ME6702 -Mechatronics Unit I - Introduction to Mechatronics

ME6702- MECHATRONICS

Introduction to Mechatronics – Systems – Concepts of Mechatronics approach – Need for Mechatronics –

Emerging areas of Mechatronics – Classification of Mechatronics. Sensors and Transducers: Static and
dynamic Characteristics of Sensor, Potentiometers – LVDT – Capacitance sensors – Strain gauges – Eddy
current sensor – Hall effect sensor – Temperature sensors – Light sensors

UNIT - I INTRODUCTION

1. What is “Mechatronics”?

Mechatronics is a concept of Japanese origin (1970‟s) and can be defined as the application of electronics
and computer technology to control the motions of mechanical systems (figure 1.1.1).

Figure 1.1.1 Definition of Mechatronics

It is a multidisciplinary approach to product and manufacturing system design (Figure 1.1.2). It involves
application of electrical, mechanical, control and computer engineering to develop products, processes
and systems with greater flexibility, ease in redesign and ability of reprogramming. It concurrently
includes all these disciplines.

Classification of Mechatronics system

Mechanical
Engineering

Computer Electrical
Mechatronics
Engineering Engineering

Control Engineering

Mechatronics: a multi-disciplinary approach

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 Mechatronics can also be termed as replacement of mechanics with electronics or enhance

mechanics with electronics.
 For example, in modern automobiles, mechanical fuel injection systems are now replaced with
electronic fuel injection systems. This replacement made the automobiles more efficient and less
pollutant.
 With the help of microelectronics and sensor technology, mechatronics systems are providing
high levels of precision and reliability. It is now possible to move (in x – y plane) the work table
of a modern production machine tool in a step of 0.0001 mm.
 By employment of reprogrammable microcontrollers/microcomputers, it is now easy to add new
functions and capabilities to a product or a system.
 Today‟s domestic washing machines are “intelligent” and four-wheel passenger automobiles are
equipped with safety installations such as air-bags, parking (proximity) sensors, anti-theft
electronic keys etc.

Need for Mechatronics

2. Importance of Mechatronics in automation

Operations involved in design and manufacturing of a product

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 It is reducing the product life as well as lead-time to manufacture a product.

 These activities can be classified into two groups viz. design and manufacturing activities.
 Mechatronics concurrently employs the disciplines of mechanical, electrical, control and
computer engineering at the stage of design itself.
 Mechanical discipline is employed in terms of various machines and mechanisms
 Electrical engineering as various electric prime movers viz. AC/DC, servo motors and other
systems is used.
 Control engineering helps in the development of various electronics-based control systems to
enhance or replace the mechanics of the mechanical systems.
 Computers are widely used to write various softwares to control the control systems,product
design and development activities; materials and manufacturing resource planning, record
keeping, market survey, and other sales related activities.
 Using computer aided design (CAD) / computer aided analysis (CAE) tools, three-dimensional
models of products can easily be developed.

3. Mechatronics system
A system can be thought of as a box or a bounded whole which has input and output elements, and a set
of relationships between these elements.

Figure shows a typical spring system.

It has „force‟ as an input which produces an „extension‟. The input and output of this system
follows the Hooke‟s law F = –kx, where F is force in N, x is distance in m and k is stiffness of the spring.

A spring-force system Microprocessor based equivalent spring mass system

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Constituents of a mechatronics system

A Mechatronics system integrates various technologies involving sensors, measurement systems, drives,
actuation systems, microprocessor systems and software engineering.

Emerging areas of Mechatronics

Mechatronics: products and systems in manufacturing

Mechatronics has a variety of applications as products and systems in the area of manufacturing
automation‟. Some of these applications are as follows:

1. Computer numerical control (CNC) machines

2. Tool monitoring systems
3. Advanced manufacturing systems
a. Flexible manufacturing system (FMS)
b. Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM)
4. Industrial robots
5. Automatic inspection systems: machine vision systems
6. Automatic packaging systems

1. Computer numerical control (CNC) machines

 CNC machine is the best and basic example of application of Mechatronics in manufacturing
automation.
 Efficient operation of conventional machine tools such as Lathes, milling machines, drilling
machine is dependent on operator skill and training.
 Also a lot of time is consumed in workpart setting, tool setting and controlling the process
parameters viz. feed, speed, depth of cut.

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 Thus conventional machining is slow and expensive to meet the challenges of frequently
changing product/part shape and size.

Figure 1.2.1 Comparison between a conventional machine tool and a CNC machine
tool

 CNC machine tools are integral part of Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) or Computer
Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) system.
 CNC means operating a machine tool by a series of coded instructions consisting of numbers,
letters of the alphabets, and symbols which the machine control unit (MCU) can understand.
 These instructions are converted into electrical pulses of current which the machine‟s motors and
controls follow to carry out machining operations on a workpiece. Numbers, letters, and symbols
are the coded instructions which refer to specific distances, positions, functions or motions which
the machine tool can understand.
 CNC automatically guides the axial movements of machine tools with the help of computers.
 The auxiliary operations such as coolant on-off, tool change, door open-close are automated with
the help of micro-controllers.
 Manual operation of table and spindle movements is automated by using a CNC controllers and
servo motors.
 The spindle speed and work feed can precisely be controlled and maintained at programmed level
by the controller.
 The controller has self diagnostics facility which regularly alarms the operator in case of any
safety norm violation viz. door open during machining, tool wear/breakage etc. Modern machine
tools are now equipped with friction-less drives such as re-circulating ball screw drives, Linear
motors etc.

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2. Tool monitoring systems

 Uninterrupted machining is one of the challenges in front manufacturers to meet the production
goals and customer satisfaction in terms of product quality.
 Tool wear is a critical factor which affects the productivity of a machining operation. Complete
automation of a machining process realizes when there is a successful prediction of tool (wear)
state during the course of machining operation.
 Mechatronics based cutting tool-wear condition monitoring system is an integral part of
automated tool rooms and unmanned factories.
 These systems predict the tool wear and give alarms to the system operator to prevent any
damage to the machine tool and workpiece.
 Therefore it is essential to know how the mechatronics is helping in monitoring the tool wear.
Tool wear can be observed in a variety of ways. These can be classified in two groups Table

Direct methods Indirect methods

Electrical resistance Torque and power
Optical measurements Temperature
Machining hours Vibration & acoustic emission
Contact sensing Cutting forces & strain measurements

Direct methods deal with the application of various sensing

and measurement instruments such as micro-scope,
machine/camera vision; radioactive techniques to measure the
tool wear.
they are called as offline tool monitoring system.

Indirect methods predict the condition of the cutting tool by

analyzing the relationship between cutting conditions and
response of machining process as a measurable quantity
through sensor signals output such as force, acoustic emission,
vibration, or current.

Steps followed in an indirect tool monitoring system

1. Data collection in terms of signals from sensors such

as cutting force, vibration, temperature, acoustic
emission, motor current
2. Study, analysis of signals and extraction of features
3. Tool wear pattern recognition using AI techniques such
as fuzzy logic, neural networks, Classification of
patterns and estimation of tool wear
4. Development of automatic/adaptive systems to control the machining process based on Step 2

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3. Advanced Manufacturing Systems

3.1 Flexible Manufacturing System

The manufacturers‟ “production” concept has moved away from “mass” to small “batch” type of
production. Batch production offers more flexibility in product manufacturing. To cater this need,
Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) have been evolved.

FMS combines microelectronics and mechanical engineering to bring the economies of the scale to
batch work. A central online computer controls the machine tools, other work stations, and the transfer
of components and tooling. The computer also provides monitoring and information control. This
combination of flexibility and overall control makes possible the production of a wide range of
products in small numbers.

FMS is a manufacturing cell or system consisting of

A. Workstations
o CNC machine tools
o Assembly equipment
o Measuring Equipment
o Washing stations
B. Material handing Equipment
o Load unload stations (Palletizing)
o Robotics
o Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)
o Automated Storage and retrieval Systems (AS/RS)
C. Tool systems
o Tool setting stations
o Tool transport systems
D. Control system
o Monitoring equipments
o Networks

The characteristic features of an FMS system are as follows,

1. FMS solves the mid-variety and mid-volume production problems for which neither the high
production rate transfer lines nor the highly flexible stand-alone CNC machines are suitable.
2. Several types of a defined mix can be processed simultaneously.
3. Tool change-over time is negligible.
4. Part handling from machine to machine is easier and faster due to employment of computer
controlled material handling system.

Benefits of an FMS
• Flexibility to change part variety
• Higher productivity
• Higher machine utilization
• Less rejections
• High product quality
• Reduced work-in-process and inventory
• Better control over production
• Just-in-time manufacturing

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Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

Designing, analyzing, testing, manufacturing, packaging, quality control, etc. are involved in the
life cycle of a product or a system.
Application of principles of automation to each of these activities enhances the productivity only at the
individual level. These are termed as „islands of automation’.
Integrating all these islands of automation into a single system enhances the overall productivity. Such a
system is called as “Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)”.

The Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) defined CIM as „CIM is the integration of the
total manufacturing enterprise through the use of integrated systems and data communications
coupled with new managerial philosophies that improve organizational and personal efficiency‟.

CIM basically involves the integration of advanced technologies such as computer aided design
(CAD), computer aided manufacturing (CAM), computer numerical control (CNC), robots, automated
material handling systems, etc

Industrial robots
Industrial robots are general-purpose, re-programmable machines which respond to the sensory signals
received from the system environment. Based on these signals, robots carry out programmed work or
activity.
Robots are widely employed in the following applications in manufacturing:
A. Parts handling: it involves various activities such as:
• Recognizing, sorting/separating the parts
• Picking and placing parts at desired locations
• Palletizing and de-palletizing
• Loading and unloading of the parts on required machines
B. Parts processing: this may involves many manufacturing operations such as:
• Routing
• Drilling
• Riveting
• Arc welding
• Grinding
• Flame cutting
• Deburring
• Spray painting
• Coating
• Sand blasting
• Dip coating
• Polishing
• Heat treatment
C. Product building: this involves development and building of various products such as:
• Electrical motors
• Car bodies
• Solenoids
• Circuit boards

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Automatic quality control and inspection systems

Supply of a good quality product or a system to the market is the basic aim of the manufacturing industry.
The product should satisfy the needs of the customers and it must be reliable.
To achieve this important product-parameter during a short lead time is really a challenge to the
manufacturing industry. This can be achieved by building up the „quality‟ right from the product design
stage; and maintaining the standards during the „production stages‟ till the product-delivery to the market.

A number of sensors and systems have been developed that can monitor quality continuously with or
without the assistance of the operator. These technologies include various sensors and data acquisition
systems, machine vision systems, metrology instruments such as co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM),
optical profilometers, digital calipers and screw gauges etc.

Sensors and transducers

Measurement is an important subsystem of a mechatronics system. Its main function is to collect the
information on system status and to feed it to the micro-processor(s) for controlling the whole system.

Measurement system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal processing devices.

1. Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out the production
operations as well as process monitoring activities. Sensor technology has the following
important advantages in transforming a conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one.
2. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub units of manufacturing
system. It helps operators to reduce the downtime of complete manufacturing system by carrying
out the preventative measures.
3. Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labors.
4. Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.

Sensor

According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor can be defined as “A device which provides a
usable output in response to a specified measurand.”
Here, the output is usually an „electrical quantity‟ and measurand is a „physical quantity, property or
condition which is to be measured‟.
Thus in the case of, say, a variable inductance displacement element, the quantity being measured is
displacement and the sensor transforms an input of displacement into a change in inductance.

Transducer

It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a related change or an
element which converts a specified measurand into a usable output by using a transduction principle.

It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to another form.

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Sensor/transducers specifications

1. Range

The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For example, a thermocouple
for the measurement of temperature might have a range of 25-225 °C.

2. Span

The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input. Thus, the above-
mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.

3. Error

Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the quantity being
measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when the actual displacement had
been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2 mm.
4. Accuracy

The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement result and a true
value of the measurand. It is often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full–scale
deflection. A piezoelectric transducer used to evaluate dynamic pressure phenomena associated with
explosions, pulsations, or dynamic pressure conditions in motors, rocket engines, compressors, and other
pressurized devices is capable to detect pressures between 0.1 and 10,000 psig (0.7 KPa to 70 MPa). If it
is specified with the accuracy of about ±1% full scale, then the reading given can be expected to be within
± 0.7 MPa.

5. Sensitivity

Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor to the per unit change
in input value that causes the output change. For example, a general purpose thermocouple may have a
sensitivity of 41 µV/°C.

6. Nonlinearity

The nonlinearity indicates the

maximum deviation of the actual measured
curve of a sensor from the ideal curve.
Linearity is often specified in terms of
percentage of nonlinearity,
which is defined as:

Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation

in input ⁄ Maximum full scale input
6. Non-linearity error

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7. Hysteresis

The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined

as the maximum difference in output at any
measurement value within the sensor‟s specified range
when approaching the point first with increasing and
then with decreasing the input parameter.

8. Resolution

Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental

change of input parameter that can be detected in the
output signal

9. Stability 7. Hysteresis error curve

Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time.

10. Dead band/time

The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is no output.
The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the application of an input until the output
begins to respond or change.

11. Repeatability
It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications of same input
value. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output:

Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100 ⁄ full range

12. Response time

Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of the
measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output range for which the
response time is defined.

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Classification of sensors
Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as measurand,
application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand and thermodynamic
considerations.
Detail classification of sensors in view of their applications in manufacturing is as follows.

Displacement, position and proximity sensors

1 Potentiometer
2 Strain-gauged element
3 Capacitive element
4 Differential transformers
5 Eddy current proximity sensors
6 Inductive proximity switch
7 Optical encoders
8 Pneumatic sensors
9 Proximity switches (magnetic)
10 Hall effect sensors
Velocity and motion
1. Incremental encoder
2. Tachogenerator
3. Pyroelectric sensors
Force
1. Strain gauge load cell
Fluid pressure
1. Diaphragm pressure gauge
2. Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
3. Piezoelectric sensors
4. Tactile sensor
Liquid flow
a. Orifice plate
b. Turbine meter
Liquid level
a. Floats
b. Differential pressure
Temperature
a. Bimetallic strips
b. Resistance temperature detectors
c. Thermistors
d. Thermo-diodes and transistors
e. Thermocouples
f. Light sensors
g. Photo diodes
h. Photo resistors

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DISPLACEMENT AND POSITION SENSORS

Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an object. Position sensors
are employed to determine the position of an object in relation to some reference point.

Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when an object has moved with in
particular critical distance of a transducer.

Displacement sensors
1. Potentiometer Sensors

Figure shows the construction of a rotary

type potentiometer sensor employed to
measure the linear displacement. The
potentiometer can be of linear or angular
type. It works on the principle of conversion
of mechanical displacement into an electrical
signal. The sensor has a resistive element and
a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves
along this conductive body, acting as a
movable electric contact.

The object of whose displacement is to be

measured is connected to the slider by using

B a rotating shaft (for angular

displacement)

C a moving rod (for linear

displacement)

D a cable that is kept stretched during

operation

The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic.

The track comprises of large number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire.
Conductive plastic is made up of plastic resin embedded with the carbon powder.
Wire wound track has a resolution of the order of ± 0.01 % while the conductive plastic may have the
resolution of about 0.1 µm.

During the sensing operation, a voltage Vs is applied across the resistive element. A voltage divider
circuit is formed when slider comes into contact with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is measured .
The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the slider over the wire. Then the output
parameter displacement is calibrated against the output voltage VA.

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Potentiometer: electric circuit

VA = I RA (2.2.1)

But I = VS / (RA + RB) (2.2.2)

Therefore VA = VS RA / (RA +RB) (2.2.3)

VA = VS LA / (LA + LB) (2.2.4)

As we know that R = ρ L / A, where ρ is electrical resistivity, L is length of resistor and A is area of cross
section
Applications of potentiometer

These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift trucks,
automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding machines,
woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used in computer-controlled
monitoring of sports equipment.

2. Strain Gauges
The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load to the
original length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we can say,

∆R/R α ε; ∆R/R = G ε (2.2.5)

where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general, the value of G is
considered in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.

A pattern of resistive foils Wheatstone’s bridge

Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the equation 2.2.5. It
comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure.

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These foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a
backing material plastic (ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy.
The strain gauges are secured to the workpiece by using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman 910 SL.

As the workpiece undergoes change in its shape due to external loading, the resistance of strain
gauge element changes.
This change in resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone‟s resistance bridge as shown
in Figure. In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,

R2/ R1 = Rx / R3 (2.2.6)
where
Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable resistor,
R1 and R3 are known constant value resistors.
The measured deformation or displacement by the stain gauge is calibrated against change in
resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the voltage across nodes A and B equal to zero.
Applications of strain gauges

Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on machines and
failure analysis.
They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing, residual stress and
vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection measurement, compression and
tension measurement and strain measurement.

Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in automotives. In
particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press and
as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.

3. Capacitive element based sensor

Capacitive sensor is of
non-contact type sensor and is
primarily used to measure the
linear displacements from few
millimeters to hundreds of
millimeters. It comprises of three
plates, with the upper pair
forming one capacitor and the
lower pair another. The linear
displacement might take in two
forms:
B one of the plates is moved
by the displacement so that
the plate separation changes
C Area of overlap changes due
to the displacement.
The schematic of three-plate
capacitive element sensor and
displacement measurement of a
echanical element connected to
the plate 2.
Displacement measurement using capacitive element sensor

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The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by, C = εr εo A / d (2.2.7)

where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo permittivity of free space, A
area of overlap between two plates and d the plate separation.
As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the element/workpiece
of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between the plate changes. This can be given as,

C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x) (2.2.8)

C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x) (2.2.9)

When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone‟s bridge, then the resulting out-of-balance voltage would
be in proportional to displacement x.

Applications of capacitive element sensors

• Feed hopper level monitoring
• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications
measure shape errors in the part being produced to analyze and optimize the rotation of
spindles in various machine tools such as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air
bearing spindles by measuring errors in the machine tools themselves
• Assembly line testing
to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Construction of a LVDT sensor Working of LVDT sensor

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for measurement of
linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm in general. It has non-linearity error
± 0.25% of full range.

The construction of a LVDT sensor. It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated
tube. The central coil is primary coil and the other two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are
connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core attached to
the element of which displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.

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Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs)
are generated in secondary coils.

When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion in each of the secondary coil
regions then the resultant voltage is zero.
If the core is displaced from the central position, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2, then
more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage from the
coils.

If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in proportion
with the displacement. With the help of signal processing devices such as low pass filters and
demodulators, precise displacement can be measured by using LVDT sensors.

LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an absolute position
sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly
reliable. These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms, automated
measurement in machine tools.

A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of rotation.
Readers are suggested to prepare a report on principle of working and construction of RVDT sensor.

Applications of LVDT sensors

a. Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
b. To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
c. To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
d. For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
e. To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
f. To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
g. To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM

Displacement, position and proximity sensors

1. Eddy current proximity sensors

Eddy current proximity sensors

are used to detect non-magnetic but
conductive materials. They comprise
of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a
triggering circuit.

When an alternating current is

passed thru this coil, an alternative
magnetic field is generated. If a metal
object comes in the close proximity of
the coil, then eddy currents are
induced in the object due to the
magnetic field.

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These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field responsible
for their generation. As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating
current. This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change in current.

Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly reliable and
have high sensitivity for small displacements.

Applications of eddy current proximity sensors

a. Automation requiring precise location

b. Machine tool monitoring
c. Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
d. Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating element,
e. Drive shaft monitoring
f. Vibration measurements

2. Inductive proximity switch

Inductive proximity switches are basically used for detection of metallic objects.

An inductive proximity sensor has four

components; the coil, oscillator, detection circuit
and output circuit.

An alternating current is supplied to the coil

which generates a magnetic field. When, a metal
object comes closer to the end of the coil,
inductance of the coil changes.

This is continuously monitored by a circuit which triggers a switch when a preset value of
inductance change is occurred.

Applications of inductive proximity switches

Industrial automation: counting of products during production or transfer
Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines

5. Optical encoders

Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are widely
used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts.

It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are
employed to detect the light passing thru the holes. These sensors produce electric pulses which give
the angular displacement of the mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is
mounted.

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The inner track has just one hole which is used

locate the „home‟ position of the disc. The holes on the
middle track offset from the holes of the outer track by
one-half of the width of the hole.
This arrangement provides the direction of rotation
to be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise
direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the
inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind.

The resolution can be determined by the number of

holes on disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the
resolution would be, 360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰.

4. Pneumatic Sensors

Working of Pneumatic Sensors

Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to sense the proximity of an object
close to it.
The displacement and proximity are transformed into change in air pressure.
It comprises of three ports. Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A.
In the absence of any obstacle / object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the pressure
in the port B.
However when an object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output port B.
This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch. These sensors are
used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC machine tools.
5. Proximity Switches

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Configurations of contact type proximity switch Reed Switch

These are small electrical switches which require
physical contact and a small operating force to close
the contacts. They are basically employed on
conveyor systems to detect the presence of an item
on the conveyor belt.

Magnet based Reed switches are used as proximity

switches. When a magnet attached to an object
brought close to the switch, the magnetic reeds
attract to each other and close the switch contacts.

Photo emitting devices such as Light emitting diodes

(LEDs) and photosensitive devices such as photo
diodes and photo transistors are used in combination
to work as proximity sensing devices. Figure shows
two typical arrangements of LEDs and photo diodes
to detect the objects breaking the beam and
reflecting light.
LED based proximity sensors
6. Hall effect sensor

Principle of working of Hall effect sensor

The principle of working of Hall effect sensor.
Hall effect sensors work on the principle that
when a beam of charge particles passes through a
magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the
current beam is deflected from its straight line
path. Thus one side of the disc will become
negatively charged and the other side will be of
positive charge. This charge separation generates
a potential difference which is the measure of
distance of magnetic field from the disc carrying
current.

The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the

measurement of fluid level in a container. The
container comprises of a float with a permanent
magnet attached at its top. An electric circuit with
a current carrying disc is mounted in the casing.

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When the fluid level increases, the magnet will come close to the disc and a potential difference
generates. This voltage triggers a switch to stop the fluid to come inside the container.

These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the detection of position of an object.
Hall effect sensors need necessary signal conditioning circuitry. They can be operated at 100 kHz. Their
non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment contaminants and ability to sustain in
severe conditions make them quite popular in industrial automation.

Velocity, motion, force and pressure sensors

1. Tachogenerator
Tachogenerator works on the principle of variable reluctance. It consists of an assembly of a
toothed wheel and a magnetic circuit.
Toothed wheel is mounted on the shaft or the
element of which angular motion is to be
measured.

Magnetic circuit comprising of a coil wound

on a ferromagnetic material core.
As the wheel rotates, the air gap between
wheel tooth and magnetic core changes which
results in cyclic change in flux linked with the
coil.
The alternating emf generated is the measure of angular motion.
A pulse shaping signal conditioner is used to transform the output into a number of pulses which can be
counted by a counter.

2. Pyroelectric sensors

These sensors work on the principle of

pyroelectricity, which states that a crystal material
such as Lithium tantalite generates charge in
response to heat flow. In presence of an electric
field, when such a crystal material heats up, its
electrical dipoles line up .
This is called as polarization. On
cooling, the material retains its
polarization. In absence of electric
field, when this polarized material is
subjected to infra red irradiation, its
polarization reduces. This
phenomenon is the measure of
detection of movement of an object.
Construction and working a Pyroelectric sensor

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Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated with thin film electrodes on
opposite faces. Initially the electrodes are in electrical equilibrium with the polarized material. On
incident of infra red, the material heats up and reduces its polarization. This leads to charge imbalance at
the interface of crystal and electrodes. To balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the
charge, which is calibrated against the detection of an object or its movement.

Applications of Pyroelectric sensors

1. Intrusion detector
2. Optothermal detector
3. Pollution detector
4. Position sensor
5. Solar cell studies
6. Engine analysis

3. Strain Gauge as force Sensor

Strain gauge based sensors work on the principle

of change in electrical resistance. When, a
mechanical element subjects to a tension or a
compression the electric resistance of the
material changes. This is used to measure the
force acted upon the element.

It comprises of cylindrical tube to which strain

gauges are attached. A load applied on the top
collar of the cylinder compress the strain gauge
element which changes its electrical resistance.
Generally strain gauges are used to measure
forces up to 10 MN. The non-linearity and
repeatability errors of this transducer are ±0.03%
and ±0.02% respectively.
Strain gauge based Load cell

4. Fluid pressure
Chemical, petroleum, power industry often
need to monitor fluid pressure. Various types of
instruments such as diaphragms, capsules, and bellows
are used to monitor the fluid pressure. Specially
designed strain gauges doped in diaphragms are
generally used to measure the inlet manifold pressure
in applications such as automobiles.
A
diaphragm

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A typical arrangement of strain gauges on a diaphragm is shown in figure 2.4.6. Application of

pressurized fluid displaces the diaphragm. This displacement is measured by the stain gauges in terms of
radial and/or lateral strains. These strain gauges are connected to form the arms of a Wheatstone bridge.

Schematic of Capsule and Bellow Bellow with a LVDT

Capsule is formed by combining two corrugated diaphragms. It has enhanced sensitivity in comparison
with that of diaphragms. Figure shows a schematic of a Capsule and a Bellow. A stack of capsules is
called as „Bellows‟. Bellows with a LVDT sensor measures the fluid pressure in terms of change in
resultant voltage across the secondary coils of LVDT.

5. Tactile sensors

In general, tactile sensors are used to sense

the contact of fingertips of a robot with an
object. They are also used in manufacturing
of „touch display‟ screens of visual display
units (VDUs) of CNC machine tools.

Schematic of a tactile sensor

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6. Piezoelectric sensor

Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of

pressure, acceleration and dynamic-forces such as
oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or
tension. It contains piezoelectric ionic crystal materials
such as Quartz. On application of force or pressure
these materials get stretched or compressed. During this
process, the charge over the material changes and
redistributes. One face of the material becomes
positively charged and the other negatively charged.
The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the
amount x by which the charges have been displaced.
The displacement is proportion to force. Therefore we
can write,
q = kx = SF (2.4.1)
Principle of working of Piezoelectric
sensor
where k is constant and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity.

7. Liquid flow

Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli‟s principle of fluid flow through a
constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured. The fluid flow
volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the two ends of the constriction. There are
various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in manufacturing automation such as Orifice
plate, Turbine meter etc.

7.a Orifice plate:

Figure shows a schematic of Orifice plate device. It has a

disc with a hole at its center, through which the fluid
flows. The pressure difference is measured between a
point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a
point equal to the half the diameter downstream. Orifice
plate is inexpensive and simple in construction with no
moving parts. It exhibits nonlinear behavior and does not
work with slurries. It has accuracy of ± 1.5%.

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7.b Turbine meter

Turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ±0.3%. It has a

multi blade rotor mounted centrally in the pipe along
which the flow is to be measured. The fluid flow
rotates the rotor. Accordingly the magnetic pick up
coil counts the number of magnetic pulses generated
due to the distortion of magnetic field by the rotor
blades. The angular velocity is proportional to the
number of pulses and fluid flow is proportional to
angular velocity.
Schematic of turbine meter
8. Fluid level

The level of liquid in a vessel or container can be measured,

a. directly by monitoring the position of liquid surface
b. Indirectly by measuring some variable related to the height.
Direct measurements involve the use of floats however the indirect methods employ load cells.
Potentiometers or LVDT sensors can be used along with the floats to measure the height of fluid column.
Force sensed by the load cells is proportional to the height of fluid column.

Temperature and light sensors

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or
contraction of solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors and
thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors are widely
used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal cutting etc. The
construction details and principle of working of some of the temperature sensors are discussed in
following sections.
1. Bimetallic strips

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in

controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains
two different metal strips bonded together.
The metals have different coefficients of
expansion. On heating the strips bend into
curved strips with the metal with higher
coefficient of expansion on the outside of the
curve.

Construction and working of Bi-metallic strip

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2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature.

Construction of a Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone bridge. The element and the connection leads are
insulated and protected by a sheath. A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil.
As the temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.
RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They are generally made of metals such
as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass adhesive in a
ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace. Other applications are:
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement
3. Thermistors
Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in
resistance with increasing temperature. The material
used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material
such as a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides,
chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or doped
polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate
(BaTiO3) and other compounds. As the temperature of
semiconductor material increases the number of
electrons able to move about increases which results in
more current in the material and reduced resistance.
Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions. They
exhibit nonlinear response characteristics.

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Applications of Thermistors

• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing industry equipments
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators,
freezers, hair dryers, etc.

4. Thermocouple

Thermocouple works on the fact

that when a junction of dissimilar
metals heated, it produces an
electric potential related to
temperature.
As per Thomas Seebeck (1821),
when two wires composed of
dissimilar metals are joined at
both ends and one of the ends is
heated, then there is a continuous
current which flows in the
thermoelectric circuit.

Schematic of thermocouple circuit

Applications of Thermocouples

• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process

• Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and petroleum
refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel, iron and
aluminum industry

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Light sensors
A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensors such as
photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other industrial applications.

Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose resistance decreases
with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance semiconductor material, cadmium
sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS photoresistor varies inversely to the amount of light incident upon
it. Photoresistor follows the principle of photoconductivity which results from the generation of mobile
carriers when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material.

The construction of a photo resistor. The CdS

resistor coil is mounted on a ceramic substrate.
This assembly is encapsulated by a resin material.
The sensitive coil electrodes are connected to the
control system though lead wires. On incidence
of high intensity light on the electrodes, the
resistance of resistor coil decreases which will be
used further to generate the appropriate signal by
the microprocessor via lead wires. Photoresistors
are used in science and in almost any branch of
industry for control, safety, amusement, sound
reproduction, inspection and measurement.
Construction of a photo resistor

Applications of photo resistor

• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to automatically
control the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and robots. The light sensor
enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be programmed to have a specific reaction if a certain
amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control

Photo diodes

Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric current. It is made of
Silicon. It consists of a shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a p-on-n configuration. When photons of
energy greater than 1.1eV (the bandgap of silicon) fall on the device, they are absorbed and electron-hole
pairs are created. The depth at which the photons are absorbed depends upon their energy. The lower the
energy of the photons, the deeper they are absorbed. Then the electron-hole pairs drift apart. When the
minority carriers reach the junction, they are swept across by the electric field and an electric current
establishes.

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Photodiodes are one of the types of photodetector, which convert light into either current or voltage.
These are regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed to detect vacuum UV or
X-rays or packaged with a opening or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of
the device.

The construction of Photo diode detector. It

is constructed from single crystal silicon
wafers. It is a p-n junction device. The
upper layer is p layer. It is very thin and
formed by thermal diffusion or ion
implantation of doping material such as
boron. Depletion region is narrow and is
sandwiched between p layer and bulk n
type layer of silicon. Light irradiates at
front surface, anode, while the back surface
is cathode. The incidence of light on anode
generates a flow of electron across the p-n
junction which is the measure of light
intensity.

Figure 2.5.7 Construction of photo diode detector

APPLICATIONS OF PHOTO DIODES

Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic Flash Control.

Medical: CAT Scanners - X ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle Analyzers.

Industry: Bar Code Scanners,Light Pens,Brightness Controls,Encoders,Position Sensors,Surveying

Instruments
Copiers - Density of Toner.
Safety Equipment: Smoke Detectors,Flame Monitors,Security Inspection Equipment - Airport X ray,
Intruder Alert - Security System.
Automotive:Headlight Dimmer,Twilight Detectors,Climate Control - Sunlight Detector.

Communications:Fiber Optic Links,Optical Communications,Optical Remote Control.

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