R. B.

INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND STUDIES

DEPARTMENT: MCA
Semester: 2 Academic Year: 2025-26

Subject Name: Computer Network

Subject Code: MC02094031

UNIT-1

What is a Computer Network?

o Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical
fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.
o The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.

Components of Computer Network:

Key Components of a Computer Network

In simple terms, a computer network is made up of two main parts: devices (called nodes) and
connections (called links). The links connect the devices to each other. The rules for how these
connections send information are called communication protocols. The starting and ending points of
these communications are often called ports.
1. Network Devices
Basic hardware interconnecting network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs,
Switches, and Routers, are used in all networks.
 NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known as a network adapter
or NIC (network interface card), is computer hardware that enables computers to communicate via a
network. It offers physical access to networking media and, in many cases, MAC addresses serve as a
low-level addressing scheme. Each network interface card has a distinct identifier. This is stored on a
chip that is attached to the card.
 Repeater: A repeater is an electrical device that receives a signal, cleans it of unwanted noise,
regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level or to the opposite side of an obstruction,
allowing the signal to travel greater distances without degradation. In the majority of twisted pair
Ethernet networks, Repeaters are necessary for cable lengths longer than 100 meters in some
systems. Repeaters are based on physics.
 Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pairs or fiber optic Ethernet devices to give
the illusion of a formation of a single network segment. The device can be visualized as a multiport
repeater. A network hub is a relatively simple broadcast device. Any packet entering any port is
regenerated and broadcast out on all other ports, and hubs do not control any of the traffic that
passes through them. Packet collisions occur as a result of every packet being sent out through all
other ports, substantially impeding the smooth flow of communication.
 Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not to the one that received the transmission.
Bridges, on the other hand, learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports rather
than copying messages to all ports as hubs do. Once a port and an address are associated, the bridge
will only transport traffic from that address to that port.
 Switches: A switch differs from a hub in that it only forwards frames to the ports that are
participating in the communication, rather than all of the ports that are connected. The collision
domain is broken by a switch, yet the switch depicts itself as a broadcast domain. Frame-forwarding
decisions are made by switches based on MAC addresses.
 Routers: Routers are networking devices that use headers and forwarding tables to find the
optimal way to forward data packets between networks. A router is a computer networking device
that links two or more computer networks and selectively exchanges data packets between them. A
router can use address information in each data packet to determine if the source and destination
are on the same network or if the data packet has to be transported between networks. When
numerous routers are deployed in a wide collection of interconnected networks, the routers share
target system addresses so that each router can develop a table displaying the preferred pathways
between any two systems on the associated networks.
 Gateways: To provide system compatibility, a gateway may contain devices such as protocol
translators, impedance-matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators. It also
necessitates the development of administrative procedures that are acceptable to both networks. By
completing the necessary protocol conversions, a protocol translation/mapping gateway joins
networks that use distinct network protocol technologies.
Criteria of a Good Network
 Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of the
network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of medium &
Hardware.
 Reliability: In addition to accuracy is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from failure, and the network’s robustness in catastrophe.
 Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data loss.
Goals of Computer Networking
 Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of resource and load sharing
 Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives, and other peripherals
 Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place
 Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)
 Communication and mail (people living apart can work together)
 Information Access (remote information access, access to the internet, e-mail, video conferencing,
and online shopping)
 Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)
 Social Networking
Types of Computer Networks
Division Based on Geographical Area Covered

Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This may include
Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.
PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless
printers and TV remotes.

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8 devices
connected together in a master-slave fashion.

Local Area Network

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative system is
generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Usually,LAN covers an organization’ offices, schools,
colleges or universities. Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as much
as 16 million.

LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The resources such as printers,
file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.

LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains local servers
serving file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates on private IP addresses and
does not involve heavy routing. LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.

LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed LAN technology
and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.

LAN can be wired, wireless, or in both forms at once.

Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV network. It
can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand their Local
Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its offices in a city.

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between Local Area
Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.
 Wide Area Network
As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span across
provinces and even a whole country. Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network.
These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with very high speed
backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.

WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, and
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by multiple administration.

Internetwork
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest network in
existence on this planet. The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have connection to LANs and
Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day,
Internet is widely implemented using IPv4. Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually
migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.

Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information worldwide. It uses
WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge level, internet works on Client-Server
model.

Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various continents, fibers are
laid under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.

Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages and is accessible by
client software known as Web Browsers. When a user requests a page using some web browser located
on some Web Server anywhere in the world, the Web Server responds with the proper HTML page. The
communication delay is very low.

Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life. Some of them are:

 Web sites
 E-mail
 Instant Messaging
 Blogging
 Social Media
 Marketing
 Networking
 Resource Sharing
 Audio and Video Streaming

Based on Types of Communication

 Point To Point networks: Point-to-Point networking is a type of data networking that
establishes a direct link between two networking nodes.
A direct link between two devices, such as a computer and a printer, is known as a point-to-point
connection.
 Multipoint: is the one in which more than two specific devices share links. In the multipoint
environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices
can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection.
 Broadcast networks: In broadcast networks, a signal method in which numerous parties can
hear a single sender. Radio stations are an excellent illustration of the “Broadcast Network” in
everyday life. The radio station is a sender of data/signal in this scenario, and data is only intended to
travel in one direction. Away from the radio transmission tower, to be precise.

Based on the Type of Architecture

 P2P Networks: Computers with similar capabilities and configurations are referred to as peers.
The “peers” in a peer-to-peer network are computer systems that are connected to each other over
the Internet. Without the use of a central server, files can be shared directly between systems on the
network.
 Client-Server Networks: Each computer or process on the network is either a client or a server
in a client-server architecture (client/server). The client asks for services from the server, which the
server provides. Servers are high-performance computers or processes that manage disc drives (file
servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network servers)
 Hybrid Networks: The hybrid model uses a combination of client-server and peer-to-peer
architecture. Eg: Torrent.

Network Software
Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design, implementation, and
operation and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware based with
software embedded. With the advent of Software – Defined Networking (SDN), software is separated
from the hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the computer
network.

Functions of Network Software

 Helps to set up and install computer networks
 Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
 Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
 Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
 Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches, unauthorized
access and attacks on a network
 Enables network virtualizations
SDN Framework
The Software Defined Networking framework has three layers as depicted in the following
diagram −

 Application Layer: It contains the typical network applications like intrusion detection, firewall,
and load balancing.
 Control Layer: It consists of the SDN controller which acts as the brain of the network. It also
allows hardware abstraction to the applications written on top of it.
 Infrastructure Layer: This consists of physical switches which form the data plane and carries
out the actual movement of data packets.
The layers communicate via a set of interfaces called the north-bound APIs(between the application and
control layer) and southbound APIs(between the control and infrastructure layer).

What is a Data Plane?

All the activities involving and resulting from data packets sent by the end-user belong to this plane.
Data Plane includes:
 Forwarding of packets.
 Segmentation and reassembly of data.
 Replication of packets for multicasting.

What is a Control Plane?

All activities necessary to perform data plane activities but do not involve end-user data packets belong
to this plane. In other words, this is the brain of the network. The activities of the control plane include:
 Making routing tables.
 Setting packet handling policies.

Why Software Defined Networking is Important?

 Better Network Connectivity: SDN provides very better network connectivity for sales,
services, and internal communications. SDN also helps in faster data sharing.
 Better Deployment of Applications: Deployment of new applications, services, and many
business models can be speed up using Software Defined Networking.
 Better Security: Software-defined network provides better visibility throughout the network.
Operators can create separate zones for devices that require different levels of security. SDN
networks give more freedom to operators.
 Better Control With High Speed: Software-defined networking provides better speed than
other networking types by applying an open standard software-based controller.

Difference Between SDN and Traditional Networking

Software Defined Networking Traditional Networking

Software Defined Network is a virtual networking A traditional network is the old conventional
approach. networking approach.

Software Defined Network is centralized control. Traditional Network is distributed control.

This network is programmable. This network is nonprogrammable.

Software Defined Network is the open interface. A traditional network is a closed interface.

In Software Defined Network data plane and In a traditional network data plane and control
control, the plane is decoupled by software. plane are mounted on the same plane.

Protocol and Protocol Hierarchies

What is Protocol?
A protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data communication. Rules are defined
for every step and process at the time of communication among two or more computers. Networks are
needed to follow these protocols to transmit the data successfully. All protocols might be implemented
using hardware, software, or a combination of both of them. There are three aspects of protocols given
below:
 Syntax – It is used to explain the data format that is needed to be sent or received.
 Semantics – It is used to explain the exact meaning of each of the sections of bits that are usually
transferred.
 Timings – This is used to explain the exact time at which data is generally transferred along with
the speed at which it is transferred.
Protocol Hierarchies
Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of hardware and software.
For network design, various networks are organized and arranged as a stack of layers of hardware and
software, one on top of another. The number, name, content, and function of each layer might vary and
can be different from one network to another. The main purpose of each layer is to provide services to
higher layers that are present. Every layer has some particular task or function. The networks are
organized and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce and minimize the complexity of the
design of network software.
 Protocol Hierarchy

Example of Protocol Hierarchy

Below is diagram representing a five-layer network. The diagram shows communication between Host 1
and Host 2. The data stream is passed through a number of layers from one host to other. Virtual
communication is represented using dotted lines between peer layers. Physical communication is
represented using solid arrows between adjacent layers. Through physical medium, actual
communication occurs. The layers at same level are commonly known as peers. The peer basically has a
set of communication protocols. An interface is present between each of layers that are used to explain
services provided by lower layer to higher layer.
Advantages of Protocol Hierarchy
 The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks
 It increases network lifetime.
 It also uses energy efficiently.
 It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

Disadvantages of Protocol Hierarchy

 Protocol Hierarchy require a deep understanding of each layers of OSI model.
 Implementation of protocol hierarchy is very costly.
 Every layer in protocol hierarchy introduce over heading in terms of memory, bandwidth and
processing.
 Protocol Hierarchy is not scalable for complex networks.

Design Issues for the Layers of Computer Networks

Reliability
Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data transfer. So, an
important design issue is to make sure that the information transferred is not distorted.

Scalability
Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to congestion. Also,
when new technologies are applied to the added components, it may lead to incompatibility issues.
Hence, the design should be done so that the networks are scalable and can accommodate such
additions and alterations.

Addressing
At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large numbers of computers.
So, a naming or addressing system should exist so that each layer can identify the sender and receivers
of each message.

Error Control
Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are communicated. So, the
layers need to agree upon common error detection and error correction methods so as to protect data
packets while they are transferred.

Flow Control
If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which data is received by
the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the receiver. So, a proper flow control mechanism needs
to be implemented.

Resource Allocation
Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the end users. The main design
issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to processes. The allocation/deallocation should occur so
that minimal interference among the hosts occurs and there is optimal usage of the resources.

Statistical Multiplexing
It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being transferred from the
source to the destination. So, the data channel needs to be multiplexed, so as to allocate a fraction of
the bandwidth or time to each host.

Routing
There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing involves choosing an optimal
path among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time. There are several routing algorithms that are
used in network systems.

Security
A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like eavesdropping and
surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized
access to data through authentication and cryptography.

Difference Between Connection-oriented and Connectionless

Services
Connection-oriented services, like TCP, ensure reliable data transfer, while connection-less services, like
UDP, offer faster, less secure communication.
Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented service is related to the Connection-less service is related to the postal

telephone system. system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred by long and Connection-less Service is preferred by bursty

steady communication. communication.

Connection-oriented Service is necessary. Connection-less Service is not compulsory.

Connection-oriented Service is feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.

In connection-oriented Service, Congestion is not In connection-less Service, Congestion is

possible. possible.

Connection-oriented Service gives the guarantee of Connection-less Service does not give a
reliability. guarantee of reliability.

Includes error detection, correction, and

No error handling; errors are not corrected.
retransmission.
 Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

In connection-oriented Service, Packets follow the In connection-less Service, Packets do not

same route. follow the same route.

Ensures data is delivered in the correct order. Data may arrive out of order or not at all.

Less scalable due to the need for maintaining Highly scalable for large networks with many
connections. users.

Higher overhead due to connection setup and

Lower overhead as no connection is required.
maintenance.

Connection-oriented services require a bandwidth of Connection-less Service requires a bandwidth

a high range. of low range.

Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Connection-less Service does not require

Connection-oriented requires authentication.
authentication.

Service Primitives in Computer Networks

A service is a set of primitives or we call it as operations where a user can invoke to access the service.

Types of Service Primitives

Generally service primitives are divided into four classes −

 Request − A service node wants some service from its adjacent layer to pass the parameters to mention
the requested service.
 Indication − Another Service node or receiver node gets an indication that a procedure has been invoked
by the adjacent service node.
 Response − A receiver service node acknowledges or completes some procedure.
 Confirm − service nodes acknowledge the permission to get connected or not.

Primitive Explanation

Information given by an node of an event

Indication
Example − The receiver just received a connection request.

Service is requested by the node.

Request
Example − Requesting for a connection to a remote computer.

Node is responding to an event.

Response
Example − the receiver sending the permission to connect.

A node acknowledges the response to its request.

Confirm
Example − receiver acknowledge after receiving the data from sender
 Parameters of Service Primitives
The parameters of primitives are: CONNECT, DATA, DISCONNECT which are used to establish a
connection, to send data, and Disconnect a connection.

Generally services can be either confirmed or unconfirmed.

 Confirmed service − the connection oriented services are called confirmed services.
 Unconfirmed service − the connectionless services are called unconfirmed services.

Connection Oriented Service

The service primitives for the connection oriented services are as follows −

CONNECT. request: Request a connection to be established.

CONNECT. indication: Signal the called party (phone ringing).

CONNECT. response: Accept / reject calls.

CONNECT. confirm: Tell the caller whether the call was accepted.

DATA. request: Request that data be sent.

DATA. indication: Signal the arrival of data.

DISCONNECT. request: Request that a connection be released.

DISCONNECT. indication: Signal the peer about the request.

Example: Modern Telephone and Internet Services

Connection less Service

The service primitives for the connection less services are as follows −

 SENDING. data − Sender just sending data (traditional postal service).

 REPORT. confirm − availability of reports the data reached at destination (registered post)

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to
the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984,
and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
 o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end
user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to
the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and
the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest
layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly
responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
o It contains two sub-layers:

o Logical Link Control Layer

o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver
that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and
the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added
to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed
does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
 o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before
it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the
acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over
the link at a given time.

3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples
of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides

a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into
packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into
smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple
routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission control
protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason,
the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header
that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of
the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a
sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence
numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet,
and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service
 makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-
end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that
message reach at the destination without any error.

5) Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission
will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.

6) Presentation Layer
 o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format
to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the
presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It
converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the
sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the
network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as
text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access
the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.
TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides
specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI
reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the
same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer

o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they
arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite .

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP
addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer
protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the
data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link
layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is
greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that
they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or
intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original
message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is
known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through
various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.

o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its
physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address both
to its cache memory and to the datagram header
ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to
route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or
network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is
undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding
or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The
responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
 o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because
the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it
is passed to.
o Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model
TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and presentation layer OSI uses different session and presentation
in the application layer itself. layers.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a horizontal

OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide In the OSI model, the transport layer provides
assurance delivery of packets. assurance delivery of packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols are better

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP
covered and are easy to replace with the
model.
technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only provides Connectionless and connection-oriented

connectionless (IP) services. The transport layer services are provided by the network layer in
(TCP) provides connections. the OSI model.

Evolution of Networks
A network additionally enables associated PCs to share documents and information and also equipment
assets, i.e., scanners, plotters, projectors, and storage devices, making it simpler to gather and
administer data, and enabling clients to work together. The system was simply not advanced in one day;
rather took a long time to be an all the more incredible, productive, and dependable system.
Advancement of systems administration began path back in 1969’s with the improvement of the first
system called ARPANET, which prompted the improvement of the web. At that point, constant everyday
upgradation occurs in the system innovation. The system has gone through a few phases which are
described below:

ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network)

ARPANET was the network that became the basis for the Internet. It was the first network that came
into existence in 1969, which was designed and named by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) and the US Department of Defence (DoD). It was where a bunch of PCs was associated at various
colleges and US DoD for sharing information and messages and playing long separation diversions and
associating with individuals to share their perspectives.

NSFNET (National Science Federation Network)

In the mid-’80s another federal agency, NSFNET (National Science Federation Network) created a new
network that was more capable than ARPANET and became the first backbone infrastructure for the
commercial public Internet. Its main aim was to use networks only for academic research and not for
any kind of private business activity. Later, many privately owned businesses with their very own private
systems joined with ARPANET and NSFNET to make a more capable and wide network, the Internet.
ARPANET + NSFNET + PRIVATE NETWORKS = INTERNET
Internet
The Internet, which is a network of networks, came into existence. The internet has evolved from
ARPANET. The internet is a globally connected network system that utilizes TCP/IP to transmit
information. It allows computers of different types to exchange information and is known as the
internet. The Internet is the financial communications method on the planet, in which the following
services are instantly available:
 Email
 Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services
 Online movies and gaming
 Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Instant messaging
 Internet forums
 Social networking
 Online shopping
 Financial services

Interspace
An Interspaces is a software that allows multiple users in a client-server environment to communicate
with each other to send and receive data of various types such as data files, video, audio, and textual
data. Interspaced gives the most exceptional type forms of communication available on the Internet
today.