Hypothesis Formulation

4.8 SAMPLING and Sampling

Researchers usually can not make direct observation of every individual in the
population under study. Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals- a
sample – and use those observations to make inferences about the entire
population.

Ideally, the sample corresponds to the larger population on the characteristics of

(s) of interest. In that case, the researcher’s conclusions from the samples are
properly applicable to the entire population.

Sampling is the process of selection of units (e.g. people, organisation) from a

population of interest so that by studying the sample may fairly generate results
back to the population from which they were chosen.

4.8.1 Definition of Sampling

According to Young (1992) “A statistical sample is miniature picture of cross
selection of the entire group or aggregate from which the sample is taken”.

According to Goode and Hatt(1981) “A sample, as the name implies, is a smaller

representative of a large whole”.

According to Blalock (1960) “It is a small piece of the population obtained by a

probability process that mirrors with known precision, the various patterns and
sub-classes of population”.

4.8.2 Sampling Terminology

Before we explain the purpose, uses and method of sampling, it will be better to
describe those fundamental terms which are concerned to sampling concepts
and principles.

Population: Population is a well defined set up of all elements pertaining to a

given characteristic. It refers to the whole that include all observations or
measurements of a given characteristic. Population is also called universe or
population. It may be defined as any identifiable and well specified group of
individual for example. All primary teachers, nonumber of all college teachers
and all university students are the example of population. A population may be
finite or infinite.
A finite population is one where all the members can be easily counted. An
infinite population is one whose size is unlimited, and can not count easily.
Population of college teachers is an example of finite population and production
of wheat, and fishes in river are the example of infinite population. A measure
based upon the entire population is called a parameter.
Sample: A sample is any number of persons selected to represent the population
according to some rule of plan. Thus, a sample is a smaller representation of the
population. A measure based upon a sample is known as a statistic.
Sample size: No. of selected individual for example, no. of students, families
from whom you obtain the require information is called the sample size and
usually denoted by the letter (n).
53
Introduction to Research Sampling design or strategy: The way researcher selects the sample or students
Methods in Psychology
or families etc. is called the sampling design and strategy. It refers to the techniques
or procedures the researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling units from
which inferences about the population are drawn.

Sampling unit: Each individual or case that becomes the basis for selecting a
sample is called sampling unit or sampling elements.

Sampling frame: The list of people from which the sample is taken. It should be
comprehensive, complete and up-to-date. Examples of sampling frame: Electoral
Register; Postcode Address File; telephone book.
Self Assessment Questions (Fill in the blanks)
1) Any identifiable and well specified group of individual is known as
.............................................
2) List of all the units of the population is called ............................
3) Purposes of sampling is to derive the desired information about the
population at the minimum ..................... and maximum ....................
4) The way the researcher selects the sample is known as .....................
5) ........................... is the miniature picture of entire group.
Answers: (1) population, (2) sampling frame, (3) cost, reliability,
(4) sampling design, (5) sample.

4.8.3 Purpose of Sampling

The objective of sampling is to derive the desired information about the population
at the minimum cost or with the maximum reliability. Further, the aims in selecting
a sample are to achieve maximum precision in estimates within a given sample
size and to avoid bias in the selection of sample. Bias in the selection of sample
can take place if: (a) the researcher selects the sample by non random method
and influenced by human choice. (b) The researcher does not cover the sampling
population accurately and completely (c) A section of a sample population is
impossible to find or refuses to cooperate.

4.9 SAMPLING METHODS

Blalock (1960) indicated that most sampling methods could be classified into
two categories:
i) Non probability sampling methods
ii) Probability sampling methods

4.9.1 Non Probability Sampling Methods

Non probability sampling is one is which there is no way of assessing the
probability of the element or group of elements, of population being included in
the sample. In other words, non-probability sampling methods are those that
provide no basis for estimating how closely the characteristics of sample
approximate the parameters of population from which the sample had been
obtained. This is because non probability sample do not use the techniques of
random sampling. Important techniques of non probability sampling methods
54
are:
i) Haphazard, Accidental, or Convenience Sampling Hypothesis Formulation
and Sampling
Haphazard sampling can produce ineffective, highly unrepresentative samples
and is not recommended. When a researcher haphazardly selects cases that are
convenient, he or she can easily get a sample that seriously misrepresents the
population. Such samples are cheap and quick; however, the systematic errors
that easily occur make them worse than no sample at all. The person-on-the-
street interview conducted by television programs is an example of a haphazard
sample. Likewise, television interviewers often select people who look “normal”
to them and avoid people who are unattractive, poor, very old, or inarticulate.
Such haphazard samples may have entertainment value, but they can give a
distorted view and seriously misrepresent the population.

For example, an investigator may take student of class X into research plan
because the class teacher of the class happens to be his / her friend. This illustrates
accidental or convenience sampling.

ii) Quota Sampling

Quota Sampling is an improvement over haphazard sampling. In quota sampling,
a researcher first identifies relevant categories of people (e.g., male and female;
or under age 30, ages 30 to 60, over age 60, etc.), then decides how many to get
in each category. Thus, the number of people in various categories of the sample
is fixed. For example, a researcher decides to select 5 males and 5 females under
age 30, 10 males and 10 females aged 30 to 60, and 5 males and 5 females over
age 60 for a 40-person sample. It is difficult to represent all population
characteristics accurately.

Quota sampling ensures that some differences are in the sample. In haphazard
sampling, all those interviewed might be of the same age, sex, or background.
But, once the quota sampler fixes the categories and number of cases in each
category, he or she uses haphazard or convenience sampling. Nothing prevents
the researcher from selecting people who act friendly or who want to interviewed.
Quota sampling methods are not appropriate when the interviewers choose who
they like (within above criteria) and may therefore select those who are easiest
to interview, so, sampling bias can take place. Because not using the random
method, it is impossible to estimate the accuracy. Despite these limitations, quota
sampling is a popular method among non-probability methods of sampling,
because it enables the researcher to introduce a few controls into his research
plan and this methods of sampling are more convenient and less costly then
many other methods of sampling.

iii) Purposive sampling

Purposive sampling is a valuable kind of sampling for special situations. It is
used in exploratory research or in field research. It uses the judgment of an expert
in selecting cases or it selects cases with a specific purpose in mind. With
purposive sampling, he researcher never knows whether the cases selected
represent the population. Purposive sampling is appropriate to select unique cases
that are especially informative.

For example, a researcher wants to study the temperamental attributes of certain

problem behaviour children. It is very difficult to list all certain problem behaviour
children and sample randomly from the list. The researcher uses many different
55
Introduction to Research methods to identity these cases and approach them to obtain the relevant
Methods in Psychology
information. The primary consideration in purposes sampling is the judgment of
researcher as to who can provide the best information to achieve the objectives
of the study. The researcher only goes to those people who in his / her opinion
are likely to have the required information and be willing to share it.

For studying attitude toward any national issue, a sample of journalists, teacher
and legislators may he taken as an example of purposive sampling because they
can more reasonably be expected to represent the correct attitude than other
class of people residing in country.

Purposes sampling is some what less costly, more readily accessible, more
convenient and select only those individual that are relevant to research design.

Despite these advantages of purposes sampling, there is no way to ensure that

the sample is truly represent of the population and more emphasis is placed on
the ability of researcher to assess the elements of population.

iv) Snowball sampling

Snowball sampling is also known as network, chain referral or reputation sampling
method. Snowball sampling which is a non probability sampling method is
basically sociometric. It begins by the collection of data on one or more contacts
usually known to the person collecting the data. At the end of the data collection
process (e.g., questionnaire, survey, or interview), the data collector asks the
respondent to provide contact information for other potential respondents. These
potential respondents are contacted and provide more contacts. Snowball sampling
is most useful when there are very few methods to secure a list of the population
or when the population is unknowable.

Snowball sampling has some advantages— 1) Snowball sampling, which is

primarily a sociometric sampling technique, has proved very important and is
helpful in studying small informal social group and its impact upon formal
organisational structure, 2) Snowball sampling reveals communication pattern
in community organisation concepts like community power; and decision-making
can also be studied with he help of such sampling technique.

Snowball sampling has some limitations also— 1) Snowball sampling becomes

cumbersome and difficult when is large or say it exceeds 100, 2) This method of
sampling does not allow the researcher to use probability statistical methods. In
fact, the elements included in sample are not randomly drawn and they are
dependent on the subjective choices of the originally selected respondents. This
introduces some bias in the sampling.

v) Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is another method of non-probability sampling plan, though
the label ‘systematic’ is somewhat misleading in the sense that all probability
sampling methods are also systematic sampling methods. Due to this, it often
sounds that systematic sampling should be included under one category of
probability sampling, but in reality this is not the case.

Systematic sampling may be defined as drawing or selecting every ninth person

from a predetermined list of elements or individuals. Selecting every 5th roll
56
number in a class of 60 students will constitute systematic sampling. Likewise, Hypothesis Formulation
and Sampling
drawing every 8th name from a telephone directory is an example of systematic
sampling. If we pay attention to systematic sampling plan, it become obvious
that such a plan possesses certain characteristics of randomness (first element
selected is a random one) and at the same time, possesses some non-probability
traits such as excluding all persons between every ninth element chosen.

Systematic sampling is relatively quick method of obtaining a sample of elements

and it is very easy to check whether every ninth number or name has been selected.
Further Systematic sampling is easy to used.

Despite these advantages, systematic sampling ignores all persons between every
ninth element chosen. Then it is not a probability sampling plan. In Systematic
sampling there is a chance to happen the sampling error if the list is arranged in
a particular order.

Activity
Make a list of some research studies where some of the non probability
methods could be used. Also justify the choice of particular sampling method
you have selected for the study.

4.9.2 Probability Sampling

Probability sampling methods are those that clearly specify the probability or
likelihood of inclusion of each element or individual in the sample. Probability
sampling is free of bias in selecting sample units. They help in estimation of
sampling errors and evaluate sample results in terms of their precision, accuracy
and efficiency and hence, the conclusions reached from such samples are worth
generalisation and comparable to similar population to which they belong. Major
probability sampling methods are:

i) Simple random sampling

A simple random sample is a probability sample. A simple random sample requires
(a) a complete listing of all the elements (b) an equal chance for each elements to
be selected (c) a selection process whereby the selection of one element has no
effect on the chance of selecting another element. For example, if we are to
select a sample of 10 students from the seventh grade consisting of 40 students,
we can write the names (or roll number) of each of the 40 students on separate
slips of paper – all equal in size and colour – and fold them in a similar way.
Subsequently, they may be placed in a box and reshuffled thoroughly.

A blindfolded person, then, may be asked to pick up one slip. Here, the probability
of each slip being selected is 1-40. Suppose that after selecting the slip and
noting the name written on the slip, he again returns it to the box. In this case, the
probability of the second slip being selected is again 1/40. But if he does not
return the first slip to the box, the probability of the second slip becomes 1/39.
When an element of the population is returned to the population after being
selected, it is called sampling with replacement and when it is not returned, it is
called sampling without replacement.

Thus random sampling may be defined as one in which all possible combinations
of samples of fixed size have an equal probability of being selected.
57
Introduction to Research Advantages of simple random sampling are:
Methods in Psychology
1) Each person has equal chance as any other of being selected in the sample.
2) Simple random sampling serves as a foundation against which other methods
are sometimes evaluated.
3) It is most suitable where population is relatively small and where sampling
frame is complete and up-to-date.
4) As the sample size increases, it becomes more representative of universe.
5) This method is least costly and easily assessable of accuracy.
Despite these advantages, some of the disadvantages are:
1) Complete and up-to-date catalogued universe is necessary.
2) Large sample size is required to establish the reliability.
3) When the geographical dispersion is so wider therefore study of sample
item has larger cost and greater time.
4) Unskilled and untrained investigator may cause wrong results.
Activity
In a class of 140 students, select a simple random sample of size 20 students
with replacement technique. Also mention the probability of each one of
140 students being included in the sample.

ii) Stratified random sampling

In stratified random sampling the population is divided into two or more strata,
which may be based upon a single criterion such as sex, yielding two strata-male
and female, or upon a combination of two or more criteria such as sex and
graduation, yielding four strata, namely, male undergraduates, male graduates,
female undergraduates and female graduates. These divided populations are called
subpopulations, which are non-overlapping and together constitute the whole
population.

Having divided the population into two or more strata, which are considered to
be homogeneous internally, a simple random sample for the desired number is
taken from each population stratum. Thus, in stratified random sampling the
stratification of population is the first requirement.
There can be many reasons for stratification in a population.
Two of them are:
1) Stratification tends to increases the precision in estimating the attributes of
the whole population.
2) Stratification gives some convenience in sampling. When the population is
divided into several units, a person or group of person may be deputed to
supervise the sampling survey in each unit.
Advantages of stratified Random Sampling are:
1) Stratified sampling is more representative of the population because
formation of stratum and random selection of item from each stratum make
it hard to exclude in strata of the universe and increases the sample’s
representation to the population or universe.
58
2) It is more precise and avoids the bias to great extent. Hypothesis Formulation
and Sampling
3) It saves time and cost of data collection since the sample size can be less in
the method.
Despite these advantages, some of the disadvantages of stratified sampling are:
1) Improper stratification may cause wrong results.
2) Greater geographical concentration may result in heavy cost and more time.
3) Trained investigators are required for stratification.
iii) Cluster sampling
A type of random sample that uses multiple stages and is often used to cover
wide geographic areas in which aggregated units are randomly selected and then
sample are drawn from the sampled aggregated units or cluster

For example, if the investigator wanted to survey some aspect of 3rd grade
elementary school going children. First, a random sample of number of states
from the country would be selected. Next, within each selected state, a random
selection of certain number of districts would be made. Then within district a
random selection of certain number of elementary schools would be made. Finally
within each elementary school, a certain number of children would be randomly
selected. Because each level is randomly sampled, the final sample becomes
random. However, selection of samples is done to different stages. This is also
called multi stage sampling.

This sampling method is more flexible than the other methods. Sub-divisions at
the second stage unit needs be carried out only those unit selected in the first
stage. Despite these merits, this sampling method is less accurate than a sample,
containing the same number of the units in single stage samples.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Non probability sampling is one which there is way of assessing the
probability of the element or group of element of population, being
included in the sample. T/F
2) Simple random sampling is the core technique and attaches equal
probability to each unit of the population to be selected. T/F
3) Cluster sampling method sometimes known as multi stage sampling
method. T/F
4) Snowball technique is a probability sampling method. T/F
5) Stratified sampling is more representative for the population than other
methods. T/F
Answer: (1) F, (2) T, (3) T, (4) F, (5) T.

4.10 IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING

In research, sampling method has obtained great importance. Sampling studies
are becoming more and more popular in all type of studies. The vastness of the
population, the difficulties of contacting people, high refusal rate, difficulties of
ascertaining the universe make sampling the best alternative in case of social
studies. The census method is rarely, if ever tried in matters of social research.
59
Introduction to Research Recent developments in sampling technique have made this method more reliable
Methods in Psychology
and valid. The results of sampling have attained a sufficiently high standard of
accuracy.

The three main advantage of sampling are that cost in lowest, data collection is
faster, and since the data set is smaller, it is possible to ensure homogeneity and
to improve the accuracy and quality of data (Ader, Mellenbergh & Hard (2008)

4.11 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have learnt about hypothesis formulation and sampling. A
hypothesis is a speculative statement that is subjected to verification through a
research study. In formulating a hypothesis it is important to ensure that it is
simple, specific and conceptually clear; is able to be verified; is rooted in an
existing body of knowledge; and able to be operational zed. There are two broad
types of hypothesis: a null hypothesis and an alternate hypothesis.

Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selection a suitable sample, or a

representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters
or characteristics of the whole population.

Researchers rarely survey the entire population for two reasons: The cost is too
high, and the population is dynamic in that the individual making up the
population may change over time. Sampling methods are of two types i.e. Non
probability and probability sampling methods. Probability sampling methods
are those in which some probability to each unit of the population to be included
in the sample and this is more representative. Three different probability sampling
method are discussed as simple random sampling, stratified random sampling
and cluster / multi stage sampling. The other non probability sampling methods
discussed are convenience sampling, Quota sampling, Purposive sampling,
Snowball sampling and systematic sampling. These methods are also used but
lack the representative character of samples.

4.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Define hypothesis and explain its characteristics.
2) Write short notes on:
a) Formulation of hypothesis
b) Null hypothesis
c) Alternative hypothesis
3) Write a hypothesis which incorporates each pair of concepts listed below:
a) academic achievement and teaching methods
b) education and social prestige
c) frustration and need for achievement
4) What is sampling? Discuss its importance.
5) What is simple random sampling. Discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
6) What do you mean by probability sampling method. Discuss any two types
of probability sampling methods.
60
7) Define the following: Hypothesis Formulation
and Sampling
1) Sampling unit
2) Population
3) Sampling frame

4.13 GLOSSARY
Hypothesis : A tentative and testable statement of a potential
relationship between two or more variables.
Null hypothesis : The hypothesis that is of no scientific interest;
sometimes the hypothesis of no difference.
Alternative hypothesis : Statistical term for research hypothesis that
specifies values that researcher believes to hold
true.
Population : It is the aggregate from which a sample is drawn.
In statistics, it refers to any specified collection of
objects, people, organisation etc.
Population size : It is the total number of units present in the
population.
Sampling units : They are members of the population.
Sampling frame : It is the list of all the units of population.
Sampling design : It is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a
given population.
Sample size : It is the total number of units in the sample.
Simple random sample : It is a sample in which each unit of the population
has an equal chance of being selected in the
sample.

4.14 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Ader, H.J., Mellenbergh, G.J., & Hand, D.J. (2008). Advising on Research
Methods: A Consultant’s Companion. Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van
kessel Publishing.
Blalock, HM (1960), Social Statistics, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Goode, WJ & Hatt, PK (1981). Methods in Social Research. Tokyo: McGraw
hill Book Company.
References
Kerlinger, FN (1973). Foundations of Behavioural Research. New York: Rinehart
and Winston.
McGuigan, FJ (1990). Experimental Psychology: A Methodological Approach,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-hall.
Reichenbach, H (1938). Experience and Prediction. Chicago: University of
Chicago press.
Reichenbach, H (1947). Elements of Symbolic Logic, New York: Macmillan.
Young, PV (1992). Scientific Social Survey and Research,New Delhi: Prentice-
hall of India. 61
 Survey Research
UNIT 1 SURVEY RESEARCH

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Concept and Meaning of ‘Survey Research’
1.3 Steps Involved in Conducting Survey Research
1.4 Methods/ Instruments Used in Collecting Data Through Survey Research
1.5 Types of Survey Research
1.6 Constructing a Survey Research
1.7 Types of Questions in a Survey Research
1.7.1 Structured Questions
1.7.2 Unstructured Questions
1.8 Precautions while Designing Instruments
1.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Research
1.10 Difficulties and Issues of Survey Research
1.11 Let Us Sum Up
1.12 Unit End Questions
1.13 Suggested Readings and References

1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important areas of research tools in the field of applied social
science is the ‘survey research’. It is one of the most relevant techniques basically
used for collecting data and involves any measurement procedures that
prominently include asking questions from respondents or the subjects selected
for the research study. The term “survey” can be defined as a process which may
involve an investigation/ examination or assessment in the form of a short paper-
and-pencil feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth interview. With
the help of the questionnaire or other statistical tools, the method tries to gather
data about people, their thoughts and behaviours. This unit tries to focus on the
concept, various methods, the relevance and implications of the survey research
method.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Define and describe the survey research method;
• List out the different methods or techniques of the survey research method;
• Elucidate the different types of survey research;
• Analyse the advantages and disadvantages of the survey research method;
and
• Describe the kind of questions that should be used in survey.
5
Types of Research
1.2 CONCEPT AND MEANING OF ‘SURVEY
RESEARCH’
The method of survey research is a non-experimental (that is, it does not involves
any observation under controlled conditions), descriptive research method which
is one of the quantitative method used for studying of large sample. In a survey
research, the researcher collects data with the help of standardised questionnaires
or interviews which is administered on a sample of respondents from a population
(population is sometimes referred to as the universe of a study which can be
defined as a collection of people or object which possesses at least one common
characteristic). The method of survey research is one of the techniques of applied
social research which can be helpful in collection of data both through direct
(such as a direct face to face interview) and indirect observation (such as opinions
on library services of an institute).

1.3 STEPS INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING SURVEY

RESEARCH
Any type of survey research follows the following systematic steps:
Step 1: Determination of the aims and objectives of study:
The researcher must at the outset analyse and assess the relevant areas or issues
which need to be studied. Once the research area is selected by the researcher,
the basic aims and objectives have to be clearly specified. These have to be
focused and analysed so as to make the purpose of research relevant and
understandable. The researchers have to come up with the basic aims and
objectives which would be focused and analysed in their over all research.

Step 2: Define the population to be studied:

After selecting the theme of the research, the researcher also needs to define the
target population which would be studied by him/her. As discussed earlier, the
population or universe would be a collection of people or object that would
possess at least one common characteristic, which is going to be helpful and
which would also provide direction in the process of conducting the research.

Step 3: Design and construct a survey:

Once the target population is defined by the researcher, he or she needs to design
a survey research. On the basis of the framed design, the research decides to
conduct a survey, selects instrument for survey (for example telephonic interview)
with the help of which data will be collected. After the selection of the instrument,
the researcher conducts a pilot study (a small survey taken in advance of a major
investigation or research). The pilot study helps the researcher to analyse the
significance and relevance of the instruments selected by the researcher for the
present research.

Step 3: Select a representative sample:

The process of construction of the survey instruments gives a way to the selection
of the sample from the target population. The researcher selects a sample which
represents nearly maximum characteristics of the whole universe/ population. If
the sample selected is a good representation of the population, then the results or
6