT AS BEGIN -+ SQL statements to retrieve customer details based on th e@ provided 1D SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerID = @customerId; END; Triggers Triggers are database objects that are automatically executed or fired In response to specifle events or actions occurring ona table. They can be used to enforce business rules, malntaln data integrity, or perform additional actions. Here's an example: -- Example of an AFTER INSERT trigger in MySQL CREATE TRIGGER NewOrderTrigger AFTER INSERT ON Orders FOR EACH ROW BEGIN -- Code executed after a new row is inserted into the orde rs table -- Perform desired actions, such as updating related table S or generating notifications END; @ Scanned with OKEN Scanner