Calculus (MATH ZC 233/PE ZC 233)

Session-2

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee

BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Limit of functions

Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , except

possibly at x0 itself. We say that f (x) approaches the limit L as
x approaches x0 and write

limx→x0 f (x) = L

if for every ϵ > 0, there exists a corresponding number δ > 0

such that for all x

0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ϵ

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Illustration

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Theorem
The following rules hold if

lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M

x→c x→c

where L and M are any real numbers.

(1)
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M.
x→c
The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their
limits.
(2)
lim [f (x) − g(x)] = L − M.
x→c
The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference
of their limits.
Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus
Limit of a function
Theorem (contd...)
(3)
lim f (x) · g(x) = L · M.
x→c
The limit of the product of two functions is the product of
their limits.
(4)
lim k f (x) = k L (any number k ).
x→c
The limit of a constant times a function is that constant
times the limit of the function.
(5)
f (x) L
lim = , M ̸= 0.
x→c g(x) M
The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their
limits, provided the limit of the denominator is not zero.
Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus
Limit of a function
Example

Evaluate
 
lim x 2 + 5
x→1

lim 4x 2
x→2
 
lim 4x 2 − 3
x→3

x 3 + 4x 2 − 3
lim
x→2 x2 + 5

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Theorem

Limits of polynomials can be found by substitution.

If
P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a0 ,
then

lim P(x) = P(c) = an c n + an−1 c n−1 + · · · + a0 .

x→c

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Theorem

Limit of rational functions can be found by substitution if the

limit of the denominator is not zero.

If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(c) ̸= 0 then

P(x) P(c)
lim = .
x→c Q(x) Q(c)

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example
Evaluate

x 3 + 4x 2 − 3
lim .
x→−1 x2 + 5

x2 + x − 2
lim .
x→1 x2 − x

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example
√ √
2+h− 2
Evaluate limh→0 h .

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
The Sandwich Theorem

Suppose that
g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x)
for all x in some open interval containing c, except possibly at
x = c itself.

Suppose also that

lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L.

x→c x→c

Then
lim f (x) = L.
x→c

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example

Given that
x2 x2
1− ≤ u(x) ≤ 1 + ,
4 2
for all x ̸= 0.

Find
lim u(x).
x→0

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example

Show that
lim (5x − 3) = 2.
x→1

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Solution using definition
Set x0 = 1, f (x) = 5x − 3 and L = 2.

For any given ϵ > 0, we have to find a suitable δ > 0 so that if

x ̸= 1 and x is within distance δ of x0 = 1, that is if
0 < |x − 1| < δ, then

f (x) is within distance ϵ of L = 2 that is |f (x) − 2| < ϵ.

|(5x − 3) − 2| = |5x − 5| < ϵ.

This gives
ϵ
5|x − 1| < ϵ ⇒ |x − 1| < .
5
Thus we can take δ = 5ϵ .
Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus
Limit of a function
Solution (contd...)

If
ϵ
0 < |x − 1| < δ = ,
5
then
ϵ
|(5x − 3) − 2| = |5x − 5| = 5|x − 1| < 5 = ϵ.
5
This proves that
lim (5x − 3) = 2.
x→1

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Definition
Let f (x) be defined on an interval (a, b) where a < b.

If f (x) approaches arbitrarily close to L as x approaches a from

a point within that interval, then we say that f has right-hand
limit L at a, and we write
lim f (x) = L.
x→a+

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Definition
Let f (x) be defined on an interval (c, a) when c < a.

If f (x) approaches arbitrarily close to M as x approaches a

from a point within that interval (c, a), then we say that f has
left-hand limit M at a, and we write
lim f (x) = M.
x→a−

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example
Let
x
f (x) = .
|x|
We have
lim f (x) = 1
x→0+
and
lim f (x) = −1.
x→0−

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Note

The significance of the signs in the notation for one-sided limits

is this:

x → a− means x approaches a from the negative side of a,

through values less than a.

x → a+ means x approaches a from the positive side of a,

through values greater than a.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Theorem

A function f (x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it has

left-hand and right-hand limits there, and these one-sided limits
are equal.

lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.

x→c x→c − x→c +

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example

Evaluate  
1
lim sin .
x→0 x

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Figure

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Solution

As x approaches zero, x1 grows without bound and the values

of sin x1 cycle repeatedly from −1 to 1.

The function sin x1 has neither a right-hand nor a left-hand

limit as x approaches zero.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
While calculating limit....

While calculating limit (left or right) of a function f at a point

c, we will first calculate denominator of f (c).

If denominator of f (c) is non-zero, we substitute value

directly.

If denominator of f (c) is zero, we try to simplify function f

so that finally we get non-zero denominator.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
While calculating limit....

While calculating limit (left or right) of a function f at a point

c, we will first calculate denominator of f (c).

If denominator of f (c) is non-zero, we substitute value

directly.

If denominator of f (c) is zero, we try to simplify function f

so that finally we get non-zero denominator.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example 1

Find
lim f (x),
x→0−

where 
0, if x < 0,
f (x) =
1, if x ≥ 0.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Solution

Let x be a negative real number.

Then f (x) = 0.

Hence,
lim f (x) = 0.
x→0−

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example 2

Find
lim f (x),
x→0+

where 
0, if x < 0,
f (x) =
1, if x ≥ 0.
Similarly, we find
lim f (x) = 1.
x→0+

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example 2

Find
lim f (x),
x→0+

where 
0, if x < 0,
f (x) =
1, if x ≥ 0.
Similarly, we find
lim f (x) = 1.
x→0+

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example 3: Eliminating Zero Denominators

Find
x −5
lim .
x→5 x 2 − 25

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Solution

We observe that the denominator is zero for x = 5 so we must

simplify by cancelling common factor.

x 2 − 25 = (x − 5)(x + 5).
x−5
For x ̸= 5, x 2 −25
= x + 5.

So, we have
x −5
lim = 10.
x→5 x 2 − 25

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example 4
Find
√
x −3
lim .
x→9 x −9

4x − x 2
lim √ .
x→4 2 − x

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example 5
Find the
lim f (x),
x→1
where
2x 2 − 3,

if x < 1,
f (x) =
3x 2 − 2, if x ≥ 1.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example 6

If
f (x)
lim = 1,
x→−2 x 2

then find
lim f (x).
x→−2

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Solution

We see that
f (x) 2
f (x) = x ,
x2
and
f (x)
lim , lim x 2 exists.
x→−2 x 2 x→−2

Hence,
  
f (x)
lim f (x) = lim lim x 2 = (1)(4) = 4.
x→−2 x→−2 x 2 x→−2

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Limits at Infinity

When c = ∞.

We say that limx→∞ f (x) = L if for every real ϵ > 0, there exists
a real number M such that

x > M ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ϵ.

Similarly, we define when c = −∞.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Limits at Infinity (contd...)

When L = ∞.

We say that limx→c f (x) = ∞ if for every real M (no matter how
large), we can find a real δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − c| < δ ⇒ f (x) > M.

Similarly, we define L = −∞.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Limits at Infinity (contd...)

While considering limit of f (x) as x going to infinity, we try

to get simplified term by dividing x or power of x.

1
We then try to use the fact that if x → ∞, then x → 0.

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example 7

Evaluate

1
lim .
x→0 x2

1
lim .
x→−3 (x + 3)2

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Solution

1
As x approaches zero from either side, the values of x2
are
positive and become arbitrarily large.

This implies that

1
lim = ∞.
x→0 x 2

Similarly, we get
1
lim = ∞.
x→−3 (x + 3)2

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function
Example 8

Find
2x + 3
lim .
x→∞ 5x + 7

Dr. M. Bhattacharjee BITS Pilani-K K Birla Goa Campus

Limit of a function