WIRELESS AND MOBILE

COMMUNICATIONS
(TE-308)

I N S TR U C TOR
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 Cellular Network Generations
0G: Briefcase-size mobile radio telephones
1G: Analog cellular telephony
2G: Digital cellular telephony
3G: High-speed digital cellular telephony
4G: IP-based “anytime, anywhere” voice, data,
and Multimedia telephony at faster data rates than 3G

1G 2G 2.5G 3G 4G
 The Multiple Access Problem
Multiple Access
▪ Several terminals connected to the same transmission medium to transmit over it over a
shared medium.
▪ Multiple access techniques allow spectrum and power to be shared efficiently among
multiple users. (Bandwidth is shared)
▪ The base stations need to serve many mobile terminals at the same time (both downlink and
uplink)
▪ All mobiles in the cell need to transmit to the base station. Interference among different senders
and receivers. So we need a multiple access scheme
Multiplexing Multiple Access
 Multiple Access Schemes
▪ 3 orthogonal Schemes:
▪ Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
▪ Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
▪ Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
▪ Each mobile is assigned a separate frequency channel for the duration of the call (forward & Reverse).
▪ Assigns individual channels to individual users, and different users are assigned different
traffic channels. (Each user is allocated a unique frequency)(if channel not used sit idle)
▪ A sufficient guard band is required to prevent adjacent channel interference.
▪ Usually, mobile terminals will have one downlink frequency band and one uplink frequency band
▪ Different cellular network protocols use different frequencies

U1 U2 U3 U4 U5

frequency
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
▪ Time is divided into slots and only one mobile terminal transmits during each slot (Like during the
lecture, only one can talk, but others may take the floor in turn) (single channel is shared)
▪ Each user is given a specific slot. Only one user is allowed to transmit or receive in each slot (single carrier
frequency is used for several carriers) (Duplexer is not required) (Data transmission is not continuous but in burst)

Guard time – signal transmitted by mobile terminals at different locations do no arrive at the base station at the
same time
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
▪ The message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal called a spreading
signal (Pin Code). Each user has their own PIN code, and no guard bands are required.
▪ Use of orthogonal codes to separate different transmissions
▪ Each symbol of a bit is transmitted as a larger number of bits using the user-specific code
Spreading
▪ Bandwidth occupied by the signal is much larger than the information transmission rate
▪ But all users use the same carrier frequency band together.
C1xC2=0,C1xC1=number of stations C1xd1+C2xd2+C3xd3+C4xd4
 2G
▪ Abbreviation for Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
▪ Digital signals are used and encode voice and other information digitally before transmitting
them.
▪ Noise immunity and better bandwidth utilization due to digital transmission.
▪ Short Message Service (SMS) and other multimedia services are possible
▪ Speed was up to 64kbps
▪ Better quality than 1G.
▪ Uses FDMA and TDMA
▪ Based on circuit switching.
 Channels
▪ GSM Channels
▪ Physical Channel: Each timeslot on a carrier is referred to as a physical channel
▪ Logical Channel: Variety of information is transmitted between the MS and BTS.
▪ MS = Mobile Station, BTS=Base Transceiver Station
▪ Different types of logical channels: downlink
▪ Traffic channel Channels
▪ Control Channel Uplink
2G
GSM Frequencies
▪ Originally designed for the 900 MHz range. Now also available on 800 MHz, 1800 MHz, and
1900 MHz ranges.
▪ Separate Uplink and Downlink frequencies. One example channel on the 1800 MHz frequency
band,where RF carriers are spaced every 200 MHz
UPLINK FREQUENCIES DOWNLINK FREQUENCIES

1710 MHz 1785 MHz 1805 MHz 1880 MHz

UPLINK AND DOWNLINK FREQUENCY SEPARATED BY 95MHZ

 2G GSM
GSM Architecture
 2G GSM
Mobile Station (MS)
▪ MS is the user’s handset
▪ Mobile Equipment
▪ Radio equipment
▪ User interface
▪ Processing capability and memory required for various tasks
▪ Call signaling
▪ Encryption
▪ SMS, Equipment IMEI number, Subscriber Identity Module
 2G GSM
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
▪ A small smart card with Encryption codes needed to identify the subscriber

▪ Subscriber IMSI number

▪ Subscriber’s own information (telephone directory)

▪ Third party applications (banking etc.)

▪ Can also be used in other systems besides GSM, e.g.,some WLAN access points accept SIM based
user authentication
 2G GSM
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
▪ Transcoding Rate andAdaptation Unit (TRAU)
▪ Performs coding between the 64kbps PCM coding used in the backbone network and the 13
kbps coding used for the Mobile Station (MS)
▪ Base Station Controller (BSC)
▪ Controls the channel (time slot) allocation implemented by the BTS. Manages the handovers
within the BSS area. Knows which mobile stations are within the cell and informs the
MSC/VLR about this
▪ BaseTransceiver System (BTS)
▪ Controls several transmitters. Each transmitter has 8 time slots, some used for signaling,on a
specific frequency
 2G GSM
Network and Switching Subsystem (BSS)
▪ The backbone of a GSM network is a telephone network with additional cellular network
capabilities
▪ Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
▪ An typical telephony exchange (ISDN exchange) which supports mobile communications
▪ Visitor Location Register (VLR),A database, part of the MSC. Contains the location of the
active Mobile Stations
▪ Home Location Register (HLR)
▪ Contain subscriber information, including authentication information in the Authentication Center
(AuC) (stores temporary information)
▪ Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
▪ International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI) codes for e.g., blacklisting stolen phones
 2G GSM
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
▪ One database per operator Contains all the permanent subscriber information.
▪ MSISDN (Mobile Subscriber ISDN number) is the telephone number of the subscriber
▪ International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) is a 15-digit code used to identify the
subscriber
▪ It incorporates a country code and operator code. IMSI code is used to link the MSISDN
number to the subscriber’s SIM (Subscriber Identity Module).Charging information
▪ Services available to the customer
▪ Also, the subscriber’s present LocationArea Code, which refers to the MSC, which can connect to
the MS.
 2.5G
▪ General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
▪ GSM upgrade that provides IP-based packet data transmission up to 114 kbps.
▪ GPRS offers end-to-end packet switched data transfer services.
▪ Users can “simultaneously” make calls and send data, and help in reducing call cost
▪ GPRS provides “always on” Internet access and the Multimedia Messaging Service
▪ (MMS) whereby users can send rich text, audio, and video messages to each other
▪ Performance degrades as the number of users increases
 2.5G
▪ A software upgrade is needed for every GSM component to transmit voice and data
▪ Two components are added; SGSN and GGSN
▪ Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): Data compression, user authentication, and
registration (CAR)
▪ Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): Acts as a router to route data to the PDN.
▪ Packet Control Unit (PCU): Data will be shifted to the PCU via the BSC and then entered
in the core network of GPRS
3G Overview
• 3G is created by ITU-T and is called IMT-2000
 3G (UMTS)
▪ Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is an upgrade from GSM via GPRS or
EDGE. The standardization work for UMTS is carried out by the Third Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP).
▪ It is a packet and circuit-based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, and multimedia.

▪ It is a complete network system which includes the radio access network (UMTS Terrestrial
Radio Access Network, UTRAN), the core network (Mobile Application part), and
authentication of users via SIM cards and transfer data up to 42 Mbps. It also provides a set of
services like internet roaming to mobile users and no matter where the users are located in the world.

▪ It uses wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) radio access technology to provide greater spectral efficiency and
bandwidth to mobile network operators
 UMTS Network Architecture
▪ UMTS network architecture consists of three domains
▪ Core Network (CN): Provide switching, routing and transit for user traffic
▪ UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN): Provides the air interface access
method for user equipment.
▪ User Equipment (UE):Terminals work as air interface counterpart for base stations. The various
identities are: IMSI,TMSI, P-TMSI, TLLI, MSISDN, IMEI, IMEISV
3G Architecture
UMTS Architecture
 MGW

For internet CG BG
 UMTS Network Architecture
UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) : Ensures radio transmission of data
between the transport layer and the radio network layer.
The UTRAN includes the base stations and the control nodes, whose functions are mentioned
below:
▪ Node B (BTS): as a UMTS base station, includes the antenna equipment as well as the
CDMA receiver and is directly connected to the radio interfaces of the mobile equipment.
Its tasks include data rate adaptation, data and channel encoding or decoding, interleaving,
and modulation or demodulation. Each base station can power one or more cells.
▪ Radio Network Controller (RNC) (BSC): base station is responsible for controlling the
base stations. Likewise, within the cells, it is responsible for call acceptance control,
encryption and decryption, handover, and power control.
 UMTS Network Architecture
▪ Core Network is responsible for switching the data within the UMTS network (both,
circuit-switched and packet-switched).
▪ For this purpose, it contains at circuit-switched transmission the following hardware and
software components:
▪ Mobile Switching Center (MSC): is responsible for call routing, localization,
authentication, handover, and data encryption.
▪ Home Location Register (HLR): contains all subscriber data; tariff model, telephone
number, authorizations, and keys.
▪ Visitor Location Register (VLR): contains information about locally registered users and
copies of records from its HLR. This data is dynamic.
 UMTS Network Architecture
▪ In packet-switched transmission there are the following facilities or registers:
▪ Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): is responsible for routing and authentication
instead of MSC and VLR, and keeps a local copy of the user information. (Routing,
billing, current cell, authentication)
▪ Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): There are transitions to other packet data
networks such as the Internet. Incoming packets are filtered by an integrated firewall and
forwarded to the appropriate SGSN. (Send packet to the required destination, e.g,
Facebook)(Protocol conversion)
▪ GPRS Register (GR): is part of the HLR and contains additional information needed for
packet-switched transmission.
 3.5G HSPA
High Speed PacketAccess (HSPA) is an amalgamation of two mobile telephony protocols,High
Speed Downlink PacketAccess (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink PacketAccess (HSUPA), that
extends and improves the performance of existingW C D M A protocols
3.5G introduces many new features that will enhance the UMTS technology in future.1xEV-DV
already supports most of the features that will be provided in 3.5G.These include:
▪ Adaptive Modulation and Coding
▪ Fast Scheduling
▪ Backward compatibility with 3G
▪ EnhancedAir Interface
 4G LTE
▪ LTE stands for LongTerm Evolution is a 4th generation of GSM
Design UMTS
mobile cellular technology. With bandwidth 1.4, 3.5 to 20 GPRS
Limitation or 3G
or 2G
MHz. for uplink 300 Mbps and 75 Mbps downlink.
▪ Based on UMTS 3G technology. Optimized forAll-IP traffic 3 GPP
Need for LTE
Around 2010, networks started to become congested due to
the growth of data by Flat Rate with unlimited data download,
RAN Core
leading to the requirement of increasing network capacity.
In LTE, multipath fading is greatly reduced due to OFDMA OFDMA
and provides flexibility with bandwidth 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz, 180KHZ/Block
which can be further increased by carrier aggregation
 4G LTE
▪ All-IP traffic VOIP and VOLTE. All the
interfaces between network nodes are now
based on IP.
▪ With the advent of IoT devices, the total number
of connected devices is expected to reach 28
billion, and for these devices, latency is more
important than bandwidth. Faster backhaul is
the need of hour.
Comparison of LTE Speed
Major LTE Radio Technologies
▪ Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for downlink

▪ Uses Single Carrier Frequency Division MultipleAccess (SC-FDMA) for uplink

▪ Uses Multi-input Multi-output(MIMO) for enhanced throughput

▪ Reduced power consumption

▪ Higher RF power amplifier efficiency (less battery power used by handsets)

 LTE Architecture
The high-level network architecture of LTE is composed of the following three key
components:

1. The User Equipment

2. Access Network: Also known as E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRA Network).
3. Core Network: Also known as EPC (Evolved Packet Core)
LTE Architecture
LTE Architecture
 LTE Architecture
User Equipment (UE)
The internal architecture of the user equipment for LTE is exactly the same as that of
UMTS and GSM, which is mobile equipment (ME). The mobile equipment has the
following core modules:
1. All communication functions are handled by Mobile Termination (MT).
2. The data streams are terminated in Terminal Equipment (TE).
3. The SIM card for LTE equipment is known as the Universal Integrated Circuit Card
(UICC). This application is known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).
The information stored on a USIM card is similar to that of a 3G SIM card, including the
user's telephone number, home network identity, and security keys.
▪ USIM→ Universal Subscriber Identity Module
▪ Data storage like 3G SIM, User’s phone number, Home Network Identity,
Security Keys
▪ ISIM→IP Multimedia Services Identity Module
▪ IP multimedia private identity (IMPI), Domain, IP multimedia public identity
and cipher keys (to encrypt information)
 EUTRAN Entities and Interfaces
Radio Access Network of LTE
▪ Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN): It controls radio
communication between user equipment and EPC. LTE mobile can connect with just one
cell and one base station at a time. Main operations performed by EBS(Evolved Base
Station).

▪ Analog and digital processing functions of LTE air interface are used to transmit and
receive radio transmission to all the LTE-enabled devices.

▪ Handles low-level operation by sending the signaling messages and commands.

 EUTRAN Entities and Interfaces

▪ E-UTRAN consists of a set of eNBs

interconnected via X2 interface and
connected to EPC via S1 interface,
where X2 and S1 are logical interfaces.
 EUTRAN Entities and Interfaces
▪ Evolved Node B (eNB): eNB consists of two major elements;

1. RRU or Remote Radio Unit consists of the antennas. It is also called a remote radio head.
They are also responsible for the modulation and demodulation of all signals transmitted or
received over the air interface.

2. BBU or Baseband Unit consists of digital modules that process our signals transmitted or
received over the air interface and acts as an interface to the core network over a high-speed
backhaul connection.

▪ Evolved Node B (eNB) is also responsible for radio resource management, which includes
radio bearer control, radio admission control, connection mobility control, and dynamic
allocation of resources to UEs in both uplink and downlink.
 EUTRAN Entities and Interfaces
▪ Evolved Node B (eNB):eNB can support FDD, TDD or dual mode operation. It send and
receives radio signals to and from all the mobile devices using analogue and digital signal
processing functions of the LTE air interface.

▪ Radio channel ciphering/deciphering and integrity protection of user data

▪ Supports IP Header compression, load balancing, synchronization

▪ Mobility control functions like handover

▪ Supports Dual Connectivity

▪ Inter-cell interference coordination

 LTE Architecture
S1 Interface
▪ A logical interface between eNB and core network is referred to as the S1 interface. It
is usually carried at a high-speed copper or fiber or high-speed microwave link.
▪ It splits into two logical parts, which are transported over the same physical connection.
▪ User data is transported over the S1 user plane part of the S1 interface.
▪ IP packets of the user are tunneled through an IP link in a manner similar to GPRS to
enable seamless handover between different LTE base stations.
▪ GPRS tunneling protocol GTP is reused for this purpose, with only the destination IP
address on layer-3 is changed while the user’s IP address remains the same.
▪ Used for transferring of signalling messages that concern the users of the system.
 EUTRAN Entities and Interfaces
▪ X2 Interface

▪ To avoid data loss during handover X2 interface is introduced. Base stations communicate
directly over the X2 interface to support the exchange of signaling information and transfer of
user application data.

▪ List of functions supported by X2 interface;

▪ Intra LTE Access system mobility support, which allows the eNB to hand over the control of
a particular UE to another eNB. (Handovers are controlled by base stations themselves)

▪ Handover cancellation informs the target eNB that handover will not take place, and UE
context release (release the resources allocated to UE in source eNB)
 EUTRAN Entities and Interfaces
▪ The second use of the X2 interface is interference
coordination. There are areas in the network where
mobile devices receive the signals of several base
stations. If signals of two or similar base stations have
similar strengths, then the signals of the base station that
the mobile devices do not communicate with are
perceived as noise, and the resultant throughput suffers
significantly. As mobile devices report noise level at
their current location, the X2 interface contacts the
neighboring base stations used to mitigate the problem.
EPC Architecture
Evolved Packet Core (EPC): It communicates with internal and external packet data
networks and the IP multimedia subsystem.
▪ Core network of the LTE system
▪ No circuit-switched domain like GSM and UMTS. Only a packet-switched network
with a flat architecture and IP (Internet Protocol) is used for the transport of all the
services.
▪ The user plane and control plane for user data and signaling, respectively, are separated to
make the scaling independent.
▪ Correct Airline Counter
▪ Proves the Actual holder of the ticket (ID
Card) (MME)
▪ Boarding Pass (seat , class (PCRF), flight
time),
▪ Captain (S-GW)
▪ Flight attendant (P-GW) Internet Browsing

EPC EPC
EPC Architecture
Evolved Packet Core (EPC): It communicates with internal and external packet data
networks and the IP multimedia subsystem.
▪ Core network of the LTE system
▪ No circuit-switched domain like GSM and UMTS. Only a packet-switched network
with a flat architecture and IP (Internet Protocol) is used for the transport of all the
services.
▪ The user plane and control plane for user data and signaling, respectively, are separated to
make the scaling independent.
EPC Architecture
▪ The information in the SIM card helps the user to connect to the correct service provider.
ME will ask for the identifier from the user. Once the identifier is provided. The MME
starts the authentication of the user.
▪ The MME starts the authentication of the user by using the authentication details from the
home subscriber server HSS. After authentication user is assigned global unique
temporary ID.(boarding pass)
▪ Users need authorization to use the services. The PCRF has the record of the services the
user has subscribed to (business or economy class).
▪ S-GW (Captain )is the in charge of services, and P-GW (attendant) serves the user. P-
GW gets the subscriber profile from PCRF. After this, the user is able to browse the
internet or make a voice call, or use other services.
▪ In a nutshell, the function of EPC is to first authenticate the user using SIM card
information. Then, based on the subscriber’s profile, authorize the subscriber to use
various services.
EPC Entities and Interfaces
EPC Architecture
▪ HSS: Home Subscriber Server holds all the information about all the network operator’s
subscribers in a central database.
▪ MME: Mobility Management Entity handles the high-level operation by the signalling
messages and HSS.
▪ S-GW: Signaling Gateway performs mobility anchoring and forward data between PDN
Gateway and Base Station.
▪ P-GW:Packet Data Network Gateway communicates with PDN’s employing interfaces. It
performs operations like IP address allocation and packet filtering.
▪ PCRF: Policy and Charging Rule Function is accountable for controlling the flow-based
charging operations in the Policy Control Enforcement Function (PCEF) and policy
control decision-making.
EPC Architecture
 EPC Architecture
Mobility Management Entity
▪ Control plane entity
▪ Deals with functionalities like handling signaling related to mobility and security for E-
UTRAN access
▪ List of functions supported by MME are;
▪ NAS signaling and security
▪ Tracking Area List management
▪ Serving Gateway and PDN Gateway selection
▪ SGSN selection for handovers to 2G/3G networks
▪ Roaming and Authentication
▪ Dedicated bearer establishment and EPS bearer management
 EPC Architecture
S10 Interface
▪ Interface between two MMEs
▪ Used to support information transfer and MME relocation support between the MMEs
▪ S11 Interface
▪ Interface between MME and S-GW
▪ Used to support mobility and bearer management between the MME and S-GW.
▪ S6a Interface
▪ Interface between MME and HSS
▪ Used to exchange the data related to the location of the mobile station and the management
of the subscriber
▪ S6a Interface
▪ The interface between S-GW and PDN GW.