Debre Tabor University
Gafat Institute of Technology
Department of Information Technology
Assignment of Remote Sensing and GIS
Course Code ITec4081
GROUP - 3 SECTION - 2
GROUP MEMBERS:
No, Student Name ID-NO
1 BAMLAK TIZAZU 1034
2 BIFTU TINTI 0313
3 DESALEGN TIBEBU 1135
4 NEJAT ABDU 0730
5 YOHANNES AREGAY 1022
Submission to - Alemitu M. (MSc)
Submission Date - 08/08/2017
E.C DEBRE TABOR ETHIOPIA
TABLE CONTENT
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................II
1. Digital Image Processing.....................................................................................................................1
1.1. Image rectification & geometric correction..............................................................................2
1.2. Histograms, Contrasts & Stretching Image enhancement.........................................................3
1.3. Low and high pass filters..........................................................................................................4
2. Coordinate Systems.............................................................................................................................5
2.1. Importance of coordinate systems in GIS.................................................................................5
2.2. Geographic coordinate systems(GCS)......................................................................................6
2.3. Projected coordinate system(PCS)............................................................................................6
2.4. Characteristics of commonly used coordinate system:Universal Transverse Mercator (in
Ethiopia and globally).....................................................................................................................7
CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................................9
I
INTRODUCTION
This assignment provides a comprehensive overview of two fundamental pillars of geospatial analysis:
Digital Image Processing and Coordinate Systems. In the realm of Geographic Information Systems
(GIS), these concepts are inextricably linked, enabling the extraction of meaningful information from
remotely sensed imagery and ensuring the accurate spatial representation of geographic data.
The assignment begins by exploring essential digital image processing techniques, focusing on
methods for geometric correction to ensure spatial accuracy, enhancement techniques to improve
visual interpretability, and filtering methods to extract specific features. Following this, the
importance of coordinate systems in GIS is addressed, differentiating between Geographic Coordinate
Systems (GCS) and Projected Coordinate Systems (PCS).
Finally, a detailed explanation of the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system, with a
specific focus on its application in Ethiopia and globally, is provided, highlighting its critical role in
precise spatial analysis and mapping. This knowledge forms a crucial foundation for anyone working
with geospatial data, enabling informed decision-making and robust spatial analysi
II
1. Digital Image Processing:
What is Digital Image
Processing? Definition:
Digital Image Processing means processing digital image by means of a digital
computer. We can also say that it is a use of computer algorithms, in order to get
enhanced image either to extract some useful information.
Digital image processing is the use of algorithms and mathematical models to process
and analyze digital images. The goal of digital image processing is to enhance the
quality of images, extract meaningful information from images, and automate
image-based tasks.
Digital Image Processing (DIP) involves using computer algorithms to manipulate and
analyze digital images. It aims to improve image quality, extract useful information, or
enhance the visual representation.
The basic steps involved in digital image processing are:
i. Image acquisition: This involves capturing an image using a digital camera or scanner,
or importing an existing image into a computer.
ii. Image enhancement: This involves improving the visual quality of an image, such as
increasing contrast, reducing noise, and removing artifacts.
iii. Image restoration: This involves removing degradation from an image, such as
blurring, noise, and distortion.
iv. Image segmentation: This involves dividing an image into regions or segments, each
of which corresponds to a specific object or feature in the image.
v. Image representation and description: This involves representing an image in a way
that can be analyzed and manipulated by a computer, and describing the features of an
image in a compact and meaningful way.
vi. Image analysis: This involves using algorithms and mathematical models to extract
information from an image, such as recognizing objects, detecting patterns, and
quantifying features.
vii. Image synthesis and compression: This involves generating new images or
compressing existing images to reduce storage and transmission requirements.
viii. Digital image processing is widely used in a variety of applications, including medical
imaging, remote sensing, computer vision, and multimedia.
1
Figure 1.1: out put of digital image processing steps
1.1. Image rectification & geometric correction:
Definition:
Image rectification and geometric correction are processes that aim to remove geometric
distortions inherent in raw imagery. These distortions arise from various factors, including sensor
geometry, platform movement, and terrain variations.
Importance: Accurate geometric correction is crucial for:
Spatial accuracy: Ensuring that features in the image are located correctly in geographic
space.
Data integration: Enabling overlay and analysis with other georeferenced datasets (e.g.,
vector data, other raster data).
Change detection: Allowing for accurate comparison of imagery acquired at different times.
Measurement: Providing accurate spatial measurements of features within the image.
Methods: Common techniques for image rectification and geometric correction include:
Geometric Transformations: Applying mathematical transformations (e.g., affine,
polynomial) to warp the image based on Ground Control Points (GCPs). GCPs are locations
with known geographic coordinates that are identifiable in both the image and a reference
dataset.
Orthorectification: A more rigorous method that incorporates a Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) to correct for terrain-induced distortions. Orthorectification results in a true
orthographic image, where all features are displayed in their correct planimetric positions.
2
1.2. Histograms, Contrasts & Stretching Image enhancement:
Definition:
Image enhancement techniques to improve the visual appearance of an image by adjusting its
intensity values. Histograms provide a distribution of pixel intensities, contrast manipulation
changes the range of intensities, and stretching expands the intensity range to utilize the full
dynamic range.
The Need for Image Enhancement:
Image enhancement techniques aim to improve the visual quality of images, making them
more suitable for human perception or machine processing. Enhancement methods focus on
manipulating pixel intensities to improve contrast, reduce noise, and enhance features of
interest.
These techniques are crucial for preparing images for further analysis and interpretation.
This enhancement plays a vital role in feature extraction, particularly for applications like
medical diagnosis and remote sensing.
Image Histogram:
A histogram represents the frequency distribution of pixel values within an image. It
provides valuable information about the image's overall brightness, contrast, and tonal range.
Contrast:
Contrast refers to the difference in brightness between different regions of an image. Images
with high contrast exhibit a wide range of pixel values, while low-contrast images appear
washed out.
Image Stretching (Contrast Enhancement):
Image stretching techniques aim to improve the visual interpretability of an image by
expanding the range of pixel values. This can enhance subtle features and make them more
discernible.
Common Stretching Techniques:
Stretching techniques are a type of contrast enhancement that focuses on expanding the
intensity range of an image to utilize the full available dynamic range. This can be
particularly effective for images with limited contrast.
Linear Stretch: Linearly maps the original pixel values to a new range. This is a simple and
widely used technique.
Histogram Equalization: Redistributes pixel values to create a more uniform histogram. This
often results in a significant improvement in contrast, particularly for images with narrow
dynamic ranges.
Gaussian Stretch: Uses a Gaussian distribution to map pixel values. Useful for images where
the majority of pixel values are concentrated in a narrow range.
3
Standard Deviation Stretch: Stretches the image based on the standard deviation of the pixel
values. Highlights areas that deviate significantly from the mean.
Impact and Applications:
Histogram manipulation, contrast adjustment, and stretching are essential tools in digital
image processing.
They are widely used in various applications, including medical imaging, remote sensing,
and computer vision. These techniques can significantly improve the visual quality of images,
making them easier to interpret and analyze.
The effective application of these enhancement techniques requires a thorough
understanding of the image's characteristics and the desired outcome.
1.3. Low and high pass filters
Definition:
Filters applied in the frequency domain to either smooth (low-pass) or sharpen (high-pass)
images. Low-pass filters attenuate high-frequency components, blurring the image and
reducing noise. High-pass filters attenuate low-frequency components, enhancing edges and
fine details.
Filters (Spatial Filters): Filters are used to modify pixel values based on the values of their
neighboring pixels. They are applied by convolving a kernel (a small matrix of weights) over the
image.
Low-Pass Filters: Smoothing and Noise Reduction:
Low-pass filters attenuate high-frequency components while preserving low-frequency
components. This results in a smoothing effect, reducing noise and blurring fine details.
These filters are useful for removing unwanted noise, reducing artifacts, and creating a more
visually appealing image.
These filters emphasize low-frequency components (slow changes) in the image and
suppress high-frequency components (rapid changes). They are used for:
Noise reduction: Smoothing out random variations in pixel values.
Blurring: Reducing sharp edges and details.
Example: Mean filter, Median filter, Gaussian filter.
High-Pass Filters: Edge Enhancement and Sharpening:
High-pass filters attenuate low-frequency components while preserving high-frequency
components. This results in edge enhancement and sharpening, making fine details more
visible. These filters are useful for highlighting edges, detecting features, and improving the
overall sharpness of an image.
4
These filters emphasize high-frequency components in the image and suppress
low-frequency components. They are used for:
Edge detection: Highlighting boundaries between features.
Sharpening: Enhancing details and improving the overall visual clarity.
Example: Laplacian filter, Sobel filter, Prewitt filter.
Applications and Considerations:
Low- and high-pass filters are widely used in image processing applications. Low-pass filters
are often used for noise reduction and image smoothing, while high-pass filters are used for
edge detection and image sharpening.
The effective application of these filters requires careful consideration of the image
characteristics, the desired outcome, and the potential for artifacts. Over-smoothing can blur
important details, while over-sharpening can amplify noise and create unwanted artifacts.
2. Coordinate Systems:
What is Coordinate System?
Definition:
Coordinate systems are frameworks used to define the position of points on a surface, be it
the Earth's surface or a plane. They provide a structured way to describe spatial locations,
distances, and areas, making it possible to accurately represent and analyze geographic
information.
A coordinate system consists of a set of reference axes and units of measurement that allow
for the unambiguous identification of any location. In the context of Geographic Information
Systems (GIS), coordinate systems are absolutely essential for managing and analyzing
spatial data, as they ensure the correct registration and alignment of various datasets.
Furthermore, they dictate how spatial calculations are performed and how data from different
sources can be integrated.
Coordinate systems are essential for defining the location of features on the Earth's surface.
Choosing the appropriate coordinate system is critical for accurate spatial analysis and
mapping.
2.1. Importance of coordinate systems in GIS:
Essential for accurately representing, analyzing, and integrating spatial data. They ensure
correct location, distance, and area calculations, and enable overlaying data from different
sources.
5
Spatial Referencing: Coordinate systems provide a framework for uniquely identifying the
position of any location on Earth.
Spatial Analysis: Accurate spatial analysis (e.g., distance calculations, area measurements,
overlay operations) relies on consistent and accurate coordinate systems.
Data Integration: Different datasets can be integrated and analyzed together only if they are
referenced to the same coordinate system.
Mapping: Coordinate systems determine how the Earth's curved surface is projected onto a
flat map.
2.2. Geographic coordinate systems(GCS):
Definition:
A coordinate system that uses latitude and longitude to define locations on the Earth's
surface. It's based on a spherical or ellipsoidal model of the Earth.
A GCS uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on the Earth.
Components:
Latitude: Angular distance, measured in degrees, north or south of the Equator. (Range: -
90° to +90°)
Longitude: Angular distance, measured in degrees, east or west of the Prime Meridian
(Greenwich). (Range: -180° to +180°)
Datum: A mathematical model of the Earth's shape (geoid or ellipsoid) used as a reference
for calculating coordinates. Common datums include WGS 84 and NAD83.
Units: Degrees, Minutes, Seconds (DMS) or Decimal Degrees (DD)
Limitations: GCS are not suitable for distance or area calculations because degrees of
longitude vary in length depending on latitude.
2.3. Projected coordinate system(PCS)
Definition:
A coordinate system that transforms the Earth's curved surface onto a flat plane. This
involves mathematical projections, which inevitably introduce distortions.
A PCS transforms the three-dimensional Earth surface onto a two-dimensional plane. This
involves a map projection.
Components:
Geographic Coordinate System (underlying GCS): Defines the base coordinate system.
Map Projection: A mathematical transformation that converts geographic coordinates
(latitude and longitude) to planar coordinates (x and y).
6
Units: Linear units (e.g., meters, feet)
Types of Map Projections:
Conformal: Preserves shape and angles locally, but distorts area. (e.g., Mercator)
Equal Area: Preserves area, but distorts shape and angles. (e.g., Albers Equal Area Conic)
Equidistant: Preserves distances along one or more lines.
Compromise: Attempts to minimize all types of distortion. (e.g., Winkel Tripel)
Advantages: PCS are ideal for distance, area, and other spatial calculations because
they use linear units.
2.4. Characteristics of commonly used coordinate system:Universal
Transverse Mercator (in Ethiopia and globally)
What is UTM?
Definition:
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is a widely used projected coordinate system that
divides the Earth into 6-degree wide longitudinal zones. Each zone is projected using the
Transverse Mercator projection, which minimizes distortion within the zone.
The Transverse Mercator projection is a cylindrical projection that projects the Earth's surface onto a
cylinder tangent to the Earth along a meridian (line of longitude).
The UTM system provides a consistent and accurate way to represent spatial data over large
geographic areas. It is particularly useful for mapping and spatial analysis at regional and
local scales. UTM coordinates are expressed in meters, making it easy to measure distances
and areas.
Characteristics:
Zone System: The Earth is divided into 60 zones, numbered 1 to 60, running from west to
east.
Transverse Mercator Projection: A cylindrical projection where the cylinder is tangent to
the Earth along a meridian. Minimizes distortion within each zone.
Units: Meters
False Easting & Northing: Each zone has a central meridian with a false easting of 500,000
meters to avoid negative coordinates. The southern hemisphere zones also have a false
northing of 10,000,000 meters at the equator.
UTM Zones and Numbering:
The Earth is divided into 60 UTM zones, each spanning 6 degrees of longitude. The zones
are numbered from 1 to 60, starting at 180 degrees West longitude and progressing eastward.
7
Each zone has a central meridian, which is the line of longitude that runs down the center of
the zone.
Ethiopia spans multiple UTM zones, typically zones 36N and 37N. The appropriate UTM
zone for a specific location within Ethiopia depends on its longitude. It is crucial to use the
correct UTM zone for accurate spatial analysis.
The UTM system also includes a false easting of 500,000 meters assigned to the central
meridian to avoid negative coordinates. The combination of the zone number and the easting
and northing coordinates provides a unique location on the Earth's surface.
UTM in Ethiopia:
Ethiopia spans several UTM zones due to its longitudinal extent. These zones typically
include 36, 37, and 38. It is crucial to determine the correct UTM zone for a specific location
in Ethiopia to ensure accurate spatial analysis and mapping.
Local mapping agencies and government authorities typically define the official UTM zones
and parameters for use in Ethiopia. Using the incorrect UTM zone can lead to significant
errors in spatial measurements and analysis.
UTM in Globally and its Benefits:
UTM is a global system, allowing for consistent mapping and analysis across different
regions. It is commonly used for large-scale mapping and GIS applications that require high
accuracy.
The UTM system is widely used for mapping and spatial analysis around the world,
particularly for regional and local projects.
Its consistent and accurate representation of spatial data makes it ideal for a wide range of
applications, including land use planning, resource management, and environmental
monitoring.
The UTM system is also used for military and civilian navigation.
The benefits of the UTM system include its relatively low distortion within each zone, its
ease of use, and its compatibility with various GIS software packages.
The widespread adoption of the UTM system has facilitated the sharing and integration of
spatial data across different organizations and countries.
8
CONCLUSION
The effective integration of Digital Image Processing and a thorough understanding of
Coordinate Systems are paramount for successful GIS applications.
This assignment has highlighted the importance of geometric correction in ensuring
accurate spatial analysis, the role of image enhancement techniques in visual
interpretation, and the application of filtering methods for feature extraction.
Moreover, it emphasized the crucial role of coordinate systems in providing a spatial
reference framework for geographic data. The discussion of Geographic and Projected
Coordinate Systems, culminating in a detailed exploration of the Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) system, underscores the need for careful consideration when working
with spatial data.
The ability to correctly apply these concepts is essential for generating reliable results,
making informed decisions, and communicating spatial information effectively. As the
volume and complexity of geospatial data continue to grow, a solid understanding of
these fundamental principles will become increasingly important for professionals across
a wide range of disciplines. Continued learning and practical application are vital to
mastering these techniques and unlocking the full potential of GIS.
9
REFERENCE
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/digital-image-processing-basics/
Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., & Rhind, D. W. (2015).
Geographic Information Systems and Science (4th ed.). Wiley.(A comprehensive
GIS textbook)
Umbaugh, S. E. (2017). Digital Image Processing and Analysis: Human and Computer
Vision with CVIPtools (2nd ed.). CRC Press.
Pratt, W. K. (2007). Digital Image Processing: PIKS Inside (4th ed.). Wiley-Interscience.
Russ, J. C. (2016). The Image Processing Handbook (7th ed.). CRC Press.
Smith, S. W. (2003). The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing.
Elsevier/Newnes.
USGS website: Search for information on UTM.
ESRI documentation: Esri (ArcGIS) has extensive documentation on coordinate systems,
including UTM.
Ethiopian Mapping Agency/Authority
Iliffe, J. C., & Lott, R. (2008). Datums and Map Projections for GIS. CRC Press.
Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., & Rhind, D. W. (2015). Geographic
Information Science & Systems. John Wiley & Sons. (Chapter on Coordinate Systems and
Map Projections)
Lillesand, T. M., Kiefer, R. W., & Chipman, J. W. (2015). Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation. John Wiley & Sons. (Chapter on Geometric Corrections)
10
