Oscillations

Oscillations refer to a repetitive back-and-forth motion of an object about its

equilibrium position. It involves a variation with time (t) of the displacement (x) of
an object from the equilibrium position (x = 0).

Free Oscillations
Free oscillations occur when the cause or source of oscillation has been
removed. They take place under the influence of the system's own restoring
force, following its natural frequency. In other words, free oscillations happen
when motion is not subjected to any external periodic driving force.

Examples of Free Oscillations

 A swing (simple pendulum)

 Mass-spring system

 Torsional pendulum

 Plucked string of a musical instrument

Forced Oscillations
These are vibrations resulting from the action of an external source. The
oscillations are compelled or forced by the vibrations of the external source.
Examples include:

 Vibrations felt on one’s body due to a moving bus

 Vibrations of a bridge as people walk on it

 These oscillations occur at the amplitude and frequency of the applied

external force.
Terms

 Period (T): Time taken for one complete oscillation.

 Frequency (f): Number of oscillations per unit time. Given by: f = 1/T

 Angular Frequency (ω): Defined as ω = 2πf. It represents the rate of

change of angular displacement (measured in radians per second).

 Amplitude (A): Maximum displacement from the mean (equilibrium)

position. At maximum displacement, velocity is zero.

 Crest: The highest point of a wave where displacement is maximum in the

positive direction.

 Trough: The lowest point of a wave where displacement is maximum in

the negative direction.
Wavelength (λ): The distance between two successive crests or troughs.

 Phase Difference (ϕ): A measure of how much one wave is out of step
with another or how much a particle is out of phase with another. It is
expressed as:

1) Time difference (Δt): The time lag between corresponding points on

two waveforms.

2) Fraction of a cycle or Path difference (Δx/λ or Δx): The difference in

distance traveled by two waves.

3) Angle (ϕ): The relative shift between waveforms, measured in degrees

or radians.

 When crests or troughs align, ϕ = 0 (in phase).

When a crest coincides with a trough, ϕ = π radians or 180°, indicating a
half-cycle phase difference and are said to be completely out of phase.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
SHM is an oscillatory motion in which the acceleration (or restoring force) is
always directly proportional to the displacement and acts in the opposite
direction:

a = -ω²x where:

 a is the acceleration which always acts in the direction opposite to

displacement, trying to bring the object back to its equilibrium.

 x is displacement from equilibrium, the position away from the mean

(central) position.

 ω is angular frequency (in rad/s), representing how fast the oscillations

occur (rate of change of angular displacemet). It's related to the period of
the motion by the formula: ω = 2π/T = 2πf

The displacement of an oscillating particle can be described using the sine wave
equation:

x = A sin(ωt ± ϕ)

If the oscillation begins at the origin (i.e., ϕ = 0), the equation becomes:

x = A sin(ωt)

To find velocity, differentiate displacement with respect to time:

v = dx/dt
v = Aω cos(ωt)

To express velocity in terms of displacement, use the identity:

sin²(ωt) + cos²(ωt) = 1

This gives:

cos(ωt) = √(1 - sin²(ωt))

Since x = A sin(ωt), it follows that:
sin(ωt) = x / A

Substitute this into the identity:

v = Aω √(1 - (x² / A²))

v = ωA √(1 - x² / A²)
v = ωA √((A² - x²) / A²)
v = ω √(A² - x²)

The velocity is maximum when x = 0 (i.e., the particle is at the equilibrium

position):

v_max = ωA

This also matches the expression v = Aω cos(ωt) when cos(ωt) = 1.

Mass-Spring System on a Frictionless Surface
Consider a particle of mass m attached to a spring of spring constant k on a
frictionless horizontal surface, subjected to a restoring force F such that:

F = -kx (Hooke's law) Where:

 F is the restoring force, which acts in the opposite direction of

displacement.

 x is the displacement from equilibrium.

 k is the spring constant (stiffness). A larger k implies a stiffer (harder)

spring and faster oscillations.

From Newton’s Second Law: F = ma

Combining the two: ma = -kx then
a = -(k/m)x since a = -ω²x
It implies that ω² = k/m
ω = √(k/m)

Thus the period T = 2π/ω

T = 2π/√(k/m)
T = 2π√(m/k)

The Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a small bob of mass (m) suspended by a light,
inextensible string of length L.
The point mass which is a small metallic sphere is called bob of the pendulum.
When the bob is displaced to one side of its mean position and released, the
pendulum begins to oscillate in a vertical plane under the action of gravity. The
motion of the pendulum is periodic and oscillatory.
(a) Weight mg of the bob acts vertically downward and
(b) The tension T in the string upward along the string.

mg sinθ and mg cosθ are the rectangular components of weight along the string
and perpendicular to it.

 mg cosθ is along the radius L and is called radial component.

 mg sinθ is along the tangent to arc and is called tangential component.

As there is no motion along the string, T and mg cosθ remain equal, cancel each
other. The only force on the pendulum is mg sinθ which brings it back and so is
the restoring force.

Thus F = -mg sinθ

Where the negative sign shows that the restoring force F is opposite to the
direction of increasing θ.
It should be noted that restoring force is proportional to sinθ, and for small
angles, sinθ ≈ θ

So: F = -mgθ, but F = -kx

Then: -kx = -mgθ
Displacement of the bob along the arc is given by: x = Lθ (using s = rθ)
kx = x(mg)/L
k = (mg)/L

The period (T) of the object attached to a horizontal mass-spring system is:
T = 2π√(m/k)
But m/k = L/g,
Thus: T = 2π√(L/g)

This shows that the time period of a simple pendulum is independent of mass
and amplitude

Energy in SHM
In SHM, total mechanical energy remains constant and is the sum of potential
and kinetic energy.

1. Potential Energy, P.E = (1/2)kx²

Maximum at extreme positions (where displacement is maximum).
Zero at mean position (equilibrium).

2. Kinetic Energy, K.E = (1/2)mv²

K.E = (1/2)m(ω²)(A² - x²)
Maximum at mean position
Zero at extreme positions

3. Total Mechanical Energy, E = K.E + P.E = (1/2)kA²

Constant throughout the motion
Proportional to the square of the amplitude

Damped Oscillations
Ideal oscillations maintain their amplitude indefinitely, while practical oscillations
lose energy due to resistive forces like friction, viscous drag, and air resistance
Damping is the loss of energy from an oscillating system to the environment due
to dissipative forces.

Types of Damping
1. Light Damping (Underdamping) A gradual decrease in amplitude, with several
oscillations completed before the system returns to equilibrium.
2. Heavy Damping (Overdamping): The system returns to equilibrium very slowly
without oscillation, due to strong resistive forces opposing the velocity.
3. Critical Damping: An optimal level of damping that allows the system to return
to equilibrium quickly (abruptly) without oscillations.

Applications
Analogue balances and electrical meters: Critical damping is used to prevent
needle oscillations and ensure accurate readings.
Dampers (shock absorbers): Used in car suspension to prevent damage and
vibrations, ensuring smooth control.

Forced Oscillations
As mentioned these when a system is continuously driven an external vperiodic
force (energy input). The frequency of forced oscillations matches the driving
frequency, not the system's natural frequency.

Resonance.
A phenomenon where the amplitude of system undergoing forced oscillations
increases to a maximum when the driving frequency of the periodic driving force
equals the system's natural frequency.

Effects of Damping
Damping affects the frequency response of a system undergoing forced
oscillations:

1. Resonant frequency decreases: Damping reduces the frequency at which

resonance occurs.

2. Sharpness of resonant peak decreases: Damping broadens the resonance

curve, reducing the peak's sharpness.

3. Amplitude of forced oscillation decreases: Damping reduces the

maximum amplitude of oscillations.

Resonance occurs only when a system is driven exactly at its natural

frequency—too high or too low, and it won’t happen. At resonance, vibration
amplitude peaks, potentially causing collapse, as seen with the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge in 1940. Throughout history, soldiers have marched out of step on bridges
to avoid triggering this effect. Resonance can also shatter a crystal glass when a
tenor or soprano strikes a note that is both loud (high amplitude) and high
(matching frequency).

Resonance is also useful:

1. Instruments: Flutes, trumpets, trombones, and saxophones use it to

amplify their tones.

2. Timekeeping & Oscillators: Pendulums and LC circuits rely on resonance

to maintain constant frequency.

3. Filters: Electronic circuits use resonance to allow or block specific

frequencies.

4. Microwave Ovens: Water molecules absorb microwaves at their resonant

frequency, converting energy into heat.