Q Difference between construct and concept?

A construct in research refers to a hypothetical concept or variable that is being studied. It is an abstract
idea or theory that is operationalized, or defined in specific terms, so that it can be measured or
experiment or study. manipulated in an experiment or study

A concept, on the other hand, refers to a general idea or understanding. In research, a concept is often a
broader term that can include multiple constructs. For example, the concept of "intelligence" may be
operationalized through various constructs such as "verbal intelligence" and "spatial intelligence."

2) WHAT IS RESEARCH. STPES INVOLVED IN RESEARCH PROCESS…??

Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical
information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable
methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.

Research Process Steps

The research process consists of a series of systematic procedures that a researcher must go through in
order to generate knowledge that will be considered valuable by the project and focus on the relevant topic.

To conduct effective research, you must understand the research process steps and follow them. Here are a
few steps in the research process to make it easier for you:

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step. A well-defined problem will guide the
researcher through all stages of the research process, from setting objectives to choosing a technique. There
are a number of approaches to get insight into a topic and gain a better understanding of it. Such as:
• A preliminary survey

• Case studies

• Interviews with a small group of people

• Observational survey

Step 2: Evaluate the Literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process. It enables the researcher
to identify the precise aspects of the problem. Once a problem has been found, the investigator or
researcher needs to find out more about it.

This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator about previous research, how they
were conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher can build consistency between his work and others
through a literature review. Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant body of knowledge
and helps him follow the research process efficiently.

Step 3: Create Hypotheses

Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing down the research topic and
defining it. A belief solves logical relationships between variables. In order to establish a hypothesis, a
researcher must have a certain amount of expertise in the field.

It is important for researchers to keep in mind while formulating a hypothesis that it must be based on the
research topic. Researchers are able to concentrate their efforts and stay committed to their objectives
when they develop theories to guide their work.

Step 4: The Research Design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering research questions. It outlines how to get
the relevant information. Its goal is to design research to test hypotheses, address the research questions,
and provide decision-making insights.

The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort required to acquire meaningful evidence.
This plan fits into four categories:

• Exploration and Surveys

• Experiment

• Data Analysis

• Observation

Step 5: Describe Population

Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how technology is used in the
business. In research, the term population refers to this study group. The research topic and purpose help
determine the study group.

Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the community. In that case, the
research could target a specific age group, males or females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A
final step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or population so that the results may be generalized.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to answer the research
issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature or the people being studied. Data must be
collected from the two categories of researchers. These sources may provide primary data.

• Experiment

• Questionnaire

• Observation

• Interview

Secondary data categories are:

• Literature survey

• Official, unofficial reports

• An approach based on library resources

Step 7: Data Analysis

During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the researcher analyzes it.
The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The research findings are reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting up categories, applying these
categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing statistical conclusions. The
researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of statistical methods.

Step 8: The Report-writing

After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his findings. The report must be
carefully composed with the following in mind:

o The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be on the
report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and charts if any.
 • Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section should include the study’s
scope and limits.

o Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations will follow the
introduction. The findings should be summarized if they’re lengthy.

• Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken up into sections that
are easy to understand.

• Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text. It’s the final result.

Conclusion

The research process involves several steps that make it easy to complete the research successfully. The
steps in the research process described above depend on each other, and the order must be kept. So, if we
want to do a research project, we should follow the research process steps.

RESEARCH DESIGN-SELECTING METHODS OF RESEARCH

Research method refers to the techniques and procedures that would be employed so as to make
observations, collect data, analyze data and draw inferences. Research method facilitates reaching to
valid, reliable and credible conclusions for various stakeholders of the research, namely: decision maker,
administrator, policy maker etc. Research method pertains to all those methods, which a researcher
would employ to undertake the research so as to meet the research objectives. It encompasses both
qualitative and quantitative methods of performing research, such as survey, case study. interview,
questionnaire, observation, etc. Research methods are divided into three categories:

First refers to the data collection methods. Two sources for data collection are a primary source and
secondary source. Both primary source and secondary source have their own advantages, disadvantages
as well as applicability as per the nature of the research .

Second incorporates the techniques of data analysis. It includes arrangement, classification, and
representation of data in a tabular or meaning manner Analytical techniques They can be used to
identify patterns and establish the relationships between knowns and unknowns in order to achieve the
research objectives.

The third comprises of the methods that would be employed to check the accuracy of the results
obtained.

COLLECTING THE DATA

Secondary data collection is relatively easy and less time- consuming. Primary data collection needs to be
preceded by a great level of preparation. In some cases, testing is needed to establish the validity and
reliability of the questionnaire/scale . However at times , testing is skipped to save time. Data once
collected is to be edited/cleaned so as to ensure consistency across the units of study and get
meaningful results.

DATA ANALYSIS

Data is analyzed using various statistical techniques requiring substantive theoretical as well as practical
knowledge. A researcher should first acquire theoretical as well as practical knowledge and then proceed
for data analysis on real data collected. The techniques would vary depending on the nature of the
research.

REPORT WRITING

The last step in the research process is report writing. The report must include the implications of the
research and put up recommendations for the concerned stakeholders (decision makers, administrators,
policy makers etc). Lastly, the researcher should also cover research limitations and suggestions for
future research. However, the style of report differs as per the purpose as well as the need of the
research and target onlookers. A report for a telecom manager may not include research limitations and
suggestions for future research but a report of a student must include research limitations and
suggestions for future research.

Differences between Attributes and Variables..???

Attribute

Attributes are relative in nature

An attribute cannot have further attributes.

Attributes are defined with the predefined dimensions

Attribute cannot take a zero value. For example, attribute like the beauty of a girl can never be termed
Celsius.

Variable

Variables are absolute in nature

A variable is a wider term and may have attributes

Variables need not necessarilly fall in predefined dimensions.

A variable can take a zero value. For example, Delhi's temperature can be 0 degree temperature is a
variable zero. Here. The that varies and may have a zero value.
 BRIEFLY EXPLAIN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH….??
Understanding underlying Quantify data to generalize and
motivations, attitudes, and predict future behaviours (with
Objective perceptions; providing insight caution) or understand
into problem definition; providing differences. between subjects.
hypotheses and language for
subsequent quantitative
evaluation

Small and narrow. Not Large and broad. Usually

Sample statistically projectable. statistically projectable

Focus groups, in-depth

interviews, ethno-graphies, Surveys conducted by phone,
Methods shopalong, etc. which can be online/ mobile or mail.
inperson, by phone, or online

Semi-structured, using discussion Highly structured questinare.

Data collection guides, can evolve over the
course of the study

Non-statistical, generally Numeric, statistical, objective,

Data analysis nonnumeric, subjective, and and summation
interpretive

Not randomly selected randomly selected

Sample collection

Words, images or objects Numbers and statistics

Types of data collected

Sample size Small large

3) Longitudinal Study ..????

A longitudinal study is a type of descriptive research design that involves repeated observations over an
extended fixed period. A sample representing the population is selected, which is called respondents
group or sample for the study. The number of members of the respondent group remains the same. Old
members can leave the group and new members can join the group. However, the group member
(consumer) may change, Such respondent groups or samples of study are also called omnibus panels.

Thus, the longitudinal study involves a fixed sample of population elements (in a number of members)
measured repeatedly. The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a series of pictures that,
when viewed together, portray amintense illustration of the changes in the phenomenon under study
over the period of study. The benefit of a longitudinal study is that researchers are able to detect
developments or changes in the characteristics of the target population at both the group and the
individual level.

Advantages

• A clear variable pattern in the phenomena of study over time is shown. At times, longitudinal
studies portray sleeper effects or the connections between subjects over a long period of time,
which otherwise may not be linked.
• A clear focus on how a particular end state or a set of circumstances would come to be.
• A high level of useful and valid data is provided about individual changes. Thus the researcher
could trace development over a longer period of time instead of simply jumping to conclusions.

5) PANEL STUDY

A panel study is defined as a study that collects repeated information on the same subjects
(respondents, companies etc.) at different points in time. Thus, the panel refers to a sample which will
not vary over an extended period. These are also called "True panels". For example, in a study of 10
companies extended over a 15 year period, data will be collected from the same 100 companies for 15
years. There will be no panel attrition. Panel studies are designed both for quantitative and qualitative
analysis.

Advantages

• Data secured from the same persons over a period of time leads to a detailed picture of the
factors involved in bringing about shifts in opinions or attitudes.
• An analysis of the chartered profile of individuals in a panel may afford the researcher an insight
into the causal relationships.
• More cost-effective as different subject areas can be included on a single questionnaire.
Cross sectional study-

Cross-sectional studies are observational in nature and are known as descriptive research, not causal or
relational, meaning that you can't use them to determine the cause of something, such as a disease. Researchers
record the information that is present in a population, but they do not manipulate variables.

This type of research can be used to describe characteristics that exist in a community, but not to determine
cause- and-effect relationships between different variables. This method is often used to make inferences ab
relationships or to gather p data to support further rese experimentation.

Characstertics-

The study takes place at a single point in time

It does not involve manipulating variables

It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at once (age, income, gender, etc.)

It's often used to look at the prevailing characteristics in a given population

It can provide informa what is happening in a population

6)What are 4 scales of management. Explain with examples..??

Nominal Scales: Nominal scale is the simplest form of measurement. A variable measured on a
nominal is one which is divided into two or more categories, for example, gender is categorized
as male or female, a question as to whether a family owns a iPhone can be answered ‘Yes’ or
‘No’. It is simply a sorting operation in which all individuals or units or answers can be placed in
one category or another (i.e. the categories are exhaustive). The essential characteristic of a
nominal scale is that in terms of a given variable, one individual is different from another and the
categories are discriminate (i.e. the categories are mutually exclusive). This characteristic of
classification if fundamental to all scales of measurement. Nominal scales that consist only two
categories such as female-male, agree-disagree,aware-unaware, yes-no, are unique and are
called dichotomous scales. Such dichotomous nominal scales are important to researchers
because the numerical labels for the two scale categories can be treated as though they are of
interval scale value.

Ordinal Scales: Ordinal scales have all the properties of a nominal scale, but, in addition,
categories can be ordered along a continuum, in terms of a given criterion. Given three categories
A, B and C, on an ordinal scale, one might be able to say, for e.g., that A is greater than B and B is
greater than C. If numerals are assigned to ordinal scale categories, the numerals serve only as
ranks for ordering observations from least to most in terms of the characteristic measured and
they do not indicate the distance between scale that organizes observations in terms of
categories such as high, medium and low or strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, and strong
disagree.

Interval Scales: Interval scales incorporate all the properties of nominal and ordinal scales and in
addition, indicate the distance or interval between the categories. In formal terms one can say
not only that A is greater than B and B is greater than C but also that (A-B)=(B-C) or (AC)=(A-B)+(B-
C). Examples of interval scale include age, income and investments. However, an interval scale is
one where there is no absolute zero point. It can be placed anywhere along a continuum e.g., the
age can be between 20 to 60 years and need not necessarily start from 0 years. This makes ratio
comparison, that A is twice that of B or so wrong.

Ratio Scales: A special form of interval scale is the ratio scale which differs in that it has a true
zero point or a point at which the characteristic that is measured is presumed to be absent.
Examples of ratio scales include, weight, length, income, expenditure and others. In each there is
a concept of zero income, zero weight, etc. Since ratio scales represent a refinement of interval
scales, generally these scales are not distinguished and both the terms are used interchangeably.

7) Method of Sampling..??

Probability sampling methods

1. Simple random sampling

With simple random sampling, every element in the population has an equal chance of
being selected as part of the sample. It’s something like picking a name out of a hat.
Simple random sampling can be done by anonymising the population – e.g by assigning
each item or person in the population a number and then picking numbers at random.
Simple random sampling is easy to do and cheap, and it removes all risk of bias from the
sampling process. However, it also offers no control for the researcher and may lead to
unrepresentative groupings being picked by chance.

2. Systematic sampling
With systematic sampling, also known as systematic clustering, the random selection
only applies to the first item chosen. A rule then applies so that every nth item or person
after that is picked.
Although there’s randomness involved, the researcher can choose the interval at which
items are picked, which allows them to make sure the selections won’t be accidentally
clustered together.
3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves random selection within predefined groups. It’s useful when
researchers know something about the target population and can decide how to
subdivide it (stratify it) in a way that makes sense for the research.
For example, if you were researching travel behaviours in a group of people, it might be
helpful to separate those who own or have use of a car from those who are dependent
on public transport.
Stratified sampling has benefits but it also introduces the question of how to stratify a
population, which adds in more risk of bias.

4. Cluster sampling
With cluster sampling, groups rather than individual units of the target population are
selected at random. These might be pre-existing groups, such as people in certain zip
codes or students belonging to an academic year.
Cluster sampling can be done by selecting the entire cluster, or in the case of two-stage
cluster sampling, by randomly selecting the cluster itself, then selecting at random again
within the cluster.

Non-probability sampling methods

1. Convenience sampling
People or elements in a sample are selected on the basis of their availability. If you are
doing a research survey and you work at a university, for example, a convenience
sample might consist of students or co-workers who happen to be on campus with free
time who are willing to take your questionnaire.
This kind of sample can have value, especially if it’s done as an early or preliminary step,
but significant bias will be introduced.

2. Quota sampling
Like the probability-based stratified sampling method, this approach aims to achieve a
spread across the target population by specifying who should be recruited for a survey
according to certain groups or criteria. For example, your quota might include a certain
number of males and a certain number of females, or people in certain age brackets or
ethnic groups.
Bias may be introduced during the selection itself – for example, volunteer bias might
skew the sample towards people with free time who are interested in taking part. Or
bias may be part and parcel of the way categories for the quotas are selected by
researchers.
3. Purposive sampling
Participants for the sample are chosen consciously by researchers based on their
knowledge and understanding of the research question at hand or their goals. Also
known as judgment sampling, this technique is unlikely to result in a representative
sample, but it is a quick and fairly easy way to get a range of results or responses.

4. Snowball or referral sampling

With this approach, people recruited to be part of a sample are asked to invite those
they know to take part, who are then asked to invite their friends and family and so on.
The participation radiates through a community of connected individuals like a snowball
rolling downhill.
This method can be helpful when the researcher doesn’t know very much about the
target population and has no easy way to contact or access them. However it will
introduce bias, for example by missing out isolated members of a community or skewing
towards certain age or interest groups who recruit amongst themselves.
Hypotheses

A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a

scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific
hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific
theories. Even though the words “hypothesis” and “theory” are often used synonymously, a scientific
hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted
hypothesis proposed for further research, in a process beginning with an educated guess or thought.

The adjective hypothetical, meaning “having the nature of a hypothesis”, or “being assumed to exist as an
immediate consequence of a hypothesis”, can refer to any of these meanings of the term “hypothesis”.

Role and Functions of the hypothesis

1. Helps in the testing of the theories.

2. Serves as a great platform in the investigation activities.
3. Provides guidance to the research work or study.
4. Hypothesis sometimes suggests theories.
5. Helps in knowing the needs of the data.
6. Explains social phenomena.
7. Develops the theory.
8. Also acts as a bridge between the theory and the investigation.
9. Provides a relationship between phenomena in such a way that it leads to the empirical testing of the
relationship.
10. Helps in knowing the most suitable technique of analysis.
11. Helps in the determination of the most suitable type of research.
12. Provides knowledge about the required sources of data.
13. Research becomes focused under the direction of the hypothesis.
14. Is very helpful in carrying out an enquiry of a certain activity.
15. Helps in reaching conclusions, if it is correctly drawn.

Sources of hypothesis
1. Observations made in routine activities.
2. Theories based on the scientific approach.
3. Analogies.
4. Knowledge obtained from the functional executives.
5. Results of the research and development department.
6. Experience of the investigator.
Characteristics of hypothesis
1. Should be very specific in nature.
2. Concept of the hypothesis should be clear.
3. Should be empirically testable.
4. Should be related to the devices and the techniques that are available.
5. Should relate to the body of the theory.
6. Should recognize the specific variables and their relation
Sources of data: primary & secondary data

Primary Data:
Raw data (also known as primary data) is a term for data collected from a source. Raw data has not
been subjected to processing or any other manipulation, and are also referred to as primary data.
Sources of primary data:

Primary data is the data collected by the researcher themselves, i.e.

1. interview
2. observation
3. action research
4. case studies
5. life histories
6. questionnaires
7. ethnographic research
8. longitudinal studies

Advantages of Primary data:

1) Targeted Issues are addressed. The organization asking for the research has the complete control
on the process and the research is streamlines as far as its objectives and scope is concerned.
Researching company can be asked to concentrate their efforts to find data regarding specific market
rather than concentration on mass market.
2) Data interpretation is better. The collected data can be examined and interpreted by the
marketers depending on their needs rather than relying on the interpretation made by collectors of
secondary data.
3) Fresh/Recent Data. Usually secondary data is not so recent and it may not be specific to the place or
situation marketer is targeting. The researcher can use the irrelevant seeming information for knowing
trends or may be able to find some relation with the current scenario. Thus primary data becomes a
more accurate tool since we can use data which is useful for us.
4) Proprietary Issues. Collector of primary data is the owner of that information and he need not
share it with other companies and competitors. This gives an edge over competitors replying on
secondary data.

Disadvantages of Primary data:

1) High Cost. Collecting data using primary research is a costly proposition as marketer has to be
involved throughout and has to design everything.
2) Time Consuming. Because of exhaustive nature of the exercise, the time required to do research
accurately is very long as compared to secondary data, which can be collected in much lesser time
duration.
3) Inaccurate Feed-backs. In case the research involves taking feedbacks from the targeted audience,
there are high chances that feedback given is not correct. Feedbacks by their basic nature are usually
biased or given just for the sake of it.
4) More number of resources are required. Leaving aside cost and time, other resources like human
resources and materials too are needed in larger quantity to do surveys and data collection.
Secondary Data:
Secondary data, is data collected by someone other than the user. Common sources of secondary data
for social science include censuses, organisational records and data collected through qualitative
methodologies or qualitative research. Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the investigator
conducting the research.
Sources of secondary data:

Secondary sources are data that already exists

1. Previous research
2. Official statistics
3. Mass media products
4. Diaries
5. Letters
6. Government reports
7. Web information
8. Historical data and information

Advantages of secondary data :

1) Ease of Access: There are many advantages to using secondary research. This includes the relative
ease of access to many sources of secondary data. In the past secondary data accumulation required
marketers to visit libraries, or wait for reports to be shipped by mail. Now with the availability of online
access, secondary research is more openly accessed. This offers convenience and generally
standardized usage methods for all sources of secondary research.

2) Low Cost to Acquire

The use of secondary data has allowed researchers access to valuable information for little or no cost to
acquire. Therefore, this information is much less expensive then if the researchers had to carry out the
research themselves.

3) Clarification of Research Question

The use of secondary research may help the researcher to clarify the research question. Secondary
research is often used prior to primary research to help clarify the research focus.

4) May Answer Research Question

The use of secondary data collection is often used to help align the focus of large scale primary
research. When focusing on secondary research, the researcher may realize that the exact information
they were looking to uncover is already available through secondary sources. This would effectively
eliminate the need and expense to carry out there own primary research.
Disadvantages of secondary data :

1) Quality of Research
There are some disadvantages to using secondary research. The originators of the primary research are
largely self-governed and controlled by the marketer. Therefore, the secondary research used must be
scrutinized closely since the origins of the information may be questionable. Moreover, the researcher
needs to take sufficient steps to critically evaluate the validity and reliability of the information
provided.

2) Not Specific to Researcher’s Needs

In many cases, secondary data is not presented in a form that exactly meets the researcher’s needs.
Therefore, the researcher needs to rely on secondary data that is presented and classified in a way that
is similar to their needs.

3) Incomplete Information
In many cases, researchers find information that appears valuable and promising. The researcher may
not get the full version of the research to gain the full value of the study. This is because many research
suppliers offer free portions of their research and then charge expensive fees for their full reports.

A t test
is a statistical test that is used to compare the means of two groups. It is often used in hypothesis testing to
determine whether a process or treatment actually has an effect on the population of interest, or whether
two groups are different from one another.

A z-test is a statistical test to determine whether two population means are different when the
variances are known and the sample size is large. A z-test is a hypothesis test in which the z-
statistic follows a normal distribution. A z-statistic, or z-score, is a number representing the result from
the z-test.

What is ANOVA test used for?

ANOVA, which stands for Analysis of Variance, is a statistical test used to analyze the
difference between the means of more than two groups. A one-way ANOVA uses one
independent variable, while a two-way ANOVA uses two independent variables

Essentials Of A Good Report - Types Of Reports: Characteristics Of Good Research Report

Posted On : 28.05.2018 12:07 am
Good research report should satisfy some of the following basic characteristics:

Essentials Of A Good Report:

Good research report should satisfy some of the following basic characteristics:

STYLE

Reports should be easy to read and understand. The style of the writer should ensure that sentences
are succinct and the language used is simple, to the point and avoiding excessive jargon.
LAYOUT

A good layout enables the reader to follow the report’s intentions, and aids the communication
process. Sections and paragraphs should be given headings and sub¬-headings. You may also consider a
system of numbering or lettering to identify the relative importance of paragraphs and sub-paragraphs.
Bullet points are an option for highlighting important points in your report.

ACCURACY

Make sure everything you write is factually accurate. If you would mislead or misinform, you will be
doing a disservice not only to yourself but also to the readers, and your credibility will be destroyed.
Remember to refer to any information you have used to support your work.

CLARITY

Take a break from writing. When you would come back to it, you’ll have the degree of objectivity that
you need. Use simple language to express your point of view.

READABILITY

Experts agree that the factors, which affect readability the most, are:

1. Attractive appearance

2. Non-technical subject matter

3. Clear and direct style

4. Short sentences

5. Short and familiar words