COURSE MATERIAL

IV Year B. Tech I- Semester

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

AUTOMATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

R17A0327

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(Autonomous Institution-UGC, Govt. of India)
Secunderabad-500100, Telangana State, India.
www.mrcet.ac.in
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CONTENTS

1. Vision, Mission & Quality Policy

2. Pos, PSOs & PEOs

3. Blooms Taxonomy

4. Course Syllabus

5. Lecture Notes (Unit wise)

a. Objectives and outcomes

b. Notes

c. Presentation Material (PPT Slides/ Videos)

d. Industry applications relevant to the concepts covered

e. Question Bank for Assignments

f. Tutorial Questions

6. Previous Question Papers

www.mrcet.ac.in
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

VISION
❖ To establish a pedestal for the integral innovation, team spirit, originality and
competence in the students, expose them to face the global challenges and become
technology leaders of Indian vision of modern society.

MISSION
❖ To become a model institution in the fields of Engineering, Technology and
Management.
❖ To impart holistic education to the students to render them as industry ready
engineers.
❖ To ensure synchronization of MRCET ideologies with challenging demands of
International Pioneering Organizations.

QUALITY POLICY

❖ To implement best practices in Teaching and Learning process for both UG and PG
courses meticulously.

❖ To provide state of art infrastructure and expertise to impart quality education.

❖ To groom the students to become intellectually creative and professionally

competitive.

❖ To channelize the activities and tune them in heights of commitment and sincerity,
the requisites to claim the never - ending ladder of SUCCESS year after year.

For more information: www.mrcet.ac.in

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VISION

To become an innovative knowledge center in mechanical engineering through state-of-

the-art teaching-learning and research practices, promoting creative thinking
professionals.

MISSION

The Department of Mechanical Engineering is dedicated for transforming the students

into highly competent Mechanical engineers to meet the needs of the industry, in a
changing and challenging technical environment, by strongly focusing in the
fundamentals of engineering sciences for achieving excellent results in their professional
pursuits.

Quality Policy

To pursuit global Standards of excellence in all our endeavors namely teaching,

research and continuing education and to remain accountable in our core and
support functions, through processes of self-evaluation and continuous
improvement.

To create a midst of excellence for imparting state of art education, industry-

oriented training research in the field of technical education.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1 Ability to analyze, design and develop Mechanical systems to solve the Engineering
problems by integrating thermal, design and manufacturing Domains.

PSO2 Ability to succeed in competitive examinations or to pursue higher studies or research.

PSO3 Ability to apply the learned Mechanical Engineering knowledge for the Development of
society and self.

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

The Program Educational Objectives of the program offered by the department are broadly
listed below:

PEO1: PREPARATION

To provide sound foundation in mathematical, scientific and engineering fundamentals

necessary to analyze, formulate and solve engineering problems.

PEO2: CORE COMPETANCE

To provide thorough knowledge in Mechanical Engineering subjects including theoretical

knowledge and practical training for preparing physical models pertaining to Thermodynamics,
Hydraulics, Heat and Mass Transfer, Dynamics of Machinery, Jet Propulsion, Automobile
Engineering, Element Analysis, Production Technology, Mechatronics etc.

PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the core field with the help of
other inter disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.

PEO4: CAREER DEVELOPMENT

To inculcate the habit of lifelong learning for career development through successful completion
of advanced degrees, professional development courses, industrial training etc.

PEO5: PROFESSIONALISM
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
To impart technical knowledge, ethical values for professional development of the student to
solve complex problems and to work in multi-disciplinary ambience, whose solutions lead to
significant societal benefits.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Blooms Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for
their students (learning objectives). The terminology has been updated to include the following
six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning objectives, lessons,
and assessments of a course.

1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐ term
memory.
2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing or implementing.
4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to
one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and
attributing.
5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standard through checking and
critiquing.
6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VISION

To become an innovative knowledge center in mechanical engineering through state-of-

the-art teaching-learning and research practices, promoting creative thinking
professionals.

MISSION

The Department of Mechanical Engineering is dedicated for transforming the students

into highly competent Mechanical engineers to meet the needs of the industry, in a
changing and challenging technical environment, by strongly focusing in the
fundamentals of engineering sciences for achieving excellent results in their professional
pursuits.

Quality Policy

To pursuit global Standards of excellence in all our endeavors namely teaching,

research and continuing education and to remain accountable in our core and
support functions, through processes of self-evaluation and continuous
improvement.

To create a midst of excellence for imparting state of art education, industry-

oriented training research in the field of technical education.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1 Ability to analyze, design and develop Mechanical systems to solve the Engineering
problems by integrating thermal, design and manufacturing Domains.

PSO2 Ability to succeed in competitive examinations or to pursue higher studies or research.

PSO3 Ability to apply the learned Mechanical Engineering knowledge for the Development of
society and self.

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

The Program Educational Objectives of the program offered by the department are broadly
listed below:

PEO1: PREPARATION

To provide sound foundation in mathematical, scientific and engineering fundamentals

necessary to analyze, formulate and solve engineering problems.

PEO2: CORE COMPETANCE

To provide thorough knowledge in Mechanical Engineering subjects including theoretical

knowledge and practical training for preparing physical models pertaining to Thermodynamics,
Hydraulics, Heat and Mass Transfer, Dynamics of Machinery, Jet Propulsion, Automobile
Engineering, Element Analysis, Production Technology, Mechatronics etc.

PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the core field with the help of
other inter disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.

PEO4: CAREER DEVELOPMENT

To inculcate the habit of lifelong learning for career development through successful completion
of advanced degrees, professional development courses, industrial training etc.

PEO5: PROFESSIONALISM
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
To impart technical knowledge, ethical values for professional development of the student to
solve complex problems and to work in multi-disciplinary ambience, whose solutions lead to
significant societal benefits.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Blooms Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for
their students (learning objectives). The terminology has been updated to include the following
six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning objectives, lessons,
and assessments of a course.

1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐ term
memory.
2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing or implementing.
4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to
one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and
attributing.
5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standard through checking and
critiquing.
6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
www.mrcet.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 AUTOMATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

Course objectives
The general objectives of the course are to enable the students to

1. Understand the basics of automation and the need of Mechatronics systems

2. Learn the constructions and working principle of different types of sensors and transducers.
3. Understand the constructions and working principle of different types of Actuators and
drive systems.
4. To impart knowledge on the control elements
5. To understand the different control schemes generally used to get best output.

Unit -1
Introduction to Automation: Types and strategies of automation, pneumatic and hydraulic
components circuits, Mechanical Feeding and machine tool control to transfer the automation.
Introduction to Mechatronics: Role of various engineering disciplines in Mechatronics,
Mechatronics design elements, Scope of Mechatronics, Applications of Mechatronics.
Unit -2
Sensors and Transducers: Sensors and transducers, performance terminology, displacement,
position and proximity, velocity and motion, force, fluid pressure, liquid flow, liquid level,
temperature, light sensors, selection of sensors.
Unit -3
Actuators and drive systems: Mechanical, Electrical, Hydraulic drive systems, Characteristics
of mechanical, Electrical, Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators and their limitations.
Unit -4
Control system components: Introduction, classification of control system- classification of
control systems on the basis of control signal used, Adaptive control system, Process control
systems
Unit -5
Process control: Introduction, concept of process control, Automatic controllers- digital
controller, Electronic controllers, Pneumatic controllers, P-I controller, PD controller, P-I-D
controller, Hydraulic controllers.
Text Book(s):
1. Mechatronics, W.Bolton, Pearson Education, Asia.
2. Mechatronics, M.D. Singh and J.G. Joshi, PHI.

Reference Book(s):
1. Mechatronics, D.A. Bradley, D. Dawson, N.C. Buru and A.J. Loader, Chapman Hall.
2. Microprocessor Architecture, Programming & Applications, S. Ramesh, Gaonkar, Wiley
Eastern.
3. The Mechatronics Handbook with ISA– The Instrumentation, Systems, Automation,
Robert H. Bishop. Ed.-in-chief., CRC Press.

Course outcomes
At the end of the course the students shall be able to
1. The importance of automation in industries and Identification of key elements of
mechatronics system
2. Identify different types of sensors and transducers required for specific applications
3. handle different types of controller like Electronic, Pneumatic and Hydraulic, Mechanical
actuators and drives for specific applications
4. Describe and analyze working principles of various types of motors, differences,
characteristics and selection criteria, control methods.
5. Identify different types of process control required for specific applications
 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

AUTOMATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING (R17A0327)

COURSE OBJECTIVES
UNIT - 1 CO1: To Understand the basics of automation & To understand the
need of Mechatronics systems

UNIT - 2 CO2: Learn the constructions and working principle of different types of
sensors and transducers
UNIT - 3 CO3: Understand the fundamental concepts of electro mechanics and
fluid mechanics (hydraulics and pneumatics) of Actuators and drive
systems.
UNIT - 4 CO4: To impart knowledge on the control elements

UNIT - 5 CO5: To understand the different control schemes generally used to get
best output.
 COURSE OUTLINE
UNIT – 1
NO OF LECTURE HOURS:
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION Definition of force. Understanding of basics of Automation (B2)

2. Types and strategies of automation Define types of automation Understanding of types of automation (B2)

3. Pneumatic and Hydraulic components circuits Working principle of pneumatic Understanding and Analyze the Working
and hydraulic components circuits principle of pneumatic and hydraulic
components circuits Parallelogram law. (B2, B4)

4. Mechanical Feeding and machine tool control to Transformation of materials Remember the how material is transferred in
transfer the automation between the machines (B1)

5. Introduction to Mechatronics Definition of Mechatronics Understanding of basics of Mechatronics (B2)

6. Role of various engineering disciplines in Importance of mechatronics Understanding of role of mechatronics in various
Mechatronics applications (B2)
7. Mechatronics design elements Mechatronics elements Understand the what are the major elements in
mechatronics
8. Scope of Mechatronics, Applications of Applications of Mechatronics Analyse the working of the washing machine,
Mechatronics water level controller (B4)
 UNIT – 2
NO OF LECTURE HOURS:
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Introduction to Sensors and transducers, Definition of Sensors and Understanding of basics of Sensors and
performance terminology transducers transducers (B2)

2. Displacement sensors Working principle of

Displacement sensors
3. Position and proximity sensors Working principle of Position and
proximity sensors
4. Velocity and motion sensors Working principle of Velocity and
motion sensors Understand the applications of sensors in
5. Force, fluid pressure sensors Working principle of Force, fluid various systems and to know the
pressure sensors functions of each element(B2)
6. Liquid flow, liquid level sensors Working principle of Liquid flow,
liquid level sensors
7. Temperature, light sensors, selection of sensors. Working principle of
Temperature, light sensors,
selection of sensors.
 UNIT – 3
NO OF LECTURE HOURS:
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Actuators and drive systems Definition of Sensors and Understanding of basics of Sensors and
transducers transducers (B2)

2. Mechanical, Electrical, Hydraulic drive systems

3. Mechanical actuators

4. Electrical actuators Understand the applications of actuators in

Working principle of Types of
various systems and to know the functions of
Actuators and drive systems
each element(B2)
5. Hydraulic actuators

6. Pneumatic actuators
 UNIT – 4
NO OF LECTURE HOURS:
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Introduction to control system Define control system Understanding of basics of control system (B2)

2. Classification of control system

- Open and closed loop control system
- Linear and Non-linear control system
- Continuous time and discrete time control
Types of control system Understanding of types of control systems (B2)
system
- Lumped and distributed parameter control
system

3. Adaptive control system  Understand the applications of control

Working principle of Types of systems in various systems and to know the
4. Process control systems control systems functions of each element(B2)
 Analyze the control system in machines (B4)
 UNIT – 5
NO OF LECTURE HOURS:
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Introduction to Process control Define the Process control Understanding of basics of process control (B2)

2. Automatic controllers
- digital controller
- Analog controller
3. Electronic controllers
- Control models  Understand the applications of process
- Composites mode electronic controllers control systems in various systems and to
Working principle of Types of
4. Pneumatic controllers know the functions of each element(B2)
process control systems
- P-I controller  Able to analyze the which control is used
- PD controller in real time (B4)
- P-I-D controller
5. Hydraulic controllers
- Hydraulic integral controller
- Hydraulic proportional controller
 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(R17A0327) AUTOMATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

COURSE OBJECTIVES AND PO’s PSO’s MAPPING

CO /PO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PO13 PO14 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
CO1 X X X X X X
CO2 X X X X X X X X
CO3 X X X X X X X X
CO4 X X X
X X X X X
CO5 X X X X X X X X
 UNIT 1
Introduction to Automation
and Mechatronics
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT-1
COURSE OBJECTIVE

• Understand the basics of automation and the need of Mechatronics systems

COURSE OUTCOME

• The importance of automation in industries and Identification of key elements of

mechatronics system
 Automation
Definition: It is technology concerned with the application of Mechanical, electronic &
computer-based systems to operate and control production in order to improves productions.

If Includes:

1) Automated machine tools.

2) Automated assembly machines
3) Industrial robots.
4) Automated material handling & storages system
5) Automated inspection system for quality control
6) Feedback control & computer process control
7) Computer integrated system for planning, data collection decision making.

Examples: Automotive, Electronics, Applications, Aircraft manufacturing industries.

Type of Automation:

Automated production systems are classified into three basic types:

1) Fixed Automation
2) Programmable Automation
3) Flexible Automation

Fixed Automation

✓ Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly)

operations is fixed by the equipment configuration.
✓ The operations in the sequence are usually simple.
✓ It is the integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece of
equipment that makes the system complex.
✓ The typical features of fixed automation are:
• High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
• High production rates
• Relatively inflexible in accommodating product changes
✓ The economic justification for fixed automation is found in products with very high
demand rates and volumes.
✓ The high initial cost of the equipment can be spread over a very large number of units,
thus making the unit cost attractive compared to alternative methods of production.

Example: Automated material handling & transfer lines & assembly equipment’s.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Programmable Automation

✓ In programmable automation, the production equipment is designed with the capability

to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product configurations.
✓ The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded
so that the system can read and interpret them.
✓ New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new
products.
✓ The typical features of programmable automation are:
• High investment in general-purpose equipment
• Low production rates relative to fixed automation
• Flexibility to deal with changes in product configuration
• Most suitable for batch production
✓ Automated production systems that are programmable are used in low and medium-
volume production.

Example: Numerically Controlled (NC) machine tools, industrial robots, and programmable
logic controllers

Flexible Automation

✓ Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation.

✓ The concept of flexible automation has developed only over the last 15 to 20 years, and
the principles are still evolving.
✓ A flexible automated system is one that is capable of producing a variety of products
(or parts) with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one product to the next.
✓ There is no production time lost while reprogramming the system and altering the
physical setup (tooling, fixtures and machine settings).
✓ Consequently, the system can produce various combinations and schedules of products,
instead of requiring that they be made in separate batches.
✓ The features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows:
• High investment for a custom-engineered system
• Continuous production of variable mixtures of products
• Medium production rates
• Flexibility to deal with product design variations

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Example: CNC m/c tools, reprogrammable Industrial robots and flexible manufacturing
systems for performing machining operations

Diagraph:

Fig1 Types of Automation

Reasons for Automation:

1. Increased productivity due competition

✓ Due to Industrialization and globalization the global competition escalates
which causes
✓ increase the demand the stoner of productivity & quality.
✓ Automation of manufacturing operations promise to in erasing the productivity
of labour.
✓ Automation causes higher output to lesser input.
✓ Higher production rates are achieved with automation as compare to manual
operations.
2. High cost of Labour
✓ Automation system required less Labour hence increasing cost of Labour don’t
of heat on it.
✓ Higher cost of Labour is forcing businesses to substitute m/c’s for human
Labour.
✓ Machines can produce higher rates of output the use of automation results in a
lower cost per unit of product.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. Labour shortage
✓ Many Advanced nations, there has been a shortage of Labour.
✓ Labour shortages stimulate the development of automation as a substitute of
Labour.
4. Trend of Labour toward the sector
✓ There are some social & institutional forces Labour toward the service sector.
✓ There has been a tendency for people to view factory work as tedious,
demeaning & dirty.
✓ This view has caused them to seek employment in the service sector of the
economy.
5. Safety
✓ Automation delaminates the human role, work is made safer.
✓ The safety and physical wellbeing of the worker is main objective of today’s
industries.
6. High cost of raw materials
✓ The high cost of raw materials in manufacturing results in the need for greater
efficiency in using their materials.
✓ The reduction of scrap is one of the benefits of automation.
7. Improved Product Quality
✓ Automated operation not only produces parts of faster rates but they produce
parts with greater consistency and conformity to quality.
8. Reduced manufacturing Lead time
✓ For automation allows the manufacturer to reduce the time between custom
order and product delivery.
9. Reduction of in process inventory
✓ Holiday large inventories of work in process represent a significant cost to the
manufacturer because it ties up capital.
✓ In process inventory is of no value.
✓ It is to the manufacturer’s advantage to reduce work in progress to a minimum.
✓ Automation play big role to reducing time a work part spends in the factory.
10. High cost of not automation
✓ The benefits of automation often show up in intangible and unexpected ways.
Such as improved quality, higher sales, better Labour relations and better
company image.
✓ Companies that do not automate are likely to final themselves of a competitive
disadvantage with their customers, their employees & the general public.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Automation Strategies:

If automation seems a feasible solution to improving productivity, quality, or other measure of

performance, then the following ten strategies provide a road map to search for these
improvements.

1. Specialization of operations
✓ It is strategies which involves use of specialized purpose equipment’s designed
to perform one operation with greatest efficiency.
✓ It is strategy which involves used of specialized Labour to handle automation
for improving the productivity.
2. Combined operations
✓ It is the strategy of combined operations on some complex parts reducing the
number of distinct production m/c‟s or workstations through which the part
must be routed.
3. Simultaneous operations
✓ It is an extension of combined operation strategy to perform same operations
with less time simultaneously.
✓ In effect, two or more processing operations are being performed simultaneous
on same work part reducing processing time.
4. Integration of operations
✓ It is link several workstations into a single integrated mechanism using
automated work handling devices.
5. Increased flexibility:
✓ It attempts to use maximum utilizations of equipment’s for productions.
✓ By using the one equipment for variety of products. There by reducing set up
time and programming time for production m/c’s.
6. Improved material handling and storage
✓ It is useful for reducing lots of non-operative time hence reduction in lead time.
7. On- line inspection
✓ Inspection for quality of work is performed after the process traditionally.
✓ On line inspection into the manufacturing process permits corrections to the
process as product is being made.
✓ This reduces scrap and brings the overall quantity of product closer to the
nominal specifications intended by the designer.
8. Process control & optimization

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ✓ It is included a wide range of control schemes intended to operate the individual
process and associated equipment move efficiently.
9. Plan operations control
✓ This strategy is concerned with control at the plant – Level.
✓ It is to manage and co-ordinate the aggregate equipment more efficiently.
10. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)
✓ Taking the previous strategy one level higher, we have the integration of factory
operations with engineering design and the business functions of the firm.
✓ CIM involves extensive use of computer applications, computer data bases, and
computer networking throughout the enterprise.

Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid

for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure 2 shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic
components.

Fig 2 Components of a Hydraulic System.

Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

The functions of various components shown in Fig. 3 are as follows:

1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical
power to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic
cylinder) or rotary type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion,
respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic
circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing
through the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and
efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.

The piping shown in Fig. 2 is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage tank
to one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank. Fluid
is drawn from the tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of pressure. If
the fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back to the reservoir
and remains there until the pressure acquires the required level.

Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.

1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port A and thus the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port B and thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder (thereby holding
it in position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return
to tank via the pressure relief).

In industry, a machine designer conveys the design of hydraulic systems using a circuit
diagram. Figure 3 shows the components of the hydraulic system using symbols. The working
fluid, which is the hydraulic oil, is stored in a reservoir. When the electric motor is switched
ON, it runs a positive displacement pump that draws hydraulic oil through a filter and delivers
at high pressure. The pressurized oil passes through the regulating valve and does work on
actuator. Oil from the other end of the actuator goes back to the tank via return line. To and fro
motion of the cylinder is controlled using directional control valve.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 3 Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols).

The hydraulic system discussed above can be broken down into four main divisions that are
analogous to the four main divisions in an electrical system.

1. The power device parallels the electrical generating station.

2. The control valves parallel the switches, resistors, timers, pressure switches,
relays, etc.
3. The lines in which the fluid power flows parallel the electrical lines.
4. The fluid power motor (whether it is a rotating or a non-rotating cylinder or a
fluid power motor) parallels the solenoids and electrical motors.

Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure 4 shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic components.

Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

The functions of various components shown in Fig. 4 are as follows:

1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform
useful work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

Fig 3 Components of a pneumatic system.

Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air
compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is provided
to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated pressurized
air then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a pressure
switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches the required
level, respectively.

The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a way similar
to its hydraulic circuit.

Comparison between Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

Usually hydraulic and pneumatic systems and equipment do not compete. They are so
dissimilar that there are few problems in selecting any of them that cannot be readily resolved.
Certainly, availability is one of the important factors of selection but this may be outweighed
by other factors. In numerous instances, for example, air is preferred to meet certain unalterable
conditions, that is, in “hot spots” where there is an open furnace or other potential ignition
hazard or in operations where motion is required at extremely high speeds. It is often found
more efficient to use a combined circuit in which oil is used in one part and air in another on
the same machine or process. Table 1 shows a brief comparison of hydraulic and pneumatic
systems.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 S. No. Hydraulic System Pneumatic System

It employs a compressed gas, usually air, as

1 It employs a pressurized liquid as a fluid
a fluid

An oil hydraulic system operates at pressures up A pneumatic system usually operates at 5–

2
to 700 bar 10 bar

3 Generally designed as closed system Usually designed as open system

4 The system slows down when leakage occurs Leakage does not affect the system much
5 Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy
6 Heavier in weight Lighter in weight
Compressors are used to provide
7 Pumps are used to provide pressurized liquids
compressed gases
8 The system is unsafe to fire hazards The system is free from fire hazards
Special arrangements for lubrication are
9 Automatic lubrication is provided
needed

AUTOMATED FLOW LINES

An automated flow line consists of several machines or workstations which are linked together
by work handling devices that transfer parts between the stations. The transfer of work parts
occurs automatically and the workstations carry out their specialized functions automatically.

The objectives of the use of flow line automation are, therefore:

✓ To reduce labor costs

✓ To increase production rates
✓ To reduce work-in-process
✓ To minimize distances moved between operations
✓ To achieve specialization of operations
✓ To achieve integration of operations

Configurations of automated flow line.

1) In-line type: The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of workstations in a more

or less straight-line arrangement as shown in below Figure. An example of an in-line
transfer machine used for metal cutting operations.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2) Segmented In-Line Type: The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or
more straight line arrangement which are usually perpendicular to each other with L
shaped or U shaped or rectangular shaped as shown in below Figure. The flow of work
can take a few 90°turns, either for workpiece reorientation, factory layout limitations,
or other reasons, and still qualify as a straight-line configuration.

3) Rotary type: In the rotary configuration, the work parts are indexed around a circular
table or dial. The workstations are stationary and usually located around the outside
periphery of the dial. The parts ride on the rotating table and arc registered or
positioned, in turn, at each station for its processing or assembly operation. This type
of equipment is often referred to as an indexing machine or dial index machine and the
configuration is shown in below

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Methods of work part transport

The transfer mechanism of the automated flow line must not only move the partially completed
workparts or assemblies between adjacent stations, it must also orient and locate the parts in
the correct position for processing at each station. The general methods of transporting
workpieces on flow lines can be classified into the following three categories:

1. Continuous transfer
2. Intermittent or synchronous transfer
3. Asynchronous or power-and-free transfer

The most appropriate type of transport system for a given application depends on such factors
as:

• The types of operation to be performed

• The number of stations on the line
• The weight and size of the work parts
• Whether manual stations are included on the line
• Production rate requirements
• Balancing the various process times on the line
1) Continuous transfer: With the continuous method of transfer, the workparts are
moved continuously at constant speed. This requires the workheads to move during
processing in order to maintain continuous registration with the workpart. For some
types of operations, this movement of the workheads during processing is not feasible.
It would be difficult, for example, to use this type of system on a machining transfer
line because of inertia problems due to the size and weight of the workheads. In other
cases, continuous transfer would be very practical. Examples of its use are in beverage
bottling operations, packaging, manual assembly operations where the human operator
can move with the moving flow line, and relatively simple automatic assembly tasks.
In some bottling operations, for instance, the bottles are transported around a
continuously rotating drum. Beverage is discharged into the moving bottles by spouts
located at the drum's periphery. The advantage of this application is that the liquid
beverage is kept moving at a steady speed and hence there are no inertia problems.
Continuous transfer systems are relatively easy to design and fabricate and can achieve
a high rate of production.
2) Intermittent transfer: As the name suggests, in this method the workpieces are
transported with an intermittent or discontinuous motion. The workstations are fixed in

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 position and the parts are moved between stations and then registered at the proper
locations for processing. All workparts are transported at the same time and, for this
reason, the term” synchronous transfer system" is also used to describe this method
work part transport.
3) Asynchronous transfer: This system of transfer, also referred to as a "power-and-free
system," allows each workpart to move to the next station when processing at the
current station has been completed. Each part moves independently of other parts.
Hence, some parts are being processed on the line at the same time that others are being
transported between stations.
Asynchronous transfer systems offer the opportunity for greater flexibility than do the
other two systems, and this flexibility can be a great advantage in certain circumstances.
In-process storage of workparts can be incorporated into the asynchronous systems with
relative ease. Power-and-free systems can also compensate for line balancing problems
where there are significant differences in process times between stations. Parallel
stations or several series stations can be used for the longer operations, and single
stations can be used for the shorter operations. Therefore, the average production rates
can be approximately equalized. Asynchronous lines are often used where there are one
or more manually operated stations and cycle-time variations would be a problem on
either the continuous or synchronous transport systems. Larger workparts can be
handled on the asynchronous systems. A disadvantage of the power and free systems is
that the cycle rates are generally slower than for the other types.

TRANSFER MECHANISMS

There are various types of transfer mechanisms used to move parts between stations. These
mechanisms can be grouped into two types:

1) Linear transfer mechanisms

2) Rotary transfer mechanisms
1. Linear transfer mechanisms
The commonly used linear transfer mechanisms are
a) Walking beam transfer bar system,
b) Powered roller conveyor system, and
c) Chain-drive conveyor system.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A. Walking Beam Systems
With the walking beam transfer mechanism, the work-parts are lifted up from their
workstation locations by a transfer bar and moved one position ahead, to the next
station. The transfer bar then lowers the pans into nests which position them more
accurately for processing. For speed and accuracy, the motion of the beam is most often
generated by a rotating camshaft powered by an electric motor or a roller movement in
a profile powered by hydraulic cylinder. Figure shows the working of the beam
mechanism.

B. Powered roller conveyor system

This type of system is used in general stock handling systems as well as in automated
flow lines. The conveyor can be used to move pans or pallets possessing flat riding
surfaces. The rollers can be powered by either of two mechanisms. The first is a belt
drive, in which a flat moving belt beneath the rollers provides the rotation of the rollers
by friction. A chain drive is the second common mechanism used to power the rollers.
Powered roller conveyors are versatile transfer systems because they can be used to
divert work pallets into workstations or alternate tracks.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 C. Chain-drive conveyor system
In chain-drive conveyor system either a chain or a flexible steel belt is used to transport
the work carriers. The chain is driven by pulleys in either an "over-and under"
configuration, in which the pulleys turn about a horizontal axis, or an "around-the-
corner" configuration, in which the pulleys rotate about a vertical axis.

This general type of transfer system can be used for continuous, intermittent, or
nonsynchronous movement of workparts. In the non-synchronous motion, the
workparts are pulled by friction or ride on an oil film along a track with the chain or
belt providing the movement. It is necessary to provide some sort of final location for
the workparts when they arrive at their respective stations.

2. Rotary transfer mechanisms

There are several methods used to index a circular table or dial at various equal angular
positions corresponding to workstation locations.

a) Rack and pinion

b) Ratchet and pawl
c) Geneva mechanism
d) CAM Mechanisms
A. Rack and pinion
This mechanism is simple but is not considered especially suited to the high-speed
operation often associated with indexing machines. The device is pictured in the below
Figure and uses a piston to drive the rack, which causes the pinion gear and attached
indexing table to rotate, A clutch or other device is used to provide rotation in the
desired direction.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

B. Ratchet and pawl
A ratchet is a device that allows linear or rotary motion in only one direction, while
preventing motion in the opposite direction. Ratchets consist of a gearwheel and a
pivoting spring-loaded finger called a pawl that engages the teeth. Either the teeth, or
the pawl, are slanted at an angle, so that when the teeth are moving in one direction, the
pawl slides up and over each tooth in turn, with the spring forcing it back with a 'click'
into the depression before the next tooth. When the teeth are moving in the other
direction, the angle of the pawl causes it to catch against a tooth and stop further motion
in that direction. This drive mechanism is shown in the below.

C. Geneva mechanism
The two previous mechanisms convert a linear motion into a rotational motion. The
Geneva mechanism uses a continuously rotating driver to index the table, as pictured
below. If the driven member has six slots for a six-station dial indexing machine, each
turn of the driver will cause the table to advance one-sixth of a turn. The driver only
causes movement of the table through a portion of its rotation. For a six-slotted driven
member, 120° of a complete rotation of the driver is used to index the table. The other
240° is dwell. For a four slotted driven member, the ratio would be 90° for index and
270° for dwell. The usual number of indexing per revolution of the table is four, five,
six, and eight.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 D. CAM Mechanisms
Various forms of cam mechanism, an example of which is illustrated in the below
Figure, provide probably the most accurate and reliable method of indexing the dial.
They are in widespread use in industry despite the fact that the cost is relatively high
compared to alternative mechanisms. The cam can be designed to give a variety of
velocity and dwell characteristics.

CONTROL FUNCTIONS

Controlling an automated flow line is a complex problem, owing to the sheer number of
sequential steps that must be carried out. There are three main functions that are utilized to
control the operation of an automatic transfer system. The first of these is an operational
requirement, the second is a safety requirement, and the third is dedicated to improving quality.

1. Sequence control: The purpose of this function is to coordinate the sequence of

actions of the transfer system and its workstations. The various activities of the
automated flowline must be carried out with split-second timing and accuracy.
Sequence control is basic to the operation of the flow line.
2. Safety monitoring: This function ensures that the transfer system does not operate
in an unsafe or hazardous condition. Sensing devices may be added to make certain
that the cutting tool status is satisfactory to continue to process the workpart in the
case of a machining-type transfer line. Other checks might include monitoring
certain critical steps in the sequence control function to make sure that these steps
have all been performed and in the correct order. Hydraulic or air pressures might
also be checked if these are crucial to the operation of automated flow lines.
3. Quality monitoring: The third control function is to monitor certain quality
attributes of the workpart. Its purpose is to identify and possibly reject defective
workparts and assemblies. The inspection devices required to perform quality
monitoring are sometimes Incorporated into existing processing stations. In other

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 cases, separate stations are included in the line for the sole purpose of inspecting the
workpart.
4. Alternative control strategies: Conventional thinking on the control of the line has
been to stop operation when amalfunction occurred. While there are certain
malfunctions representing unsafe conditions that demand shutdown of the line, there
are other situations where stoppage of the line is not required and perhaps not even
desirable. There are alternative control strategies
a) Instantaneous control and
b) Memory control.

Instantaneous control: This mode of control stops the operation of the flow line
immediately when a malfunction is detected. It is relatively simple, inexpensive,
and trouble free. Diagnostic features are often added to the system to aid in
identifying the location and cause of the trouble to the operator so that repairs
can be quickly made. However, stopping the machine results in loss of
production from the entire line, and this is the system's biggest drawback.

Memory control: In contrast to instantaneous control, the memory system is

designed to keep the machine operating. It works to control quality and/or protect
the machine by preventing subsequent stations from processing the particular
workpart and by segregating the part as defective at the end of the line. The
premise upon which memory-type control is based is that the failures which
occur at the stations will be random and infrequent. If, however, the station
failures result from cause and tend to repeat, the memory system will not improve
production but, rather, degrade it. The flow line will continue to operate, with
the consequence that bad parts will continue to be produced. For this reason, a
counter is sometimes used so that if a failure occurs at the same station for two
or three consecutive cycles, the memory logic will cause the machine to stop for
repairs.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 MECHATRONICS

INTRODUCTION
In 1969, a senior engineer of a Japanese company Yasakawa first coined the word mechatronics
as a combination of ‘Mecha’ from mechanisms and ‘Tronics’ from electronics. Up to 1970s,
in most of industries and the manufacturing processes, mechanical systems and machine tools
were largely mechanical systems with limited electrical and electronic elements. Nowadays,
electrical and electronic fields are developing very rapidly like electrical machines, integrated
circuits (ICs), microprocessors, microcontrollers, digital control systems, data communication
networks, advent combination of computers and related Softwares, process controllers,
embedded systems and so forth. Electrical and electronic systems can be integrated with
mechanical systems and processes because of their fantastic features and applications.

Fig 1 Derivation of Mechatronics

Basically, mechatronics is a multidisciplinary approach to product and manufacturing system

design. Mechatronics is the synergistic integration of mechanical engineering with electronics
and intelligent computer control in designing, manufacturing processes and production. It helps
develop atomized, reliable and efficient manufacturing/production systems to produce high
quality products.

Some mechatronic applications are in every field of production, consumer products, monitoring
and control of welding process, intelligent robot control using ultrasonic measurements,
temperature controllers and so forth.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Definition:

A. It is an application of electronics and computer technology to control the motions of

mechanical systems.
B. Mechatronics is the synergistic integration of sensors, actuators, signal conditioning,
power electronics, decision and control algorithms, and computer hardware and
software to manage complexity, uncertainty, and communication in engineered
systems. - T. Mori, ‘Mechatronics’ YASAKAWA INTERNAL TREADMARK
C. Synergistic use of precision engineering, control theory, computer science, and sensor
and actuator technology to design improved products and processes. - F. Haeshma,
M. Tomizuka ‘Mechatronics’ What it is, why & How...?
D. Field of study involving the analysis, design, synthesis, and selection of systems that
combine electronics and mechanical components with modern controls and
microprocessors. Application of complex decision making to the operation of physical
systems. - W. Boltan ‘Mechatronics Electronics Control systems in mechanical
engineering

Evaluation of Mechatronics:

The technology has evolved through several stages that are termed as levels.

The evolution levels of Mechatronics are:

A. Primary level Mechatronics (first)
B. Secondary level Mechatronics (second)
C. Tertiary level Mechatronics (third)
D. Quaternary level Mechatronics (fourth)
A. Primary level Mechatronics:
In the early days Mechatronics products were at primary level containing I/O devices such
as sensors, and actuators that integrated electrical signals with mechanical action at the
basic control level.

Examples: electrically controlled fluid valves and relays

B. Secondary level Mechatronics:

This level integrates microelectronics into electrically controlled devices.

Examples: cassette player.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

C. Tertiary level Mechatronics:
✓ This incorporates advances feedback functions into control strategy, thereby
enhancing the quality in terms of sophistication.
✓ Mechatronics system at this level is called ‘smart system’.
✓ The control strategy includes microelectronics, microprocessor and other „application
specific integrated circuits‟ (ASIC).

Examples: DVD player, CD drives, automatic washing machine, CD drives, etc.

D. Quaternary level Mechatronics:

✓ This level includes intelligent control in Mechatronics system.
✓ The level attempts to improve smartness a step ahead by introducing intelligence and
fault detection and isolation (FDI) capability system.

Examples: artificial neural network and fuzzy logic technologies.

Role of Various Engineering Disciplines in Mechatronics

The primary engineering disciplines, which are important in the designing of mechatronic
system, include mechanical, electrical, electronics, instrumentation and control and computer
and information technology. Figure2 shows the constituents of mechatronics. These
constituents are discussed further.

Fig 2 Constituents of mechatronics.

Mechanical systems. These systems deal with behavior of matter under the action of forces.
They are classified as rigid, deformable or fluid in nature. Mechanical systems like hydraulic,
pneumatic, rotational or translational, thermal, fluid, etc. are used in mechatronic applications.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

These systems are interfaced with computers through sensors, actuators and electronic systems.
Control valves, gears, cylinders, chains, etc. are the mechanical components used.

Electrical systems. These systems are concerned with the behavior of three fundamental
quantities—charge, current, and voltage. Electrical systems are integral parts of mechatronic
systems or applications. Electrical components mostly used in mechatronic systems are
electrical motors (ac and dc), generators, transformers, relays, circuit breakers, switches and so
forth.

Electronic systems. These systems are used to transduce information between the computer
world and mechanical disciplines. In mechatronic systems, electronic devices are used to
design the following electronic circuits:

Analog circuits: These circuits are designed using active and passive components. Passive
components are resistors, capacitors and inductors. Active components are diodes, transistors
and integrated circuits for designing.

Digital circuits: Basically, digital circuits are classified as combinational and sequential. These
circuits are designed using logic gates, flip-flops, counters, digital memories, microprocessors,
microcontrollers and so forth. Microprocessor- and microcontroller-based systems are most
widely used in mechatronic systems.

Instrumentation and control systems. Instrumentation system covers various transducers,

signal conditioning elements and output devices such as analog meters, display devices,
recorders and printers. In mechatronic applications, these systems are used to measure, monitor
and display various process variables, which are to be controlled at set points.

Data acquisition systems or data loggers are used for collecting, processing, storing,
transmitting and monitoring the data accurately, safely and quickly.

Control system is that means by which any quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism or
equipment is maintained or altered in accordance with a desired manner. It involves
representation of systems, their behaviour and modifications in the system behaviour. It deals
with time and frequency domain analysis and stability of systems. It involves control system
components such as stepper motors, synchro’s, ac and de position controls, servomotors,
servomechanisms, actuators and so forth. Various process controllers like hydraulic,
pneumatic, electronic and programmable logic controllers and fuzzy logic controllers, etc. are
used for process control.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Information systems. It relates with all the aspects regarding information transmission from
signal processing to control system and analysis techniques. It is a combination of
communication systems, signal processing, control systems and numerical methods.

Computer systems. It is a combination of hardware and software. In mechatronic applications,

hardware is computer-specific circuits like flip-flops, counters, registers, memories and
microprocessors (as discussed in digital circuits in electronic systems). Software is nothing but
system and application. Software is suitable for a typical mechatronic application or system.
Computer systems are useful in product design, process planning and control, flexible
manufacturing, online quality monitoring and so forth.

MECHATRONIC DESIGN ELEMENTS

Fig 3 shows general mechatronic design elements.

The sensory system consists of sensors or transducers. In mechatronic systems, a sensor is an

element, which accepts the physical. quantities (process variables) from mechanical processes
(dynamic system) and convert them into a signal that can be processed by the system. At this
stage, transducer is used. A transducer is defined as a device that converts physical quantities
into an output, usually a voltage. The term sensor is often used to refer to a transducer or a
combination of transducer and signal processor. Different physical quantities from mechanical
processes are temperature, pressure, flow, force, strain, acceleration, vibration and so forth.
The output of sensory system is applied to signal conditioning elements which are also called
as signal processors. Function of signal conditioning clement is discussed as follows.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Usually the output of a transducer is an analog signal (voltage or current) that is continuous
and time varying. The outputs of transducers are not in the desired form as we would like to
process them. These signals may

✓ be too small (in the range of millivolts).

✓ be too noisy (due to electromagnetic interference, stray electric and magnetic fields).
✓ contain dc offset.
✓ not be compatible with next stages (like indicating instruments, display devices,
controlling elements, etc.).
✓ contain wrong information (due to poor designing and wrong installation of
transducers).

The above-stated problems can be recovered by using proper signal conditioning elements.
Most common operational amplifiers (op-amps) with passive elements can be used as signal
conditioning elements. Most commonly used signal conditioning process is amplification using
amplifier in which the signal magnitude is increased. Other signal conditioning elements are
adder, subtractor, integrator, differentiator, converters (voltage to current or current to voltage),
comparator, sample and hold amplifier, instrumentation amplifier and so forth. If the system is
microprocessor or microcontroller or computer based then analog-to-digital converters are used
as signal conditioning elements.

Mechatronic systems employ actuators, which are parts of the physical process being
monitored and controlled. Actuation is the result of a direct physical action on process directly.
In any physical process, there is motion or some sort of action. This motion or action can be
applied to mechanical processes or structure through actuators. Actuators take low-power
signals from computers through signal conditioning elements and produce high output signals
(physical quantities) that are applied to the process as input. Examples of actuators are steeper
motor, solenoids, synchro’s and so forth.

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are industrial devices used for interfacing and
controlling analog and digital devices. A PLC is a sequential logic device that generates output
signals according to logic operations performed on the input signals. The major difference
between a computer controller and a programmable controller is that the programmable
controller is designed to interface with industrial processes directly, whereas a computer system
requires data acquisition, signal processing, memory and logic and peripherals before process
implementation. The PLCs are programmed with ladder logic, which is a graphical method of
laying out the connectivity and logic between system inputs and outputs. A typical PLC
consists of integrated power supply, central processing unit, memory elements,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

programmer/monitor, input and output modules. Microcontroller provides a small flexible
control platform and it can be easily embedded in mechatronic systems. A microcontroller is
basically a microcomputer on a single integrated circuit (IC) containing microprocessor,
memory, input/output capabilities and other on-chip resources. Microcontrollers are low cost,
versatile, small size and easy programming devices. Hence, they can be easily embedded in
mechatronic system designing.

In large mechatronic systems, computers (desktop/personal computers/laptop) are used as

appropriate control platforms. Computer can be easily interfaced with sensors and actuators
through proper converters.

SCOPE OF MECHATRONICS

Mechatronics plays a vital role in industrial sector. The scope of mechatronic in industrial
sector is discussed as follows:

Better design of products. In mechatronics, computer is the key constituent. Computer-aided

designing (CAD) involves the use of computers to assist in designing of an individual part,
machine tool, product or system in three stages—conceptual, preliminary and final.

Better process planning. It deals with the use of computers in process planning, i.e. computer-
aided process planning (CAPP). It helps develop more logical and consistent process plans
which results in lower manufacturing costs and higher product quality. It is a direct correlation
between design and manufacturing.

Reliable and quality-oriented manufacturing. Because of computer-integrated manufacturing

(CIM), the reliable and high quality-oriented products can be manufactured.

Intelligent process control. Due to developments in digital computer systems, their use in
process control has extensively increased. In power plants, process and manufacturing
industries, computer-aided process control is used for passive and active applications.

Passive applications include acquisition and manipulation (i.e. monitoring and alarming) of
data from various processes.

Active applications involve acquisition and manipulation with additional features like process
control, process and plant optimization and tuning of various controllers for best operating
performance. Nowadays, in mechatronic systems, artificial neural networks are used in
manufacturing systems for process control and inspection to improve production performance
and production quality.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

In general, mechatronics helps industries achieve greater productivity, reliability and higher
quality by incorporating intelligent self-correcting sensory and feedback system.

General parameters for designing an intelligent mechatronic system are as follows:

✓ Analyze product design and development specifications

✓ Select process variables, set points, processes, etc.
✓ Design proper analog and digital circuits
✓ Select mechanical components and devices
✓ Design proper mechanical system like hydraulic, pneumatic, etc.
✓ Select sensors, actuators and control components
✓ Design accurate and precise control system for various process variables
✓ Develop computer-based system (real time interfacing)
✓ Develop necessary computer software and database
✓ Integrate the above-stated parameters effectively
✓ Monitor the performance of designed system

Advantages:

1. The products produced are cost effective and very good quality.
2. High degree of flexibility
3. Greater extent of machine utilization
4. Greater productivity
5. High life expected by proper maintenance.
6. The integration of sensor and control system in a complex system reduces capital
expenses.

Disadvantages:

1. Higher initial cost of the system.

2. Imperative to have Knowledge of different engineering fields for design and
implementation.
3. It is expenses to incorporate Mechatronics approaches to existing/old systems.
4. Specific problem of various systems will have to be addressed separately and properly.

Characteristics of Mechatronic system:

1. High quality product.

2. Safe.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 3. Low cost.
4. Portable produced quickly
5. Serviceability, maintainability and upgradeability.

APPLICATIONS OF MECHATRONICS

General applications of mechatronics are as follows:

✓ In automatic washing machines, dishwashers

✓ In CD players, VCRs, camcorders
✓ In document scanners, MI equipment’s
✓ In integrated circuits (ICs) manufacturing systems
✓ In robotics used in welding, nuclear inspection and robot manipulators
✓ In fax and photocopier machines
✓ in laser printers, in computer peripherals like hard disk drive head positioning systems
✓ In flexible manufacturing systems
✓ In air conditioners, elevator controls
✓ In automotive mechatronics (in automobiles for outdoors locking, collision avoidance
and in ignition and antiroll systems, etc.).

REAL TIME APPLICATIONS

Hand reaching an object.

✓ A person wants to reach for an object.

✓ Position of the object is given as reference; feedback signals and the eyes compare the
actual position of the hands with reference to the position of the object.
✓ Error signal is given to the brain.
✓ Brain manipulates this error and gives signals to the hands.
✓ This process continues till the hand reaches the object.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Water level control of overhead tanks

✓ The overhead tank has a fixed float (sensor) fixed at the desired height inside the tanks.
✓ The level of the water is sensed by the float. The float has an electrical contractor, which
is positioned between fixed connectors.
✓ The inflow regulation valve is electrically operated. The electrical circuit of the system
is closed when the float touches the fixed connectors and open when it is not making
contact with it.

Washing Machine

The sequence of operations of a washing machine consists of following Cycles.

✓ Pre-wash cycle
✓ Main wash cycle
✓ Rinse cycle
✓ Spinning cycle

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Pre-Wash Cycle:

Pre-wash cycle may involve the following sequence of operations.

✓ Opening of valve to fill the drum when a current is supplied

✓ Microprocessor is used to operate the switch for opening closing the valve.
✓ Closing of valve after receiving the signal from a sensor when the required level of
water is filled in the washing drum.
✓ Stopping the flow of water after the current is switched off by the microprocessor.
✓ Switch on the motor to rotate the drum for stipulated time.
✓ Initiates the operation of pump to empty the water from the drum.
✓ Pre-wash cycle involves washing the clothes in the drum by cold water

Main Wash Cycle

Main wash cycle involves washing the clothes in the drum by hot water

✓ Cold water is supplied after the Pre-wash cycle is completed.

✓ Current is supplied in large amount to switch on the heater for heating the cold water.
✓ Temperature sensor switches off the current after the water is heated to required
temperature.
✓ Microprocessor or cam switches ON the motor to rotate the drum.
✓ Microprocessor or cam switches on the current to a discharge pump to empty the drum.

Rinse Cycle

Rinse cycle involves washing out the clothes with cold water a number of times

✓ Opening of valve to allow cold water into the drum when the microprocessor are given
signals to supply current after the main wash cycle is completed.
✓ Switches off the supply current by the signals from microprocessor
✓ Operation of motor to rotate the drum
✓ Operation of pump to empty the drum and respect this sequence a number of times.

Spinning Cycle

Spinning cycle involves removing of water from the clothes

✓ Switching on the drum motor when the or a cam switches the supply current to rotate it
at a higher speed than a rinsing cycle.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASSISGNMENT QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by automation? explain the types of automation with neat sketch?

2. What is meant by mechatronics and explain the levels of mechatronics

3. Explain about Mechatronic Design Elements

4. Explain about transfer mechanisms with neat sketch

5. Explain the components of hydraulic and pneumatic components?

Tutorial questions
1. Explain Automation Strategies and reasons for automation?

2. Explain the Role of Various Engineering Disciplines in Mechatronics

3. Explain the Scope, advantages and disadvantages of mechatronics

4. Explain the working of washing machine using control systems

5. Explain the working of Water level control of overhead tanks

 UNIT 2
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT-2
COURSE OBJECTIVE

• Learn the constructions and working principle of different types of sensors and transducers

COURSE OUTCOME

• Identify different types of sensors and transducers required for specific

applications
 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, or electro-mechanical, that converts one
type of energy into another for various purposes including measurement or information transfer.
In a broader sense, a transducer is sometimes defined as any device that converts a signal from
one form into another. The term ‘sensor’ is often used in place of the transducer. A sensor is
defined as an element which when subjected to some physical change experiences a relative
change. Transducers/sensors may act as passive or active devices. A sensor in which the output
energy is supplied entirely or almost entirely by its input signals is called a passive element. An
active element has an auxiliary source of power that supplies a major part of the output power.
There may or may not be a conversion of energy from one form to another.

The treatment of the instrument performance characteristics is generally broken down into two
subareas: static characteristics and dynamic characteristics. The static characteristics are the
values given when steady state conditions occur. The dynamic characteristics refer to the
behaviour between the time that the input value changes and the time required given by a
transducer to settle down to steady state values. Accuracy, precision, threshold, resolution,
hysteresis, dead band, sensitivity, non-linearity, range or span, and errors are examples of the
static performance characteristic parameters. The response time, time constant, settling time,
peak time, rise time are examples of the dynamic performance characteristics. For better
functioning of mechatronics, sensors or transducers, both static and dynamic parameters are very
important. Sensors or transducers are used in mechatronics for the following purposes:

✓ To provide position, velocity, and acceleration information of the measuring element in a

system which provides feedback information
✓ To act as protective mechanism for a system
✓ To help eliminate mechanically complex and expensive feeding and sorting devices
✓ To provide identification and indication of the presence of different components
✓ To provide real time information concerning the nature of the task being performed

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY

Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect systems. Mechatronics design engineer
must know the capability and shortcoming of a transducer or measurement system to properly
assess its performance. There are a number of performance related parameters of a transducer or
measurement system. These parameters are called as sensor specifications.
Sensor specifications inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal behaviour of the
sensors. Following are the various specifications of a sensor/transducer system.

Static Characteristics

The static characteristics are the values given after the steady state condition has reached. These
are the values given when the transducer has settled down after receiving some input.
1. Range and Span:
✓ The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary.
✓ The difference between the limits (maximum value - minimum value) is known as
span.
✓ Example: A load cell is used to measure force. An input force can vary from 20 to
100 N. Then the range of load cell is 20 to 100 N. And the span of load cell is 80 N
(i.e., 100-20)
2. Error:
✓ The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the
measured parameter is termed as the error of the device.
✓ Error = Indicated value — true value
✓ Example: if the transducer gives a temperature reading of 30°C when the actual
temperature is 29° C, then the error is + 1°C. If the actual temperature is  3 1° C,
then the error is — 1°C.
3. Accuracy:
✓ Accuracy is defined as the ability of the instrument to respond to the true value of the
measure variable under the reference conditions.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ✓ For example, a thermocouple has an accuracy of ± 1° C. This means that reading
given by the thermocouple can be expected to lie within + 1°C (or) — 1°C of the true
value.
✓ Accuracy is also expressed as a percentage of the full range output (or) full scale
deflection
✓ For example, a thermocouple can be specified as having an accuracy of ±4 % of full
range output. Hence if the range of the thermocouple is 0 to 200°C, then the reading
given can be expected to be within + 8°C (or) — 8°C of the true reading.
4. Sensitivity:
✓ The sensitivity is the relationship showing how much output we can get per unit
input.
✓ Sensitivity = Output / Input Precision:
✓ It is defined as the degree of exactness for which the instrument is intended to
perform.
5. Hysteresis error:
✓ When a device is used to measure any parameter plot the graph of output VS value of
measured quantity.
✓ First for increasing values of the measured quantity and then for decreasing values of
the measured quantity.
✓ The two output readings obtained usually differ from each other.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

6. Repeatability:
✓ The repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are its ability to give the same
output for repeated applications of the same input value.
7. Reliability:
✓ The reliability of a system is defined as the possibility that it will perform its assigned
functions for a specific period of time under given conditions.
8. Stability:
✓ The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period of time.
9. Drift:
✓ The term drift is the change in output that occurs over time.
10. Dead band:
✓ There will be no output for certain range of input values. This is known as dead band.
✓ There will be no output until the input has reached a particular value.
11. Dead time:
✓ It is the time required by a transducer to begin to respond to a change in input value.
12. Resolution:
✓ Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be
detected.
✓ The resolution is the smallest change in the input value which will produce an
observable change in the input.
13. Backlash:
✓ Backlash is defined as the maximum distance (or) angle through which any part of a
mechanical system can be moved in one direction without causing any motion of the
attached part.
✓ Backlash is an undesirable phenomenon and is important in the precision design of
gear trains.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Dynamic Characteristics

1. Response Time
✓ The time taken by a system to produce an output after a constant input, a step input, is
applied to it is known as response time.
2. Time Constant
✓ The time constant is the measure of the inertia of the sensor, and so how fast it will
react to changes in its input. The bigger the time constant, the slower will be its
reaction to a varying input signal. This is 63.2% of response time.
3. Rise Time
✓ Rise time is the time required for the output to rise from 10% to 95% of the steady
state value.
4. Settling Time
✓ Settling time is the time required for the output to settle down within some percentage
normally 3% of the steady state value. .

Classification of Sensor /Transducer

Sensors are classified in the following ways.

A. According to the power supply
1. Active type
2. Passive type
B. According to the mode of operation
1. Null type
2. Deflection type
C. According to the signal characteristics (or) output
1. Analog
2. Coded type
3. Digital type
4. Frequency type
D. According to the measurement (or) Function
1. Displacement
2. Velocity
3. Acceleration
4. Dimensional
5. Mass
6. Force

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 7. Proximity
8. Pressure
9. Fluid Flow
10. Liquid level
11. Temperature
E. According to the performance characteristics
1. Accuracy
2. Repeatability
3. Linearity
4. Sensitivity
5. Range

Displacement, Position and Proximity sensors

Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of the amount by which some object
has been moved. Position Sensors are concerned with the determination of the position of the
object. With reference to some reference point. Proximity Sensors are a form of position sensors
which are used to determine when object has moved to within some particular critical distance of
the sensor. Magnetic, electrical capacitance, inductance and eddy current methods are
particularly suited to design a proximity sensor. They are on-off devices.

Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into two basic types: contact sensors in
which the measured object comes into mechanical contact with the sensor, or non-contacting
where there is no physical contact between the measured object and the sensor. For those linear
displacement methods involving contact, there is usually a sensing shaft which is in direct
contact with the object being monitored. The displacement of this shaft is then monitored by a
sensor. The movement of the shaft may be used to cause changes in electrical voltage, resistance,
capacitance or mutual inductance. For angular displacement methods involving mechanical
connection, the rotation of a shaft might directly drive, through gears, the rotation of the
transducer element. Non-contacting sensors might involve the presence in the vicinity of the
measured object causing a change in the air pressure in the sensor, or perhaps a change in
inductance or capacitance.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The following are examples of commonly used displacement sensors.
1. Potentiometer
2. Strain gauge
3. Capacitive sensors
4. Linear variable differential transformer

1. Potentiometer sensors

Potentiometers are mainly used to measure displacement pressure, position. A displacement

or position transducer that uses the variable resistance transduction principle can be
manufactured with a rotary or linear potentiometer.

Principle

Linear or Rotary potentiometer is a variable resistance displacement transducer which uses

the variable resistance transduction principle in which the displacement or rotation is
converted into a potential difference due to the movement of sliding contact over a resistive
element.

Construction of a Potentiometer

✓ The potentiometer essentially has a resistive element over which a moving terminal,
the wiper slides. Any potentiometer is constructed of the following parts:
✓ The terminals: Potentiometer has three terminals, two fixed and one variable.
✓ The resistive element: This part is the main part of the device and it is connected to
the two fixed terminals. It is one of the decisive aspects when it comes to the cost of
the potentiometer, and also can govern aspects of the performance of the component
including the power dissipation capability and noise generated. The resistive element
used can be of the following types:
✓ Carbon Composition: This is made from carbon granules and is one of the most
common types of resistive material used, because of its low cost. It also has a
reasonably low noise and lesser wear than other naterials. However, it is not that
accurate in its operation.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ✓ Wire wound – These are basically Nichrome wires and are wound over an insulating
substrate. They are mostly used in high power applications and last really long. They
are precise but have limited resolution.
✓ Conductive plastic: Often used in high end audio applications, they have very good
resolution but are really costly, and can be used in low power applications only.
✓ Cermet: A very stable type of material, it has a low temperature coefficient and is
highly resistant to temperature. However, it has a short life and can burn a hole in
your pocket.
✓ The wiper: This is the one terminal that slides over a resistive strip to make an
electrical contact. It may be a rotary wiper that is like a half an arc, that covers over ¾
of a circle or a linear wiper
✓ Angular position of the rotary wiper in degrees is given by the formula:

θ = (Vout/Vsupply)

Working of a Potentiometer

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A potentiometer has three terminals. When connected to a circuit, the two fixed terminals are
connected to the ends of the resistive elements while the third terminal is connected to the wiper.
In the circuit diagram shown, the terminals of the potentiometer are marked 1, 2 and 3. The
voltage supply is connected across terminals 1 and 3, positive lead to terminal one while negative
lead to terminal three. The terminal 2 is connected to the wiper. Now a closer look into the
figure, we can see that at the current position of wiper, there are two resistive paths just like the
resistor is split into two resistors. Out of these two resistors, the one having longer resistive path
will have a higher resistance. This is due to the fact that resistance of a resistor depends on its
length (since R=ρ). Higher the length, higher is the resistance, provided the material of the
resistor and its cross-sectional area remains same.

For simplicity, lets name the two resistors, R1 and R2 (Refer figure). The wiper voltage is
actually the voltage across R2. The circuit now looks like a voltage divider, where the output
voltage is given the equation:

Vout = {R2/ (R1+R2)} x V; where V= supply voltage.

So clearly, if we want to change the output voltage, we can just change the value of R2, by
sliding the wiper towards the terminal 3. When the wiper is at terminal 1, R1 becomes zero and
the voltage across the wiper is same as the supply voltage. Also, when the wiper is at terminal 3,
the effective resistive path for R2 is zero, hence the resistance R2 is zero.

Advantages
✓ Less expensive
✓ Different sizes and shapes of potentiometers in different ranges are easily
available
✓ High output
✓ A.C Excitation
✓ Rugged Construction
✓ Less sensitive towards vibration and temperature
✓ High electrical efficiency
✓ Operation is simple

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Disadvantages
✓ Slow Dynamic Response
✓ Low Resolution
✓ Early wear of the wiper is possible
✓ Noisy output under high speed operation or high vibrating conditions
✓ Noise becomes too high when the slide velocity exceeds 3 m/sec
EXAMPLE 1:
A resistor, R1 of 150Ω is connected in series with a 50 Ω resistor, R2 across a 10 Volt supply
ohm resistor as shown. Calculate the total series resistance, the current flowing through the series
circuit and the voltage drop across the 50 ohm resistor.

Solution:

Since the two resistance are in series, total resistance

R = R1 +R2 = 200Ω.

The current flowing through the circuit will be

I = V/R =10/200 = 0.05A.

Voltage drop across R2 = 50Ω can be found by voltage division rule, that is
VR2= 10 × (50/200) = 2.5 V

2. Strain Gauges

Strain is defined as an elongation or compression per unit area. Stain gauges work on the
principle of piezo resistivity. If a metal wire or conductor is stretched or compressed, its
resistance changes because of the change in length, resistivity and cross-sectional area. This
effect is called piezoresistive effect.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Suppose the dimensions of a wire are as follows:

• A is the uniform cross-sectional area of the wire in m2

• L is the length of the wire in m
• ρ is the resistivity in Ω-m
• R is the resistance in Ω

If the conductor is stretched or compressed (strained), the above-mentioned parameters get

changed as follows:
• ΔA is the change in cross-sectional area
• ΔL is the change in length of the wire
• Δρ is the change in the resistivity
• ΔR is the change in the resistance
The change in resistance is due to the following factors:
1. Per unit change in the length, ΔL/L
2. Per unit change in the area, ΔA/A.
3. Per unit change in the resistivity, Δρ/ρ.
If change in resistivity of the material due to the strain is neglected, the gauge factor is
GE= 1 + 2ɤ
The following table shows the gauge factors of some materials:
Material Gauge factor (GF)
Nickel -121
Nichrome +2.0
Soft iron +4.2
Carbon +20
Platinum +4.8

Classification of Strain Gauges

Bonded strain gauges

These are useful for stress analysis and transducer construction. Their construction is discussed
further.

Bonded wire strain gauges. A grid or fine wire of resistance is cemented to a base (sheet) of
paper or sheet of Teflon or bakelite. A particular resistance wire is covered on to protect it from
mechanical damages and faithfully handle the compression and elongation (stress). The

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

specifications of strain gauges vary with application. Strain gauges should have high gauge
factor (GF), low resistance temperature coefficient, no hysteresis, and resistance should be a
linear function of strain.

Different types of strain gauges are: linear, rossette, torque, helical, etc. as shown in Figures (a),
(b), (c) and (d), respectively.

Bonded metal foil strain gauges

These are made up of the similar material used for bonded wire strain gauges. The gauge
elements are formed by photoetching process having dimensions less than 0.0002 inch thick.
Figure shows a foil-type strain gauge.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

In foil-type strain gauges, the surface area is increased for the same volume, which facilitates
much greater heat dissipation capacity and better bonding. Foil-type gauges are mounted on a
flexible insulating carrier film about 0.025 mm thick made up of polyamide, glass, phenolic and
so on.

Bonded semiconductor strain gauges

These strain gauges use silicon semiconductor material. A silicon crystal is processed and sliced
in p-type and n-type. In p-type gauges, the resistance increases with tensile stain, whereas in n-
type gauges, the resistance decreases with the applied strain. Figure shows some bonded
semiconductor strain gauges.

Semiconductor strain gauges have high gauge factor of ±130 which is affected by high
temperature, sensitivity, non-linearity and mounting difficulties. These gauges can measure very
small strain of the order of 0.001 microstrain. Also, they have excellent hysteresis characteristics.

In this type of strain gauges the semiconductor material is sandwiched between the
protective matrix of Teflon, and the leads are taken out.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 The disadvantages of semiconductor strain gauges are that they are very sensitive to
change in temperature, have poor linearity and are more expensive.

Rossette. A combination of gauges is called rossette. It is applicable for specific stress

analysis or transducer applications.

Characteristics of strain gauges

✓ The gauge factor of a strain gauge should be high so as to achieve higher

sensitivity.
✓ Resistance of a strain gauge should be as high as possible, due to which the
unwanted variations in the resistance measurement get minimized.
✓ For avoiding the errors and achieving more accuracy, a strain gauge should have
low resistance temperature coefficient.
✓ A strain gauge should have linear relationship between the strain and the change
in resistance due to the applied strain.
✓ A strain gauge should not have hysteresis effects.
✓ It should have a linear frequency response. Nowadays strain gauge sensors are
available in integrated circuits (ICs) formed with operational amplifier (OPAMP).

EXAMPLE 1:
A resistance wire strain gauge is constructed using nichrome material with gauge factor GF = 2.0.
Calculate its Poisson's ratio. (Neglect piezoresistive effects.)

Solution

The gauge factor is specified as GF = 1 + 2ɤ + (Δρ/ρ)/ε.

As mentioned in the problem, piezoresistive effect is neglected.

GF = 1 + 2ɤ

or ɤ = (GF -1)/2

Poisson's ratio, ɤ = 0.5

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Metals used for strain gauges are copper-nickel, nickel-iron, nichrome-constantan alloys about
0.03 mm in diameter with gauge factor of 2 to 4 and the gauge current rating is 5 to 40 mA.
Strain gauges are mainly used in:

▪ Measurement and analysis of force, pressure, torque, acceleration and

displacement and
▪ Stress measurement of machine and structures.

3. Capacitive sensors

Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear
displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It comprises of three plates, with
the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another.

The linear displacement might take in two forms:

✓ one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes
✓ area of overlap changes due to the displacement.

Figure below shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement
measurement of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,
C = (εr εo A ) / d
Where
εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates,
εo permittivity of free space,
A area of overlap between two plates and
d the plate separation.
As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the element
/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between the plate changes.
This can be given as,

C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x)

C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x)

When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting out-of-balance
voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.

Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of the object towards
the sensor plate is used for induction of change in plate separation. This changes the capacitance
which is used to detect the object.

Applications of capacitive element sensors

✓ Feed hopper level monitoring

✓ Small vessel pump control
✓ Grease level monitoring
✓ Level control of liquids
✓ Metrology applications
✓ to measure shape errors in the part being produced
✓ to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools such as
surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles by measuring
errors in the machine tools themselves
✓ Assembly line testing o to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other
design features
✓ to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

4. Linear variable differential transformer

Definition of LVDT

The term LVDT stands for the Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is the most widely
used inductive transducer that converts the linear motion into the electrical signal.

The output across secondary of this transformer is the differential thus it is called so. It is very
accurate inductive transducer as compared to other inductive transducers.

Construction of LVDT

Main Features of Construction

✓ The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary windings

S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical former (which is hollow in nature and contains
the core).
✓ Both the secondary windings have an equal number of turns, and we place them
on either side of primary winding
✓ The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in the
air gap and voltages are induced in secondary windings.
✓ A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be
measured is connected to the iron core.
✓ The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in
reducing harmonics and high sensitivity of LVDT.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ✓ The LVDT is placed inside a stainless-steel housing because it will provide
electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.
✓ The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted output
is the difference between the voltages of two windings.

Principle of Operation and Working

As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and voltages are produced in
the secondary of the LVDT. The output in secondary S1 is e1 and in the secondary S2 is e2. So,
the differential output is,

This equation explains the principle of Operation of LVDT.

Now three cases arise according to the locations of core which explains the working of LVDT
are discussed below as,

✓ CASE-I: When the core is at null position (for no displacement)

When the core is at null position then the flux linking with both the secondary
windings is equal so the induced emf is equal in both the windings. So, for no
displacement the value of output eout is zero as e1 and e2 both are equal. So, it
shows that no displacement took place.
✓ CASE-II: When the core is moved to upward of null position (For displacement
to the upward of reference point) In this case the flux linking with secondary

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 winding S1 is more as compared to flux linking with S2. Due to this e1 will be
more as that of e2. Due to this output voltage eout is positive.
✓ CASE-III: When the core is moved to downward of Null position (for
displacement to the downward of the reference point). In this case magnitude of
e2 will be more as that of e1. Due to this output eout will be negative and shows the
output to downward of the reference point.

Output VS Core Displacement A linear curve shows that output voltage varies linearly with
displacement of core.

Some important points about magnitude and sign of voltage induced in LVDT

✓ The amount of change in voltage either negative or positive is proportional to the

amount of movement of core and indicates amount of linear motion.
✓ By noting the output voltage increasing or decreasing the direction of motion can
be determined
✓ The output voltage of an LVDT is linear function of core displacement.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages of LVDT

✓ High Range – The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of
displacement. They can used for measurement of displacements ranging from
1.25 mm to 250 mm
✓ No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no
loss of displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate
device.
✓ High Input and High Sensitivity – The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn’t
need any amplification. The transducer possesses a high sensitivity which is
typically about 40 V/mm.
✓ Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is
excellent under all conditions
✓ Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very as compared
to other transducers.
✓ Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – They convert the linear displacement
to electrical voltage which are easy to process

Disadvantages of LVDT

✓ LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always requires a setup to protect

them from stray magnetic fields.
✓ LVDT gets affected by vibrations and temperature.

Applications of LVDT

✓ We use LVDT in the applications where displacements to be measured are

ranging from a fraction of mm to few cms. The LVDT acting as a primary
transducer converts the displacement to electrical signal directly.
✓ The LVDT can also act as a secondary transducer. E.g. the Bourbon tube which
acts as a primary transducer and it converts pressure into linear displacement and
then LVDT coverts this displacement into an electrical signal which after
calibration gives the readings of the pressure of fluid.

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POSITION SENSORS

Position sensors are basically sensors for measuring the distance travelled by the body starting
from its reference position. How far the body has moved from its reference or initial position is
sensed by the position sensors and often the output is given as a fed back to the control system
which takes the appropriate action. Motion of the body can be rectilinear or curvilinear;
accordingly, position sensors are called linear position sensors or angular position sensors.

Types of Position Sensor

Position sensors use different sensing principles to sense the displacement of a

body. Depending upon the different sensing principles used for position sensors, they can be
classified as follows:

1. Photoelectric Sensors
2. Hall effect Sensors
3. Digital Optical Encoder

1. Photoelectric Sensors

Photoelectric sensor is a generic name for sensors which detect an object by using light. The
optical signal transmitted from the emitting part of the sensor is modified by being reflected,
transmitted, absorbed, etc., by the sensing object and is then detected by the receiving part of the
sensor to generate a corresponding output signal. Further, it can also be a sensor which detects
light radiated from the sensing object to generate an output signal.

Sensing Methods or Working Principle of Photoelectric Proximity Sensor

There are three main sensing methods of the photoelectric proximity sensor and they are,

1. Through beam method

2. Retro-reflective method
3. Diffuse or Reflective method

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Through beam method

In this type of method, an emitter sends out a beam of light directly in the line-of-sight of the
emitter to a receiver. When an object breaks this beam of light, it detects as a presence. This type
of setup requires two components they are an emitter and a separate detector, which makes it a
bit more complex to install and wire. However, the advantage is that it’s the most accurate of the
sensing methods with the longest sensing range.

New laser diode emitter models can transmit a well-collimated beam 60 m for increased
accuracy and detection. At these distances, some through-beam laser sensors are capable of
detecting an object the size of a fly, at close range, that becomes 0.01 mm. One ability unique to
through beam photoelectric sensors is effective sensing in the presence of thick airborne
contaminants.

Retro-reflective method

In this method, detection occurs when the light path breaks or disturbs. Both the light emitting
and light receiving elements are in same housing. The light from the emitting element hits the
reflector and returns to the light receiving element. When a target is present, the light gets
interrupt.

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One reason for using a retro-reflective sensor over a through-beam sensor is for the convenience
of one wiring location, the opposing side only requires reflector mounting.

Diffuse or Reflective method

As in retro-reflective sensors, emitters and receivers located in the same housing. In this Diffuse
method, Both the light emitting and light receiving elements contain in a single housing. The
sensor receives the light reflected from the target.

Diffuse photoelectric sensors are similar in some respects to reflective sensors. This is because
like reflective sensors they emit a light beam in the direction of the object to be detected.
However, instead of a reflector used to bounce the light back to a detector, the object to be
sensed functions as the reflector, bouncing some of the light back to be detected and register an
object’s presence.

Mostly, the diffuse sensors use in public washroom sinks, where they control automatic faucets.
Hands placed under the spray head act as reflector, triggering (in this case) the opening of a
water valve. diffuse sensors are somewhat color dependent, certain versions are suitable for
distinguishing dark and light targets in applications that require sorting or quality control by
contrast.

Advantages of Photoelectric Sensor

✓ The sensor senses all kinds of materials.

✓ It has longer life, long sensing range and very reliability.
✓ Very fast response time and less costly.
✓ Diffuse photoelectric sensor detects small objects including color mark and label
detection.
✓ mostly retro-reflective type sensor can detect transparent objects.
✓ Through beam type can detect long range and it is tolerant of dirty environment.

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Disadvantages of Photoelectric Sensor

✓ Over coarse of time lens get contaminated.

✓ Generally, the sensing range is affected due to color and reflectivity of the target.
✓ Through beam type requires transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) at two separate
locations
✓ Retro reflective type requires reflector in addition to Tx/Rx. This makes system
installation complex

Applications of Photoelectric Sensor

The photoelectric sensors use in different section. Few of them are as follow,

✓ Checking objects on production lines or conveyors:

photoelectric sensors can detect product size to spot any errors, or simply spot
their absence. As well as picking up problems like misaligned caps on bottles.
They are widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries, and in packaging
plants.
✓ Counting of small objects:
In some production environments, small items will fall from a vibrating conveyor
belt into a packaging system or bag – and a photoelectric sensor can count them.
✓ Detection of colours:
Through scanning independently in red, green and blue light, with applications in
multiple processes in the printing and packaging sectors.
✓ Monitoring bigger areas for objects with light grids:
Instead of using multiple sensors, a light grid uses parallel beams of light to cover
a two-dimensional area.
✓ Measuring distance:
With multiple sensors, a triangulation process compares reflected laser beams and
can use to accurately determine position and distance. for example, to check the
location of manufacturing systems, or in automated transport applications.
✓ Logistics and materials handling:

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 In an automated warehouse with robotic pickers or trucks rely on position and
object sensing to operate efficiently and safely.
✓ Automatic doors:
In buildings or public transport, photoelectric sensors detect when someone is
standing by a door.

2. Hall effect Sensors

Magnetic sensors are solid state devices which generate electrical signals proportional to the
magnetic field applied on it. These electrical signals are then further processed by a user specific
electronic circuit to give the desired output.

Now days, these Magnetic sensors are capable in responding for a wide range of magnetic fields.
One of such magnetic sensors is Hall Effect Sensor whose output (Voltage) is a function of
magnetic field density.

An external magnetic field is used to activate these Hall Effect Sensors. When the magnetic flux
density in the vicinity of Sensor goes beyond a specific defined threshold, it is detected by the
Sensor. On detection, the Sensor generates an output voltage which is also known as Hall
Voltage.

Working Principle

Hall Effect Sensor is based on Hall Effect Principle. This principle says that when a conductor or
semiconductor with current flowing in one direction is introduced perpendicular to a magnetic
field a voltage could be measured at right angles to the current path.

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 ✓ When an electric current flow through the Sensor, the electrons move through it in
a straight line.
✓ When an external magnetic field acts on the Sensor, the Lorentz force deviates the
charge carriers to follow a curved path.
✓ Due to this, the Negative Charge Electrons will deflect towards one side of the
Sensor and the Positive Charge Holes to another.

✓ Due to this accumulation of electrons and holes at different side of the plate, a
voltage (potential difference) can be observed between the sides of the plate. The
voltage obtained is directly proportional to the electric current and magnetic field
strength.

Applications of Hall Effect Sensor

The applications of Hall Effect Sensors have been represented in two categories for ease of
understanding.

✓ Applications of Analog Hall Effect Sensors

✓ Applications of Digital Hall Effect Sensors

Applications of Analog Hall Effect Sensors

Analog Hall Effect Sensors are utilized for:

✓ Direct Current sensing in Clamp meters (also known as Tong Testers).

✓ Wheel speed detection for the anti-lock braking system, (ABS).

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 ✓ Motor control devices for protection and indications.
✓ Sensing the availability of Power supply.
✓ Motion Sensing.
✓ Sensing the rate of flow.
✓ Sensing Diaphragm pressure in Diaphragm pressure gauge.
✓ Sensing Vibration.
✓ Sensing Ferrous Metal in Ferrous Metal Detectors.
✓ Voltage Regulation.

Applications of Digital Hall Effect Sensors

Digital Hall Effect Sensors are utilized for :

✓ Sensing the angular position of the crank shaft for the firing angle of the spark
plugs.
✓ Sensing the position of the car seats and seat belts for air-bag control .
✓ Wireless Communications.
✓ Sensing Pressure.
✓ Sensing Proximity.
✓ Sensing rate of flow.
✓ Sensing position of Valves.
✓ Sensing position of Lens.

Advantages of Hall Effect Sensors

✓ They can be used for multiple sensor functions like position sensing, speed
sensing as well as for sensing the direction of movement too.
✓ As they are solid state devices, there is absolutely no wear and tear due to absence
of moving parts.
✓ They are almost maintenance free.
✓ They are robust.
✓ They are immune to vibration, dust and water.

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Disadvantages of Hall Effect Sensors

✓ They are not capable to measure current flow at a distance more than 10 cm. The
only solution to overcome this issue is to use a very strong magnet that can
generate a wide magnetic field.
✓ Accuracy of the measured value is always a concern as external magnetic fields
may affect the values.
✓ High Temperature affects the conductor resistance. This will in turn affect the
charge carrier’s mobility and sensitivity of Hall Effect Sensors.

3. Digital Optical Encoder:

A position encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a result of a linear or angular
displacement. It converts motion into a sequence of digital pulses. By counting a single bit or by
decoding a set of bits, the pulses can be converted to relative or absolute position measurements.
Encoders have both linear and rotary configurations, but the most common type is rotary. The
following diagram shows fundamental principle of optical encoder construction. A beam of light
passes through slots in a disc and is detected by a suitable light sensor. When the disc is rotated,
a pulsed output is produced by the sensor with number of pulses being proportional to the angle
through which the disc rotates.

Rotary encoders are manufactured in two basic forms:

✓ Incremental: An incremental encoder produces incremental digital signals that

provide data about the general position of an object.
✓ Absolute: An absolute encoder measures the absolute position of the angle of a
rotating shaft, and produces either a digital or an analog signal.

Incremental Encoder:

✓ Incremental encoders, that gives changes in rotation from a reference or datum

position. An incremental encoder has three concentric tracks with three sensors.
✓ The inner most track has one hole that is used to locate the home position of the
disc.

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 ✓ The other two tracks have a series of equally spaced holes that go completely
round the disc but holes in the middle track offset from the holes in the outer track
by one-half the width of a hole.
✓ This offset enables the direction of rotation to be determined.
✓ In case of clockwise rotation of the shaft the pulses generated by the outer tracks
holes leads those in the inner track; whereas in case of anti-clockwise direction
pulses generated by the outer track lags that of the inner track.
✓ The resolution is determined by the number of slots (opening) in the disc.
✓ There can be an optional third output: reference, which happens once every turn.
This is used when there is the need of an absolute reference, such as positioning
systems.

The incremental can be either mechanical or optical. In the optical type there are two gray coded
tracks. The incremental rotary encoder is the most widely used of all rotary encoders due to its
low cost: only two sensors are required. The fact that incremental encoders use only two sensors
does not compromise their accuracy. One can find in the market incremental encoders with up to
10,000 counts per revolution, or more. The optical type is used when higher RPMs are
encountered or a higher degree of precision is required

Example: With 60 slots disc, resolution will be 360/60 = 6º. This means position of the shaft
could be determined as small as 6º movement.

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Incremental Rotary Encoder Advantages

✓ Good for simple pulse counting or frequency monitoring applications such as

speed, direction, and position monitoring
✓ More cost-effective and less complex than an absolute encoder
✓ A, B, Z, and inverted signals as HTL (Push-Pull) or TTL (RS422).
✓ Any pulse count up to 16384 PPR available
✓ Flexible scaling functionality
✓ Magnetic measuring principle
✓ Incremental encoders have a resolution of up to 50,000 PPR.

Absolute Encoder:

Absolute encoders, that produce a unique digital word corresponds to each rotational position of
the shaft. Absolute encoders have three or more concentric circles having slot-patterns that
generate unique binary code based on the position of the shaft. Number of concentric tracks
determines the number of binary bits. The optical disc of the absolute encoder is designed to
produce a digital word that distinguishes N distinct positions of the shaft. Typically, encoders
have 10 or 12 tracks. Thus a 10-track encoder has 10-bit binary word and that will produce 1024
(210=1024) unique position code. This means resolution of detection of position will be
360/1024 = 0.35º. This also means that the shaft movement can be determined as accurate as
0.35º.

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The normal form of binary code is not used as the position distinguishing position code because
changing from one binary number to the next can result in more than one bit changing. For
example: change from 001 (001 = binary 1) to 010 (010 = binary 2) are two adjacent number but
two binary bits (bit 0 changes from 1 to 0 and bit 1 changes from 0 to 1) need to change during
the transition. Thus to overcome the problem another type of code called Gray code is used

Standard Binary Code Disc Gray Code Disc

Output from a three concentric circle Binary Coded Disc and Gray Code Disc

Absolute Rotary Encoder Advantages

✓ Remembers its position after a power outage and offers continuous position
monitoring
✓ Typically have speed, scaling, preset, and fieldbus functions

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 ✓ Allow you to determine the exact position of a machine and control over the
storage of electronic data
✓ Multiple interface options: Analog, Ethernet, Fieldbus, Parallel, Serial
✓ Single-turn and Multi-turn revolution options available
✓ Optical a magnetic measuring principle
✓ Absolute encoders have a resolution of up to 16 bits, or 65,536 pulses per
revolution (PPR).

PROXIMITY SENSOR

A proximity sensor consists of an element that changes either its state or analog signal when it is
close to, but often not actually touching, an object.

Magnetic, electrical capacitance, inductance, and eddy current methods are particularly suited to
the design of a proximity sensor.

• A photoemitter-detector pairs represents another approach, where interruption of

reflection of a beam of light in used to detect an object in a non-contact manner. The
emitter and detector are usually a phototransistor and a photodiode.

Common applications for proximity sensors and limit switches include:

1. Counting moving objects;

2. Limiting the traverse of a mechanism.

1. Eddy Current Proximity Sensors

Working principle:

When a coil is supplied with an alternating current an alternating magnetic field is produced. If
there is a metal object in close proximity to this attending magnetic field, then eddy currents are
induced in it. The eddy currents themselves produce a magnetic field which distorts the magnetic
field responsible for their production. Consequently, the impedance of the coil changes and so
the amplitude of the alternating current. This change, at some preset level, can be used to trigger
a switch.

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Fig. shows the basic form of an Eddy current proximity sensor. It is used for the detection of
non-magnetic but inductive materials.

Advantages:

(i) Small in size.

(ii) Relatively inexpensive.
(iii) High flexibility.
(iv) High sensitivity to small displacements.

2. Capacitive proximity sensors

capacitive proximity sensors operate by noting a change in the capacitance read by the
sensor. A typical capacitor consists of two conductive elements (sometimes called plates)
separated by some kind of insulating material that can be one of many different types
including ceramic, plastic, paper, or other materials.

he way a capacitive proximity sensor works is that one of the conductive elements, or plates,
is inside the sensor itself while the other one is the object to be sensed. The internal plate is
connected to an oscillator circuit that generates an electric field. The air gap between the
internal plate and the external object serves as the insulator or dielectric material. When an
object is present, that changes the capacitance value and registers as the presences of the
object.

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 Capacitive proximity sensors are useful in detecting a wide range of objects. The easiest
types of objects to detect are ones with a high density (such as metals) or a high dielectric
constant (i.e. water). And detecting these objects doesn’t require that the sensors be fairly
close to the objects to be detected, another plus if used in settings with little space to work in.
Overall, good sensing targets for capacitive sensors include solids and liquids such as various
metals, water, wood and plastic.

A typical sensing range for capacitive proximity sensors is from a few millimeters up to
about 1 in. (or 25 mm), and some sensors have an extended range up to 2 in. Where
capacitive sensors really excel, however, is in applications where they must detect objects
through some kind of material such as a bag, bin, or box. They can tune out non-metallic
containers and can be tuned or set to detect different levels of liquids or solid materials.

3. Proximity Switch’s

There are a number of forms of switch which can be activated by the presence of an object in
order to give a proximity sensor with an output which is either on or off. The microswitch is
a small electrical switch which requires physical contact and a small operating force to close
the contacts. For example, in the case of determining the presence of an item on a conveyor
belt, this might be actuated by the weight of the item on the belt depressing the belt and

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hence a spring-loaded platform under it, with the movement of this platform then closing the
switch. Figure shows examples of ways such switches can be actuated.

The above figure shows the basic form of a reed switch. It consists of two magnetic switch
contacts sealed in a glass tube. When a magnet is brought close to the switch, the magnetic
reeds are attracted to each other and close the switch contacts. It is a non-contact proximity
switch. Such a switch is very widely used for checking the closure of doors. It is also used
with such devices as tachometers, which involve the rotation of a toothed wheel past the reed
switch. If one of the teeth has a magnet attached to it, then every time it passes the switch it
will momentarily close the contacts and hence produce a current/voltage pulse in the
associated electrical circuit.

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4. Pneumatic proximity sensor

Pneumatic sensors involve the use of compressed air, displacement or the proximity of an
object being transformed into a change in air pressure. The figure shows the basic form of
such a sensor. Low-pressure air is allowed to escape through a port in the front of the sensor.
This escaping air, in the absence of any close-by object, escapes and in doing so also reduces
the pressure in the nearby sensor output port. However, if there is a close-by object, the air
cannot so readily escape and the result is that the pressure increases in the sensor output port.
The output pressure from the sensor thus depends on the proximity of objects. Such sensors
are used for the measurement of displacements of fractions of millimeter’s in ranges which
typically are about 3 to 12 mm.

Velocity, Motion, Force

1. Tachogenerator

The tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity. One form, the variable reluctance
tachogenerator, consists of a toothed Wheel of ferromagnetic material which is attached
to the rotating shaft (Figure). A pick-up coil is wound on a permanent magnet. As the
wheel rotates, so the teeth move past the coil and the air gap between the coil and the
ferromagnetic material changes.

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We have a magnetic circuit with an air gap which periodically changes. Thus, the flux
linked by a pick-up coil change. The resulting cyclic change in the flux produces an
alternating e.m.f. in the coil.

If the wheel contains n teeth and rotates with an angular velocity ɷ, then the flux change
with time for the coil can be considered to be of the form

where Φ0 is the mean value of the flux and Φa the amplitude of the flux variation. The
induced e.m.f. e in the N turns of the pick-up coil is -N dΦ / dt and thus

and so we can write

where the maximum value of the induced e.m.f. Emax is NΦ nɷ and so is a measure of the
angular velocity.

Instead of using the maximum value of the e.m.f. as a measure of the angular velocity, a
pulse-shaping signal conditioner can be used to transform the output into a sequence of
pulses which can be counted by a counter, the number counted in a particular time
interval being a measure of the angular velocity.

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 Another form of tachogenerator is essentially an a.c. generator. It consists of a coil,
termed the rotor, which rotates with the rotating shaft. This coil rotates in the magnetic
field produced by a stationary permanent magnet or electromagnet the above figure and
so an alternating e.m.f. is induced in it. The amplitude or frequency of this alternating
e.m.f. can be used as a measure of the angular velocity of the rotor. The output may be
rectified to give a d.c. voltage with a size which is proportional to the angular velocity.
Non-linearity for such sensors is typically of the order of 60.15% of the full range and the
sensors are typically used for rotations up to about 10 000 rev/min.

2. Pyroelectric sensors

These sensors work on the principle of pyroelectricity, which states that a crystal material
such as Lithium tantalite generates charge in response to heat flow. In presence of an
electric field, when such a crystal material heats up, its electrical dipoles line up as shown
in figure. This is called as polarization. On cooling, the material retains its polarization.
In absence of electric field, when this polarized material is subjected to infrared
irradiation, its polarization reduces. This phenomenon is the measure of detection of
movement of an object.

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 Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated with thin
film electrodes on opposite faces as shown in above figure. Initially the electrodes are in
electrical equilibrium with the polarized material. On incident of infra-red, the material
heats up and reduces its polarization. This leads to charge imbalance at the interface of
crystal and electrodes. To balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the
charge, which is calibrated against the detection of an object or its movement.

Applications of Pyroelectric sensors

✓ Intrusion detector
✓ Optothermal detector
✓ Pollution detector
✓ Position sensor
✓ Solar cell studies
✓ Engine analysis

3. Strain Gauge as force Sensor

A very commonly used form of force-measuring transducer is based on the use of

electrical resistance strain gauges to monitor the strain produced in some member when

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 stretched, compressed or bent by the application of the force. The arrangement is
generally referred to as a load cell. Figure shows an example of such a cell. This is a
cylindrical tube to which strain gauges have been attached. When forces are applied to
the cylinder to compress it, then the strain gauges give a resistance change which is a
measure of the strain and hence the applied forces. Since temperature also produces a
resistance change, the signal conditioning circuit used has to be able to eliminate the
effects due to temperature. Typically, such load cells are used for forces up to about 10
MN, the non-linearity error being about (+ or -) 0.03% of full range, hysteresis error (+ or
-) 0.02% of full range and repeatability error (+ or -) 0.02% of full range. Strain gauge
load cells based on the bending of a strain-gauged metal element tend to be used for
smaller forces, e.g. with ranges varying from 0 to 5 N up to 0 to 50 kN. Errors are
typically a non-linearity error of about (+ or -) 0.03% of full range, hysteresis error (+ or -
) 0.02% of full range and repeatability error (+ or -) 0.02% of full range.

Pressure Sensors

1. Diaphragm

Diaphragms are widely used for the measurement of pressure ranges from 0 to 6.7 kPa
and 0 to 350 kPa.

Principle and construction

The diaphragm is a thin membrane made from sheet metal of precise dimensions. It is
used for the measurement of pressure. When the pressure, which is to be measured, is
applied to the diaphragm, it gets deflected. The deflection of diaphragm is proportional to
the applied pressure.

A diaphragm is a suitable transducer for sensing the pressure. The unknown pressure is
applied to one side of the diaphragm. This unknown pressure is determined by measuring
the deflection or displacement.

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Thin membrane-type diaphragms are applicable for measurement of low-pressure ranges.
For higher pressure ranges, circular flexible disc diaphragms are used.

Materials used

Important aspect to be considered for a diaphragm is elasticity. The material should have
good elasticity and low temperature coefficient of elasticity. Phosphor bronze, beryllium
copper, Monel, brass, tantalum, Teflon, duranickel the Ni span C are used for the
manufacturing (construction) of diaphragms. In quartz diaphragm, minimum hysteresis
and drift can be achieved.

Types of diaphragms

Flat-type diaphragm. It consists of a thin flexible circular metallic plate. These

diaphragms provide low deflection because they operate on low-pressure ranges. Figure
(a) shows a flat diaphragm.

Corrugated diaphragm. In this type of diaphragm, the surface area is increased due to
which the pressure handling capacity is increased and ultimately the deflection also
becomes higher. Figure (b) shows a single corrugated diaphragm.

Bonding or welding two single corrugated diaphragms can increase the pressure handling
capacity of single corrugated diaphragm. They are useful for highly sensitive
measurement. When the two diaphragms are welded together at the peripheries, the
resulting diaphragm is called capsule. The capsule diaphragms are again classified into
three categories—convex capsule, nested capsule and multiple capsules. Figures (c) and
(d) show the convex capsule and nested capsule diaphragms, respectively. When a
number of convex or nested capsules are joined, the resulting device is a multiple capsule
element. The capsule elements are connected axially with each other. The total deflection
is sum of the deflections of individual capsules. This element provides increased output
displacement in accordance with the change in applied pressure. Figure (e) shows a
multiple capsule diaphragm.

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Pressure measurement using diaphragm

The system consists of number of metallic diaphragms connected to each other on a

metallic element. The metallic element is connected to a pointer through mechanism or
spring arrangement. The pointer slides over a calibrated scale as shown in Figure. When

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the pressure, which is to be measured, is applied through the pressure inlet, the deflection
of metallic diaphragm takes place. This deflection is applied to a pointer through spring
or proper mechanism arrangement, due to which the pointer slides over the calibrated
scale. The reading is indicated by indicating or recording instrument, which is
proportional to the applied pressure.

Pressure measurement using a nested diaphragm

The arrangement consists of a metallic housing in which a nested diaphragm is placed.

Displacement of the diaphragm is applied to a pointer through mechanism. This pointer
slides over a calibrated scale and measures the displacement.

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 When pressure is applied through the pressure inlet, deflection of nested diaphragm takes
place. The pointer indicates this deflection over a calibrated scale, which is proportional
to the applied input pressure.

Advantages

▪ A diaphragm has low cost.

▪ It is useful for measurement of absolute and differential pressures.
▪ It has good linearity.
▪ It has small size and good compactness.
▪ It is fabricated by using non-corrosion resistive elements.

Disadvantages

▪ The performance of a diaphragm may be affected due to vibrations and

shocks.
▪ Repairing of diaphragm is very complex and tedious job.
▪ It is applicable only for low-pressure measurements.

2. Bourdon Tube

These are the primary pressure sensing elements used for measurement of medium and
high pressures. Bourdon tubes are elastic members and convert the pressure into
mechanical displacements. An important aspect is that Bourdon tube is a primary sensing
element, which senses pressure and converts it into mechanical displacement. This
displacement can be converted into electrical signals using secondary transducers.
Materials used for construction of Bourdon tube are phosphor bronze, beryllium copper,
monel, Ni-Span C and alloy steel. Pressure range is 100 kPa to 690 MPa.
Working principle
When the pressure, which is to be measured, is applied to the pressure sensitive element,
it deflects and resulting into mechanical displacement. Mechanical displacement is
proportional to the applied pressure. This mechanical displacement is converted into
electrical signals by using electrical transducers. From this discussion, it is noted that the

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electrical signal is proportional to the mechanical displacement and hence proportional to
the applied pressure.

There are various types of bourdon tubes according to shape or form, namely C-type,
helical, spiral and twisted.

C-Bourdon tube. It is made by winding an elliptical flattened tube to form a segment of a

circle having an arc of 250°. This tube has two ends, out of which one end is sealed. The
other end is opened for applying the process pressure and fixed at the socket as shown in
Figure (a).

When the pressure is applied at the open end, the tube tends to straighten out because the
internal and outer radii of the bourdon tube are different. So the tube takes different areas
for the pressure. The non-linear motion is converted into linear motion or displacement
by means of a pointer and calibrated scale (deflection) arrangement. Necessary link, lever
gear and pinion attachment is provided to the deflection system. Thus the applied
pressure is measured by means of deflection over linear scale.

Spiral Bourdon tube. Spiral Bourdon tube is made by winding the elliptical flattened tube
into spiral form of 2 or 3 windings around the same axis as shown in Figure (b). One end
of the tubes is sealed and the other is open.

When the pressure is applied to a spiral Bourdon tube, it tends to uncoil and produces the
deflection and displacement at the free end. This displacement is used for indication or
transmission. The produced displacement is applied to the pointer and scale arrangements
for measurement. The displacement is more, so there is no need of magnification
elements, i.e. mechanical amplification. Due to this, the gear and pinion arrangement is
eliminated which increases the accuracy.

Spiral Bourdon tube has the following advantages:

1. It has more accuracy.

2. There is no friction because there is no gear and pinion arrangement
3. It has higher sensitivity because there is no friction and loss of motion.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Helical Bourdon tube. By winding the elliptically flattened tube into helical (helix) form,
this tube is manufactured. This tube provides higher movement of the free end.
Mechanical movement or displacement of helical Bourdon tube is more than that of spiral
Bourdon tube. A shaft is connected at the centre of the helical winding and a pointer is
attached at the shaft using proper connecting link. As the applied pressure changes, the
helical winding provides circular displacement, which is indicated by the pointer
connected to the shaft.

Helical Bourdon tube has the following advantages:

1. It provides satisfactory operation over continuous fluctuating pressure signals.

2. It has higher capacity to handle the overrange pressures.
3. There is no necessity of mechanical amplification gear and pinion
arrangement.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Pressure range of a Bourdon tube depends upon diameter of the coil, thickness of the
tube, constructional material used and number of helical coils/tubes. For low-pressure
measurements, two or three coils are used whereas for high-pressure measurements, 16 to
20 coils can be used. Accuracy of a Bourdon tube depends upon the diameter of tube,
design quality, materials used to construction and calibration arrangement. It is ± 0.5 to ±
2%
3. Bellows

This is a pressure-sensing element used to measure low pressure and vacuum or absolute
pressure. Welding a number of preformed plates makes bellows. The circular plates are
welded together so that they can be expanded or contradicted by the application of
pressure. The materials used for construction of bellows are brass, stainless steel,
beryllium copper, monel, bronze, Inconel Ni-span. The material should be ductile and
flexible and should have high strength and low hysteresis. Figure (a) shows a basic
bellows element.
Seamless tubes prepare bellows by hydraulic or mechanical roll formation. Seamless
bellows can also be formed. They can be directly attached to or compatible with
indicators or recorders.
Pressure measurement using single bellows the bellows element is exposed to
atmospheric pressure which functions as the reference pressure. At the bottom, the
process pressure is applied. A calibrated spring is provided so as to counterbalance the
deflection of bellows and pointer.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

As the pressure is applied to the spring-loaded metal bellows, it gets compressed and
hence forces the lower end of the bellow in upward direction. This results in opposing the
spring force. The pointer is connected to the spring through suitable linkage and
calibration. When pressure is applied in vertical movement, the pointer moves over the
calibrated scale. In this way, the unknown pressure can be measured by this arrangement.
Limitations of bellows
1. Sensitivity of bellows may be affected by ambient temperature, friction and
drift.
2. It is not suitable for high pressures.
3. If the elasticity of bellow is not sufficient, a spring arrangement has to be
attached for accurate measurement.
4. Work-hardening of the metals are used of construction of bellows.
Applications
1. It is suitable for low and moderate pressure ranges of 9-13 kPa to 0-240 kPa.
2. It is used for absolute and differential pressure handling.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

4. Piezoelectric sensors

Piezoelectric materials when stretched or compressed generate electric charges with one
face of the material becoming positively charged and the opposite face negatively
charged (Figure(a)). As a result, a voltage is produced. Piezoelectric materials are ionic
crystals, which when stretched or compressed result in the charge distribution in the
crystal changing so that there is a net displacement of charge with one face of the
material becoming positively charged and the other negatively charged. The net charge q
on a surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges have been displaced,
and since the displacement is proportional to the applied force F:

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑆𝐹

Where k is a constant and S a constant termed the charge sensitivity. The charge
sensitivity depends on the material concerned and the orientation of its crystals. Quartz
has a charge sensitivity of 2.2 pC/N when the crystal is cut in one particular direction and
the forces applied in a specific direction; barium titanite has a much higher charge
sensitivity of the order of 130 pC/N and lead zirconate–titanate about 265 pC/N.

Metal electrodes are deposited on opposite faces of the piezoelectric crystal (Figure (b)).
The capacitance C of the piezoelectric material between the plates is

𝑒0 𝑒𝑟 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑡

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

where er is the relative permittivity of the material, A is area and t its thickness. Since the
charge q = Cv, where v is the potential difference produced across a capacitor, then

𝑆𝑡
𝑣= 𝐹
𝑒0 𝑒𝑟 𝐴

The force F is applied over an area A and so the applied pressure p is F/A and if we write
𝑆
Sv = 𝑒 , this being termed the voltage sensitivity factor, then
0 𝑒𝑟

𝑣 = 𝑆𝑣 𝑡𝑝

The voltage is proportional to the applied pressure. The voltage sensitivity for quartz is
about 0.055 V/m Pa. For barium titanate it is about 0.011 V/m Pa.

Piezoelectric sensors are used for the measurement of pressure, force and acceleration.
The applications have, however, to be such that the charge produced by the pressure does
not have much time to leak off and thus tends to be used mainly for transient rather than
steady pressures.

The equivalent electric circuit for a piezoelectric sensor is a charge generator in parallel
with capacitance Cs and in parallel with the resistance Rs arising from leakage through the
dielectric (Figure (a)). When the sensor is connected via a cable, of capacitance Cc, to an
amplifier of input capacitance CA and resistance RA, we have effectively the circuit
shown in Figure (b) and a total circuit capacitance of Cs + Cc + CA in parallel with a
resistance of RARs /(RA + Rs). When the sensor is subject to pressure it becomes charged,
but because of the resistance the capacitor will discharge with time. The time taken for
the discharge will depend on the time constant of the circuit.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 5. Tactile sensor

A tactile sensor is a particular form of pressure sensor. Such a sensor is used on the
‘fingertips’ of robotic ‘hands’ to determine when a ‘hand’ has come into contact with an
object. They are also used for ‘touch display’ screens where a physical contact has to be
sensed. One form of tactile sensor uses piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
film. Two layers of the film are used and are separated by a soft film which transmits
vibrations (Figure). The lower PVDF film has an alternating voltage applied to it and this
results in mechanical oscillations of the film (the piezoelectric effect described above in
reverse). The intermediate film transmits these vibrations to the upper PVDF film. As a
consequence of the piezoelectric effect, these vibrations cause an alternating voltage to be
produced across the upper film. When pressure is applied to the upper PVDF film its
vibrations are affected and the output alternating voltage is changed.

LIQUID FLOW SENSORS

➢ There are many devices used to measure the liquid flow.

➢ The basic principle in measuring flow is the fluid flowing through the pipe per
second is proportional to square root of pressure difference.
➢ The following flow measuring devices are used to measure the liquid flow.

1. Orifice plate

The orifice plate is simply a disc, with a central hole, which is placed in the tube through
which the fluid is flowing. The pressure differences is measured between a point equal to
the diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to half the diameter downstream. The

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 orifice plate is simple, cheap, with no moving parts, and is widely used. It does not,
however, work well with slurries. The accuracy is typically about ±1.5% of full range, it
is non-linear, and it does produce quite an appreciable pressure loss in the system to
which it is connected.

2. Turbine meter

The turbine flowmeter consists of a multi-bladed rotor that is supported centrally in the
pipe along which the flow occurs. The fluid flow results in rotation of the rotor, the
angular velocity being approximately proportional to the flow rate. The rate of revolution
of the rotor can be determined using a magnetic pick-up. The pulses are counted and so
the number of revolutions of the rotor can be determined. The meter is expensive with an
accuracy of typically about ±0.3%.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Liquid level measurement is an important and the oldest function in measurements. It is widely
useful in power plants, petrochemical, paper and sugar industries. It is also useful for level
measurement of exotic and hazardous process matters, fuel handling and so on. The liquid level
affects pressure and rate of flow in and out of a container or vessel, due to which it is necessary
to measure and control liquid levels. The service of level measurements is applicable for both
solid and liquid materials or any process material. But the most important factor is to consider
the nature and type of material. In the following sub-sections, various level measurements are
discussed. Both solid and liquid level measurements are covered here.

1. Bubbler Method

It consists of a hollow bubbler tube or dip pipe inserted in a liquid which is stored in a
tank. Figure (b) shows different shapes of the tip of dip pipe or bubbler tube available
which can be selected according to the requirement. This tube is fed with air supply from
a compressor through a pressure regulating valve. Another connection of the tube is
provided to a pressure indicating instrument like pressure gauge or manometer which is
calibrated in terms of liquid level. Generally, diameter of the tube or bubbler tube is 2
inches to 50 mm and tip of the pipe should be placed 3 inches above bottom of the tank
so as to avoid clogging or blocking due to deposition of particles in the liquid.

Pressure of the regulator is adjusted so as the air pressure in the bubbler tube should be
greater than the hydrostatic (pressure) head of the fluid or liquid under test. Due to this
adjustment, air bubbles come out from the bottom.

When there is no liquid in the tank or liquid level is below the tip of the bubbler tube or
pipe, compressor air flows out from the bottom and pressure indicator will indicate zero
reading. As the liquid level starts to increase, air pressure in the dip pipe or tube changes.
This pressure is indicated by the pressure indicating instrument. Because of increase in
the liquid level, air flow gets restricted because of depth of the liquid. Hence air pressure
acts against the liquid head which is back pressure indicated by the instrument. Pressure
indicated by a pressure measuring instrument is directly proportional to the liquid level.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Precautions

✓ Material used for dip pipe or tube should be free from corrosion. The
material can be selected according to the fluid involved in process.
✓ Air pressure fed to a dip pipe or tube should be slightly higher than the
maximum pressure of the head in tank.
✓ Accuracy depends upon the pressure sensing element, so it should be
properly calibrated.
✓ Dip pipe or tube should be cleaned properly in regular manner.

Advantages

✓ It is a simple method.
✓ Pressure monitoring element or device can be installed at top or bottom of
the tank. It can also be placed up to 12.7 meters from the tank by using
proper piping arrangements.

Bubbler method is suitable for measurement of corrosive or abrasive liquid levels.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2. Liquid Level Measurement Using Float

Float is a body which has characteristic of always to float and follow the changing liquid
level. Normally the floating device has hollow spheres, cylindrical and disk shaped.
Floats can be designed according to requirements, i.e. whether low or high-level
measurement is carried out, density of liquid and so on. Floats are available in the range
of 3 to 7 inches in diameter. The materials used for floats are brass, copper, Mane!,
polysulfone and plastics. The material used for a float should be free from corrosion,
oxidation and should be properly sealed. A float rests on the surface of liquids and
follows changing levels of liquids. Because of change in the liquid level, movement of
the float takes place that is transmitted to the pointer and the calibrated scale through a
mechanism like spring. The following methods are discussed for liquid level
measurement using float.

Using float and shaft arrangement Figure shows liquid level measurement using a float
and shaft arrangement. It consists of a float resting on a liquid surface, which is
connected to a pointer using a mechanism arrangement. As liquid level changes, the
position of the float varies on the surface, i.e. the float moves according to position of the
liquid level. This movement of float is transmitted to the pointer that slides over the
calibrated scale through the mechanism. The displacement of the pointer over the
calibrated scale is directly proportional to the liquid level. The displacement can be
calibrated or converted into electrical voltage by using linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT). This method is discussed further.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Using float and LVDT Figure shows a liquid level measurement using float and LVDT.
The float resting on the surface of the liquid is connected to core of the LVDT through
mechanical linkage.

As liquid level varies (increases or decreases), displacement of the float takes place. This
displacement is applied to the core of the LVDT. The LVDT produces differential output
voltage that is proportional to displacement of the core. This voltage can be transmitted to
control devices or relays. In this method, the float acts as a primary transducer and the
LVDT functions as a secondary transducer.

Using float and potentiometer This is a simple and direct method to measure the liquid
level in terms of electrical voltage. It can be achieved by using either linear or rotary
potentiometer. Figure shows implementation of liquid level measurement scheme using a
linear potentiometer. The float is connected to the wiper of potentiometer through
mechanical linkage. As the float displaces according to variations in liquid level, the
wiper slides over resistive element of potentiometer resulting in change in its resistance.
Change in resistance is directly proportional to displacement of wiper due to float
movement. Eout is the output voltage drop across the potentiometer that is proportional to
the liquid level. This voltage can be used to operate relay or alarm units or control
elements.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Using float and rotameter Figure shows a simple arrangement of liquid level
measurement using float and rotameter. It consists of a float, which is connected to a
solid shaft. An indicator is placed over this shaft. The indicator slides over a calibrated
scale. When the liquid level varies, the position of the float displaces resulting in sliding
the pointer over the scale. The indication by pointer is proportional to the liquid level.
Materials used to construct float and rod arrangement are stainless steel, Monel and so
on. Generally, a glass indicator is used. This method is applicable for non-hazardous
applications and low-level measurements.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. Laser level sensor or level measurement using laser

The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by with housing Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. It is a source of coherent electromagnetic waves at infrared and light
frequencies. These are high frequency signals ranging from 430 to 750 terahertz (THz).
This method is applicable for solids, liquids with transparent vapours.

Liquid This method consists of a laser transmitter and receiver set installed above a
container or tank. A glass window is placed on top of the tank using proper housing of
rubber or plastic. From the transmitter end, a sharp beam of laser is focused towards the
liquid level by modulation. When this signal reaches at the surface of the liquid, it gets
reflected. This reflected signal is received by the receiver. The time period (t) from
reflection of the signal to reaching at the receiver is calculated so as to measure the liquid
level. The time period (t) is function of distance D from the liquid level, i.e. the level
from which the signal is reflected to the receiver), that is represented by the following
equation:
t=f(d)
where C = velocity of light = 3 x 108 m/sec

The liquid level can be measured by calibrating time period in pulses using counter
circuit.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Advantages

✓ No direct physical contact with the process material.

✓ Suitable if vapour can be present with the process material.
✓ No moving part is involved in the system, so operation is free from
friction and spark.
✓ More reliable.

Limitations

✓ Accuracy depends upon light reflection characteristics of the process

material.
✓ The process material should be dust-free.
✓ The glass window and housing should be clean and dust-free.

Applications

✓ To measure the levels of liquid aluminium, liquid polyethylene, brown

tobacco and so on.
✓ To measure levels of wood pulp in paper industries.
✓ To measure levels of hazardous and toxic liquids and acids.
4. Ultrasonic liquid level detector

It is a conventional method used for measurement of liquid levels. This method uses the
principle of reflection of acoustic signals from liquid surface. It consists of an ultrasonic
transmitter, which generates frequency signals of range 35 kHz to 40 kHz. Figure 7.70
shows an ultrasonic liquid level indicator.
This method consists of a set of ultrasonic transmitter T and receiver R placed on top of a
tank. The transmitter transmits the ultrasonic wave towards the surface of liquid or solid.
This beam is reflected back from the surface and received by the receiver R. The
measurement is carried out on the basis of time taken by the received echo beam to reach
at the receiver end. As liquid level changes, the transit time required to reach the beam at
the receiver also changes, e.g. for level li, the transit time will be different from time
required for the level 12.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The received echo beam is detected by means of detector circuit. Sometimes amplifier
can be used with comparator to detect the echo. By passing the detected signal through
the gate and the flip-flop circuit, the time period can be measured in the form of pulses.
Piezoelectric crystals such as Rochelle salt, barium titanate and quartz can be used as
transmitter. In some situations of level measurement, the ultrasonic transmitter and
receiver may be installed at the bottom of the tank as shown in Figure.

Advantages

✓ No moving part is involved in the system, hence no problem of

development of friction or spark.
✓ No physical contact with process material so useful for measurements of
conductive, corrosive, hazardous process materials.
✓ More reliability.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ✓ Applicable for both solids and liquids.
✓ Performance does not affected by moisture, humidity, and dielectric
constants of process materials.

Limitations

✓ Performance may get affected if the received pulse is weak.

✓ Weak refractive properties of the surfaces of process fluids.
✓ Careful installation of transmitter and receiver set is necessary.

Applications

✓ To measure levels of oil storage tanks

✓ To measure levels of chemicals
✓ In mines and oil wells
✓ To measure levels of slurries

TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Temperature measurement is a widely useful technique in various processes, plants and

industries. This is an old technique, but nowadays various techniques and methods are in
existence and under research. Temperature is a fundamental quantity and totally different in
nature from the quantities like mass, time, length and area.
The term temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance or medium.
Temperature may be defined as degree of heat.
Due to heating or cooling, the following effects are used for measurement:
(i) Change in physical or chemical state of the substance or medium
(ii) Change in physical dimensions
(iii) Change in electrical properties such as resistance
(iv) If two dissimilar metals get joined or welded, an emf gets developed at the junction.
(v) Change in the intensity of total radiation emitted.

The calibration of given temperature measuring devices is carried out using the following two
methods:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(i) By subjecting it to some established fixed-point environment such as melting or
boiling points of standard substances.
(ii) By comparing its reading with more accurate, stable and calibrated temperature
sensor or by secondary standard.

1. Thermocouple

This transducer is widely used in industrial applications for temperature measurement.

Thermocouple is an active transducer because there is no need of voltage source and
transducer bridge circuitry.
A thermocouple works on the following principle: When two dissimilar metals A and B
are welded or joined together to form a closed circuit and the junctions (J1 and J2) are
kept at two different temperatures (T1 and T2), then an emf is generated resulting flow of
current in the circuit or loop." One of the two junctions in the loop is reference or cold
junction which is generally kept at 0°C and the other is the measuring or hot junction at
which the temperature is to be measured as shown in Figure.

The generated emf (E) is proportional to the difference of the temperatures T1 and T2 the
materials used for the thermocouple. This phenomenon is called seebeck effect. Thus, the
amount of emf generated is a function of temperature at hot and cold junctions.
Construction
In thermocouples, welding or soldering two different metals forms the thermojunctions.
Gas or electric welding welds the metals. Thermocouples are available in different sizes,
shapes, temperature ranges for different applications. According to media and the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

temperature range, various combinations of materials in fixed proportions are used for
manufacturing of thermocouples.
The following important parameters are to be considered for thermocouple materials:
✓ Linear relationship between temperature and output voltage
✓ To withstand highest temperature and temperature variations
✓ Corrosion resistance
✓ Sensitivity figure (S)
The sensitivity figure (S) is given by

𝑑𝑋
𝑆𝐸 = = ∑ ∝𝑛 𝑡𝑛−1
𝑑𝑇

where ∝𝑛 is the Seebeck coefficient which depends upon the material and temperature
t is the hot junction temperature when cold junction temperature is at 0°C
E is the fermi energy
This sensitivity figure depends upon the material to be used for the thermocouple. The
thermocouple should generate high thermoelectric power.

Advantages of thermocouple

✓ Construction is mechanically strong and rigid.

✓ It is suitable for reading (measurement) of rapidly varying temperatures.
✓ It has low cost.
✓ There is no need of bridge circuit.
✓ Installation and calibration is easy.
✓ It is suitable for temperature range of —270 to 2800°C.

Disadvantages of thermocouple

✓ It requires a protective wall or sheath.

✓ Thermocouple needs compensating arrangement.
✓ Amplifier circuit is necessary to increase the output voltage level.
✓ For long distance temperature measurement, compensating wires are
necessary.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

This type of transducer is used for temperature measurement. Here the basic concept used
is that electrical resistance of different material changes in accordance with the
temperature, i.e. for temperature measurement. The principle used is that the resistance of
a conductor changes in proportion with the change in temperature. The unknown
temperature is determined in terms of electrical resistance of the conductor, which senses
the temperature. The change in resistance of this device is precisely determined either by
bridge circuit or ohmmeter. Otherwise a separate circuit can be used to calibrate the value
of resistance in terms of voltage or current.

For different metals, the variations of resistance value (R) with temperature (T) is
expressed as follows:

𝑅 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝑎1 𝑇 + 𝑎2 𝑇 2 + ⋯ … … … . . … . +𝑎𝑛 𝑇 𝑛

where Ro is the resistance of the conductor at temperature T = 0

𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … … … 𝑎𝑛 are constants

In metals, the resistance increases with increase in temperature.

Metals used for RTD

✓ "Balco" handles the temperature range of —23°C to +204°C having resistance of
2000 Ω.
✓ Platinum has resistance temperature coefficient 0.39 and temperature range of —
260°C to 110°C.
✓ Nickel has resistance temperature coefficient 0.62 and temperature range of —
220°C to 300°C.
✓ For tungsten, resistance temperature coefficient is 0.45 and temperature range is
—200°C to 1000°C.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Figure shows the resistance versus temperature curve for different metals. Generally, the
metals used for RTD are platinum, copper and nickel. The most widely used metal for
resistance wire is platinum because of the following features:
✓ It can operate on wide range of temperature.
✓ Platinum provides good stability and accuracy.
✓ It has good linearity over wide temperature range.
✓ There is less error during the operation.
An RTD fabricated using platinum is called platinum RTD (PRTD).
Figures (b) and (c) show the construction of an RID. The important aspects to be
considered for the designing of an RID are the following:
✓ Operating point
✓ Fast response
✓ Environmental conditions
✓ Ability to withstand corrosion, friction and so on.
The RTD is used for temperature measurement of fluids and gases. It is of probe type and
immersed into medium whose temperature is to be measured. It consists of a platinum
wire in spiral shape enclosed in an insulating material such as mica or ceramic. It is
enclosed in a protective glass or porcelain tube. This assembly is placed at the tip of the
probe. The RTD is placed inside a well or tube to provide the protection to the resistive
element from corrosion, environmental conditions, mechanical damages and so on.
Mostly a well arrangement is used in liquid and gaseous media at higher temperature, e.g.
in power plants, pipelines and so on.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. Bimetallic Thermometers

It uses the concept of differential expansion of bonded strips of two metals. In certain
metals, the volume changes with temperature and the coefficient of change is not the
same for all the metals.

Working principle : If the two different metal strips are joined or welded together and
heated, the resultant strip having lower expansion rate gets bend. The deflection of the
strip is directly proportional to the square of the length and temperature and inversely
proportional to the thickness of the metal.
As the name indicates, a bimetallic thermometer consists of two different metal strips.
According to the change (rise) in temperature, the length of the metal gets changed with
respect to the rate of thermal expansion. This expansion results the bending of bimetallic
strip towards the side having low coefficient of thermal expansion as shown in Figure (a).
The deflection of a metal strip is applied to the pointer sliding over scale, which is
proportional to the temperature variations. The deflection or movement produced by the
bimetallic strips is small. Also, if the size of the strip is small, deflection is small. For
large deflections, size of the strip should be large. To avoid this, the metal strip element is
wound in spiral or helical shape. At the outer part of the spiral strips, a pointer is attached
which moves over the calibrated scale. As temperature increases, the spiral strips wind up
and the pointer deflects over the calibrated scale in clockwise direction as shown in
Figure (b). The complete assembly is placed in a case.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The metals mostly used for bimetallic strips are low-expansion invar (64% Fe, 36% Ni)
and higher-expansion nickel-alloy with chromium or manganese. This complete set
(bimetallic strip) is sealed in stainless steel with plastic or glass crystals which is a
protective tube or well.

Advantages

✓ It is easy to install.
✓ Its maintenance is not complex.
✓ It is mechanically rigid and tough.
✓ It has low cost.
✓ It has wide operating temperature range.

Disadvantages

✓ Calibration changes because of tough handling.

✓ Accuracy is not as good because of glass stern design.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Applications Helical bimetallic thermometers are used in industrial and residential
temperature measurements.
4. Thermistors (Semiconductor Temperature Sensors)

Thermistors are also called thermal resistors. For thermistors, the absolute temperature-
resistance relationship is given by
1 1
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝛽( − )]
𝑇1 𝑇2
where RT is the resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T (°K.)
RT1 is the resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature Ti (°K)
𝛽 is a constant and
T1 and T2 are the absolute temperatures (°K)

Thermistors are made up of semiconductor materials. As temperature changes, resistance

of a material also changes. The temperature coefficient of resistance for thermistors is
mentioned below:

➢ If the value of the resistance increases with increase in temperature, it is

positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor.
➢ If the value of the resistance decreases with increase in temperature, it is
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.

Construction: Thermistors are semiconductors and made up of sintered mixtures of

manganese, cobalt, zinc, aluminum, iron, copper, and uranium oxide powder above
982°C in combination with binders. The mixture of these materials is pressed into
different shapes and sizes like beads, washer, rods, disks and flakes. All these types are
represented in Figure (b). The electrical connections or leads are embedded before the
sintering process. These thermistors are placed in glass or plastic encapsulation so as to

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

protect from damage, vibrations, flow rates and so on. Thermistors are used to determine
temperature, liquid level, rate of flow and so on.

The temperature range for a thermistor is - 60°C to +15°C. Its resistance varies from 0.5
Ω to 0.75 MΩ. A thermistor is placed in contact with the media whose temperature is to
be measured. As the temperature of the media changes, the resistance of the thermistor
gets changed. The resistance-temperature characteristics of a thermistor are shown in
Figure (c). The change of resistance with the temperature can be measured by connecting
the thermistor to any one arm of a Wheatstone bridge. According to change in the
temperature (i.e. increase or decrease in the temperature), the resistance varies which
causes to unbalance the bridge. It results to flow of the current through the galvanometer
as shown in Figure (d). The galvanometer indicates the readings calibrated as a
temperature scale.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages of thermistor

✓ It has small size and is compact.

✓ It gives good response time from fraction of seconds to minutes.
✓ It can be installed in small areas like pipeline, inlet or outlet of tanks.
✓ There is no need of cold junction compensation.
✓ It has good stability.

Disadvantages of thermistor

✓ It has non-linear performance, i.e. temperature versus change in resistance

graph.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ✓ It is not suitable for higher temperatures.
✓ It requires bridge circuit arrangement for converting the change in
resistance to voltage.

Light sensors

1. Photodiodes

Photodiodes are semiconductor junction diodes which are connected into a circuit in
reverse bias, so giving a very high resistance (Figure (a)). With no incident light, the
reverse current is almost negligible and is termed the dark current. When light falls on the
junction, extra hole–electron pairs are produced and there is an increase in the reverse
current and the diode resistance drops (Figure (b)). The reverse current is very nearly
proportional to the intensity of the light. For example, the current in the absence of light
with a reverse bias of 3 V might be 25 μA and when illuminated by 25 000 lumens/m2
the current rises to 375 μA. The resistance of the device with no light is 3 / (25 * 10-6) =
120 kΩ and with light is 3 / (375 * 10-6) = 8 kΩ. A photodiode can thus be used as a
variable resistance device controlled by the light incident on it. Photodiode have a very
fast response to light.

2. Phototransistors

The phototransistors have a light-sensitive collector–base p–n junction. When there is no

incident light there is a very small collector-to-emitter current. When light is incident, a

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 base current is produced that is directly proportional to the light intensity. This leads to
the production of a collector current which is then a measure of the light intensity.
Phototransistors are often available as integrated packages with the phototransistor
connected in a Darlington arrangement with a convectional transistor (Figure). Because
this arrangement gives a higher current gain, the device gives a much greater collector
current for a given light intensity.

3. Photoresistor

A photoresistor has a resistance which depends on the intensity of the light falling on it,
decreasing linearly as the intensity increases. The cadmium sulphide photoresistor is most
responsive to light having wavelengths shorter than about 515 nm and the cadmium
selinide photoresistor for wavelengths less than about 700 nm.

An array of light sensors is often required in a small space in order to determine the
variations of light intensity across that space. An example of this is in the digital camera
to capture the image being photographed and convert it into a digital form. For this
purpose, a charge-coupled device (CCD) is often used. A CCD is a light-sensitive
arrangement of many small light-sensitive cells termed pixels. These cells are basically a
p-layer of silicon, separated by a depletion layer from an n-type silicon layer. When
exposed to light, a cell becomes electrically charged and this charge is then converted by
electronic circuitry into an 8-bit digital number. In taking a photograph the digital camera
electronic circuitry discharges the light sensitive cells, activates an electromechanical
shutter sensitive cells, activates an electromechanical shutter to expose the cells to the
image, then reads the 8-bit charge value for each cell and so captures the image. Since the
PN cells are colour blind and we need colour photographs, the light passes through a
colour filter matrix before striking the cells. This allows just green light to fall on some

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 cells, blue on others and red light on others. Then, by later taking account of the output
from neighbouring cells, a colour image can be created.

SELECTION OF SENSORS

The factors to be considered while selecting sensors are

✓ The nature of output required from the sensor.

✓ The nature of measurement required.
✓ The accuracy of the sensor.
✓ The cost of the sensor.
✓ The power requirement of the sensor.
✓ The speed response of the sensor.
✓ The linearity of the sensor.
✓ The Reliability and Maintainability of the sensor.
✓ Environmental conditions under which the measurement is to be made.
✓ Signal conditioning requirements.
✓ The nominal and range of values of the sensor.
✓ Suitable output signals from the measurement.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASSISGNMENT QUESTIONS:
1. Define sensors, transducers and explain the performance characteristics of sensors /

transducers

2. Explain the working of any two of displacement sensors

3. Explain the working of any two of position sensors

4. Explain the working of any two of velocity sensors

5. Explain the working of any two of fluid pressure sensors

Tutorial questions
1. Explain the process of selection of sensors and transducers

2. Explain the working of any two of Temperature sensors

3. Explain the working of any two of light sensors

4. Explain the working of any two of motion sensors

5. Explain the working of any two of fluid proximity sensors