Geography

Grade 12

SESSION 8: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND MAP

PROJECTIONS

KEY CONCEPTS:
In this session we will look at:

• Geographic information systems and Map projections.

• Content that needs to be covered for examination purposes and possible
exam type questions.

X-PLANATION
Learner Notes:

• We will not be using computers during examinations so spending a lot of

money and time doing advanced courses in GIS for the purpose of doing well
in exams may not be necessary. The excuse that we can’t do GIS because
we don’t have any computers is not relevant.
• Most of the questions will be based on maps, photos and diagrams.
• We need to note that the topographic map and orthophoto you receive during
the exams are similar to GIS in that different types of relevant information are
put together to make them.
• Topographic maps are representations of reality that shows us how things
relate to each other in space. Maps represent different types of natural and
manmade features/information, e.g. roads and cultivated land in the form of
symbols.
• Orthophoto maps are accurate aerial photographs which contain information
such as contour lines, spot heights, names of places etc. They are large
scale aerial photographs that show great detail.

WHAT IS GIS?

 Geographic – place on Earth, Spatial – Where something is on earth?

 Information – data (facts) put together (layering) to make sense e.g.
the number of people using a road. Data used in GIS can be the
following: Maps, Remote sensing, Spatial resolution, Spectral
resolution
 System – interrelated information – Using the data to make it mean
something.

Definition: GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware, software,

geographic data and personnel designed to capture, store, update, manipulate,
analyze and display geographically referenced data.

Page 1
 Geography
Grade 12

THE FIVE COMPONENTS OF A GIS:

Hardware, Software, Data, people and organizations, processes.

GIS has the same components as other information systems. It allows us to collect,
store and process data to produce maps and answer on spatial queries. Let us
compare GIS with the components of a vehicle.

THE BODY (HARDWARE) THE FUEL (DATA/PROCESSING)

Computer hardware Spatial data or geographical data. All
data in the GIS can be linked to a point,
o Central processing unit line or area on the ground of which the
o Monitor geographical location is known.
o Key board and drivers o
Scanners and digitisers

THE ENGINE DRIVER (PEOPLE AND

(SOFTWARE/PROCESSING) ORGANISATIONS/PROCESSING)
Computer Programme specially to This is the person or actually the team
design to control the input of data into a of people who link the hardware,
system where they stored, updated, software and data together to perform
retrieved and processed. various functions. This includes data
collection, analysis, and presentation.
and management.

Page 2
 Geography
Grade 12

CONCEPTS RELATED TO GIS:

Remote sensing - getting data about the earth’s surface from a distance e.g.
satellite images

Resolution - The detail and clarity of images in satellite and aerial photographs.

Clarity is better:

Clarity is poor:

Page 3
 Geography
Grade 12

Spatial Resolution - The detail with which a map shows the location and shape of
geographic features

Spectral Resolution - Refers to the different kinds of information that can be

collected

A database is a storage system with linked tables

Data is facts about reality that has been observed or measured. When data is
stringed together it forms information.

Paper Maps:

Satellite Data / Aerial Photos:

Page 4
 Geography
Grade 12

Digital Maps:

Tabular Data:

GPS Data:

Page 5
 Geography
Grade 12

(Global Positioning System)

Spatial Data - The location and shapes of geographic features and the relationships
between them. E.g. Coordinates.

Attribute Data - Information about the location or area of geographic features and
the relationships between them. E.g. Temperatures

Raster Data:

Page 6
 Geography
Grade 12

ORTHOPHOTO MAP TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

- Raster data - Vector data

Vector Data - Representation of an area using point, lines and polygons

Raster Data - Representation of an area using rectangular grid cells also referred to
as pixels or picture elements

Data Manipulation - When data is processed and converted into useful information
.e.g. correcting distortions and sharpening definitions

Clarity is better:

Clarity is poor:

Page 7
 Geography
Grade 12

Buffering - A zone drawn around a mapped feature measured in units of distance or

time.

Line Buffering:

Point Buffering:

Polygon uffering
B :

Statistical Analysis
- Interpreting the various forms of statistics in relation to a query

Page 8
 Geography
Grade 12

Page 9
 Geography
Grade 12

Database - A collection of data organized for use in computers

Thematic Layering/Data layering - Maps showing different types of information are

projected onto one another/placed on top of one another
 Geography
Grade 12

Data Integration - Putting together various sources of information

ECONOMIC ACTIVITY/PROBLEM USE OF GIS

Agriculture Rainfall patterns, predicting climate, soil type,
suitability of crop
Crime prevention Crime statistics in spatial patterns
Traffic congestion Controlling traffic lights based on information
collect
Financial Banks monitoring customer patterns of
behaviour
Mining Exploring for mineral deposits.
Personal use Finding out the shortest route to school.
Buying a house which is the safest place etc
 Geography
Grade 12

X-AMPLE QUESTIONS:
Question 1:

Data manipulation is used to control how features are represented on small and large-
scale maps.

1.1 Explain the meaning of the term data manipulation. (2)

1.2 Explain why it is necessary to manipulate data on maps. (2)

Question 2:

Two learners from a school in Paarl have an assignment and have to take
photographs of the Berg River. One has a 2.0 megapixel camera and the other has
a 3.5 megapixel camera. The resolution of the photographs taken by the boys will
differ.

2.1 Explain the meaning of the term resolution. (2)

2.2 Which one of the cameras will take better quality pictures?

Explain your answer. (4)

2.3 Heavy rainfall sometimes results in flooding along the Berg River, as is
evident in the image below. How could the local government use GIS to
manage this disaster?
 Geography
Grade 12

(2 x 2) (4)

QUESTION 3
3.1 Choose a term from COLUMN B that matches a description in COLUMN A.
Write only the letter (A – E) next to the question number (3.1.1 – 3.1.3), for
example 3.1.3 F.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
3.1.1 The raw facts that are collected A raster data
about a feature
B vector data
3.1.2 Gathering of data about the Earth
from a distance, using satellites C remote sensing
such as Landsat.
D data base
3.1.3 Data represented by pixels in the
form of grid cells or pixels E data
(3 x 2) (6)

3.2 Name any TWO functional elements of GIS. (2 x 2) (4)

3.3 With reference to the term buffering:

3.3.1 Define the term buffering. (2)

3.3.2 Explain how buffering can be used to protect the coastal

environments visible on the topographical map. (2)

 Geography
Grade 12

3.4 Which ONE, the topographical map or the orthophoto map, is an

example of vector data? (2)

Question 4:

4.1 Identify a polygon feature and a line feature in block C2.

 Geography
Grade 12

(2 x 2) (4)

4.2 With reference to the concept of attribute data, answer the following
questions.

4.2.1 Define the term attribute data. (1 x 2) (2)

4.2.2 Name ONE attribute of the N2 in block A2.

 Geography
Grade 12

(2)

4.3 Data integration is combining different types of data for the purpose of
decision making. Discuss TWO types of data that a farmer in black A5
will consider before cultivation.

(2)

X-ERCISE QUESTIONS
Question 1:

Two learners from a school in Paarl have an assignment and have to take
photographs of the Berg River. One has a 2.0 megapixel camera and the other has
a 3.5 megapixel camera. The resolution of the photographs taken by the boys will
differ.
 Geography
Grade 12

1.1 Urbanisation has a negative impact on rivers. How will buffering prevent the
mismanagement of the Berg River? (2 x 2) (4)

Question 2:

The police have not been able to track a car hijacking gang in the greater Jeffreys Bay
area. How can they use GIS to narrow their search? (2 x 2) (4)

Question 3:

3.4 GIS allows us to use thematic layers on maps. Refer to the topographical map
and name TWO layers of information that were used in compiling the
topographical map of Humansdorp. (2 x 2) (4)

3.5 The Hip Hop Joint company wants to open a new store in Jeffreys Bay. Suggest
TWO ways in which GIS can be used to assist with the location of
the store. (2 x 2) (4)

Question 4:

4.1 Explain the meaning of the following terms

4.1.1 Remote sensing (1x2) (2)

4.1.2 Spatial resolution (1x2) (2)

4.1.3 Data layering (1x2) (2)

4.2 Explain TWO uses of data layering in GIS. (2x2) (4)

 Geography
Grade 12

4.3 You want to build a heavy industry and you are given a choice between area V
in Block B3 and area W in Block F4. Which area would you choose. State
two data layers you would use to make your decision. (3x2) (6)

4.4 Explain TWO ways why maps are important in any GIS (2x2) (4)

SOLUTIONS TO X-ERCISE QUESTIONS

Question 1:

Indicates where no agriculture and industries can be located.

Prevent pollution from pesticides and industrial wastes being deposited.
Leaves areas clear for urban expansion.
Conserve natural areas / maintaining green belts.
[Any TWO of the above]

Question 2:
 Geography
Grade 12

Check database to see if any clues left behind by the gang correspond with other crime
scenes.
Check the crime scene and surroundings and see if there is a pattern.
Demarcate the areas within which the crime takes place.
Research the modus operandi of gangs that were involved in similar crimes
[Any TWO. Accept other reasonable answers.]

Question 3:

3.1
Infrastructure – rail links. Power lines.
Land use – industries, churches, hospitals, etc.
Relief Features – steepness of the land.
Vegetation – natural, cultivated.
Drainage – rivers, marches.
[Any TWO]

3.2
To determine the proximity of similar shops in the area.
Gives an idea of earning potential in the area.
Indicates population density of area.
Determine population demographics.
Indicates accessibility.
Can determine compatibility with other stores.
Determine crime levels.
Determine availability of open land.
[Any TWO. Accept any other reasonable answer]

Question 4:

4.1.1
Gathering information about the earth with any instrument used remotely from outer
space.

4.1.2
Refers to the detail with which a map depicts the location.

4.1.3
Putting information into layers.

4.2
Comparing information.
Analyzing sets of information.
Different sets of data can be compared.
Comparisons can assist with future developments.
(Any TWO – accept other suitable answers)

4.3
Area V.
Transport.
Water supply/dam.
Flat land.
(Any TWO data layers – accept other suitable
answers)
 Geography
Grade 12

4.4
Location is the common key that links all sets of data.
Every item of attribute data is linked to a map coordinate
position.
(Any TWO – accept other suitable answers)

TOPIC 1: MAP PROJECTIONS

Learner Notes:

• Map projections can deal with a lot of complex detail and learners seem to
find this very difficult and confusing.
• Learners need to know the basics of map projections. What is map
projections, the convenience of using maps, the projection properties and
distortions and the different projection classes and associated projections
• This section is hardly ever tested but it is the basis to understanding and
appreciating the designing of maps.

X-PLANATION:

DEFINITION:
It is an attempt to portray the surface of the earth or a portion of the earth on a flat
surface.

SHAPE OF THE EARTH:

We think of the earth as a sphere when it is actually an ellipsoid, slightly larger in radius
at the equator than at the poles.

SPHERE ELLIPSOID

Distance around equator = 40,075,452.7 m

Distance around pole to pole = 39,939,593.9 m

DIFFICULTIES ASSOCIATED WITH USING THE GLOBE TO DO MAPWORK:

• Globes are accurate but expensive
• Small scale and relatively little detail
• Bulky (transport and storage)
• Globe: perspective view
(i.e. the view from a single point)
• Map: orthographic view
(i.e. the view is directly overhead for all points)
 Geography
Grade 12

PROJECTIONS PROPERTIES AND DISTORTIONS:

• Some distortions of conformality, distance, direction, area and scale always
result from this process.
• Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at the
expense of maximizing errors in others.
• Some projections are attempts to only moderately distort all of these
properties.

PROJECTION PROPERTIES (1)

Conformality
• Shape is preserved locally on conformal maps.
• When the scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any
direction, the projection is conformal.
• Meridians (lines of longitude) and parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at
right angles

PROJECTION PROPERTIES (2)

Equivalence 
Area is preserved.
• When a map portrays areas over the entire map so that all mapped areas
have the same proportional relationship to the areas on the Earth that they
represent, the map is an equal-area map.

PROJECTION PROPERTIES (3)

Equidistance
 A map is equidistant when it portrays distances from the center of the projection
to any other place on the map.
Direction
• A map preserves direction when azimuths (angles from a point on a line to
another point) are portrayed correctly in all directions.

PROJECTION PROPERTIES (4)

• Most maps don’t preserve ANY of the properties mentioned!
• This is because accuracy in one property causes distortion in the others
• Consequently, many maps are compromise projections, which don’t preserve
any of the properties but which don’t make extreme distortion in any of the
globe’s properties either.

MAP PROJECTIONS CLASSES:

Refers to the different ways in which map projections are done

Cylindrical Projection:

• Examples: Mercator Transverse Projection.

• Graticule: lines of latitude and longitude intersect at right angles
 Geography
Grade 12

 Good for equatorial regions but greatly distorted at high latitudes.

Conic Projection:

• Example: Lambert Conformal Conic; Albers Equal Area Conic

• Lines of latitude arched; lines of longitude radiate outwards; 
Depicts shapes and areas well; good for East-West land areas.
 Geography
Grade 12

Azimuthal / Planer Projections:

• Examples: Lambert’s Equal Area Azimuthal

• Graticule: Lines of latitude circular; lines of longitude radiating out •
Good for polar regions

Miscellaneous Projections:

Miscellaneous projections include unprojected ones such as rectangular latitude and

longitude grids and other examples of that do not fall into the cylindrical, conic, or
azimuthal categories.

X-AMPLE QUESTIONS:
 Geography
Grade 12

Question 1:

Explain the term map projection.

Question 2:

State FOUR projection properties.

Question 3:

Explain the meaning of map projection classes.

Question 4:

Name THREE map projection classes and provide an example.

Question 5:

Refer to the figure below and answer the question that follows:

Name the projection that is used in South African topographic maps