Geographical Information System

Unit 4: Data Acquisition, Data Quality and Management

4.1 Different methods of data capture

4.2 Geo-referencing and digitization
4.3 Data preparation, conversion and integration
4.4 Spatial data quality and accuracy
4.5 Introduction to global navigation and satellite systems
(GNSS)
4.6 Basics of remote sensing (RS) technology
4.7 Integration of RS and GNSS data into GIS

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4.1 Different methods of data capture

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Capturing GIS data:

 Every user of geospatial data has experienced the challenge of obtaining,

organizing, storing, sharing, and visualizing their data.
 The variety of formats and data structures of geospatial data are stored in
digital form in a computer into a single, unified dataset.
 So, we learn the technique of data acquisition and management of the
various formats and qualities of geospatial data currently available for use
in modern geographic information system (GIS) projects.

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Capturing GIS data:

 Before geographic data can be used in a GIS, the data must be converted
into a suitable digital format. The process of converting data from paper
maps into computer files is called digitizing.
 Modern GIS technology has the capability to automate this process fully
for large projects using scanning technology; smaller jobs may require
some manual digitizing (using a digitizing table).
 Today many types of geographic data already exist in GIS-compatible
formats. These data can be obtained from data suppliers and loaded directly
into a GIS.
 Capturing GIS data

There are two methods for spatial data acquisition

1. Primary methods:
Surveying, Photogrammetry, GPS, and Remote Sensing
Digitization (Digitizing Tablet); Automatic line following;
Scanning; On Screen Digitizing; Text Files; COGO
(Coordinate Geometry)
2. Secondary methods:
Large amount of data is now available from others
Free data from the government
Internet map server
Commercial data
Data from other GIS users
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Different Methods of data capture

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 Capturing GIS data
Spatial data features:
• Data input to a GIS involves encoding both the locational and attribute
data
• The locational data is encoded as coordinates on a particular Cartesian
Coordinate System
• Source maps may have different projections and scales
• Several stages of data transformation may be needed to bring all data to a
common coordinate system
• Attribute data is often obtained and stored in tables (Database
Management System)

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Primary Data Capture

Field Data Collection (Surveying):

Field collection techniques for the creation of GIS databases have
advanced tremendously over the past 20 years and are now fully
enmeshed in the digital age.

Field data collection processes are using digital data collection

techniques.

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 Primary Data Capture

Field Data Collection (Surveying):

Current technology includes the ability to capture not only

distance measurements but also the angles between objects. In
addition, the measurements are stored in a digital database.

GPS equipment has also become more affordable and useable in

recent years. GPS requires that a receiver, located on the Earth's
surface, collect and record signals transmitted by a constellation
of satellite that orbit the Earth.

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Primary Data Capture

Photogrammetry:
• Photogrammetry is the collection of measurements from the
image of an object or a resource.
• Through various techniques, photogrammetry facilitates the
interpretation and measurement of features captured on
photographs.
• It requires a firm understanding of photography.
• Photogrammetry is perhaps the primary method used for the
creation of spatial data in forestry and natural resource
management.

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 Primary Data Capture

Photogrammetry:

Digital camera mounted on an airplane

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Primary Data Capture

Remote Sensing:
Remote sensing devices capture electromagnetic energy, perhaps
generated by the sun or another device (such as a radar
transmitter), that is reflected off of landscape features.

A relatively new technology called light detection and ranging

(LIDAR) allows for the collection of topographic or elevation data.

LIDAR systems are mounted on an aircraft and include a laser, an

inertial navigation system, a Global Positioning System (GPS)
receiver, and an on-board computer for processing.

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 Primary Data Capture

Remote Sensing:
• Remote sensing involves the use of a sensor that is not in
physical contact with its subject of interest.

• Remote sensing technology in natural resource management

frequently refers to the use of satellites or cameras mounted on
airplanes.

• Remote sensing devices capture electromagnetic energy,

perhaps generated by the sun or another device (such as a
radar transmitter), that is reflected off of landscape features.

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Primary Data Capture

Remote Sensing:

LIDAR system on aircraft.

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 Primary Data Capture

Manual Map Digitizing:

• The ability to encode vector maps manually using a digitizing table and
associated software has been available since the late 1960s.
• Paper maps are taped down to a digitizing table, in which is embedded a
fine mesh of copper wire.
• Known reference points on the maps are identified using the digitizing
table's "puck (similar to a computer mouse), which sends a signal to the
wire mesh within the table.
• Once the reference points have been identified, all other landscape features
can be encoded in a coordinate system and related to the reference points.

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Primary Data Capture

Scanning:
• Scanning involves the examination of maps by a computer
process that seeks to identify (and convert to digital form)
changes in map color or tone that identify landscape features.

• Flat-bed scanners allow one to convert a picture or map, such

as an aerial photograph or a topographic map, to digital form.

• The resulting images are described by the raster data structure

and include pixels or grid cells that may be encoded (or
attributed) differently, depending on how the scanner interprets
the color or tone of each feature.

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 Primary Data Capture

Scanning:

• A second method of scanning involves the use of digital

cameras. An array of photo-detectors located within digital
cameras allows one to capture and store an image.

• The images are saved with a raster data structure and can be
transferred to a computer system and used in manners similar
to the scanned images.

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Primary Data Capture

• Digitizing Tablet
• Sends an electrical impulse from the edges that is read by the
puck to determine Location.
• Accuracy of tablets ranges form .01” to .002”

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 Primary Data Capture

On Screen Digitizing:
• The original is scanned and Georeferenced
• Features are captured using the mouse
• Less fatigue than using a tablet

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Primary Data Capture

Text Files:
• If you have a text file or table with X,Y values you can directly
import them into ArcGIS.
• GPS Data

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 Primary Data Capture
(Coordinate Geometry) COGO and Survey Analyst:
• COGO (Coordinate Geometry)
• Extension for Command line ArcInfo
• Tracking Analyst
• ArcGIS Extension
• Both extensions allow direct input of survey data

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Secondary Data

• Large amount of data is now available

• Always check for existing data before creating it
• Several groups of data exist
• Free data from the government
• Government data available for a fee
• Internet map servers
• Commercial data
• Data from other GIS users

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4.2 Geo-referencing and digitization

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Geo-referencing and digitization:
Geographic data available in formats(i.e. scan image) that cannot be
immediately integrated with other GIS data. In order to use these types of data
in GIS it is necessary to align it with existing geographically referenced data,
this process is also called georeferencing.
Digitizing in GIS is the process of “tracing,” in a geographically correct way,
information from images/maps.
The process of georeferencing relies on the coordination of points on the
scanned image (data to be georeferenced) with points on a geographically
referenced data (data to which the image will be georeferenced). By “linking”
points on the image with those same locations in the geographically referenced
data, you will create a polynomial transformation that converts the location of
the entire image to the correct geographic location. We can call the linked
points on each data layer control points.
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Geo-referencing and digitization:
Since we are using a shapefile to specify the geographic locations of points on
the image, we will set (define) the coordinate system for georeferenced image
to the same coordinate system.
Georeferencing/Registering an Image:
Tools: Open ArcGIS >click customize > selecting toolbars > then clicking on
the georeferencing toolbar option. The toolbar should appear in the ArcGIS
window.

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Steps for Geo-referencing and digitization:
 Add both the shapefile and image to your ArcMap session.
 Right click the shapefile (not image) and “Zoom to Layer,” this is a nice feature you might have
used before that lets us get to the geographic extent of a specific data layer quickly.
 From the georeferencing toolbar, if the image file does not appear in the pull down window nexting
“Georeferencing,” click the dropdown arrow and select the image name.
 Click “Georeferencing” and select “Fit to Display” from the dropdown.
 This will display the image in the same general space as the shape file layer.
 Before adding control points, you should move the image around a bit to get it closer to the
orientation and position of the GIS layers you are using. Use the Rotate, Shift, and Scale tools for
this. These tools are at the far right of the georeferencing toolbar; the last icon (probably displayed
initially as a rotation arrow).
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Geo-referencing and digitization:
 Now you are ready to add control points (also called link points or links). Click on
the Add Control Points tool.
 You should be using the street labels to help identify specific streets and
intersections for georeferencing. (Right click the layer and select label features).
 To add a link, click the mouse on the image first, then on a known location on the
GIS database. The order of clicking is IMPORTANT. You can use the magnify
tools to get a close look at subsets of the data.
 You can also turn on the effect toolbar to change the transparency to see both
layers at once if you like, or you can turn the layers off and one as you select
points from each.
 Once you have added a few links you can open the link table to see how each has
worked. View Link Table is the final icon on the right of the georeferencing
toolbar.

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Geo-referencing and digitization:
Before the next step, but after you are happy with your registered image, click save, this will save the data
in your link table to a text file that can be opened up in word for later reference. Once you are satisfied
with the registration you can Update Georeferencing. This is an option in the georeferencing toolbox, just
click on the word georeferencing and a pull down menu will appear with “update georeferencing” as the
first option. This will save your transformation. This process will add an .aux file that contains
information about the transformation that is necessary to view this file in the future with other data.

Now we have updated the map and created an associated aux file that specifies its coordinates to the
locations in the shapefile. Before we close this file we need to define the coordinate system. First, confirm
the coordinate system for the shape file. Right-click on the file in the TOC and go to properties: click on
the Source tab. Here we see that the shape file is in GCS. We’ll set the georeferenced image to that
coordinate system.
In Arctoolbox, open Data Management Tools, open Projections and Transformations, and click on Define
Projection. Below that is another tool, Project, don’t use that one now. In the Define Projection tool we
need to specify the file (image file) then the coordinate system as like shape file(GCS). Click ok, and the
file will now know where in the world it is.

Don’t forget to save your work, save your map as “xxx”.mxd.

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4.5 Introduction to Global Navigation and

Satellite Systems (GNSS)

Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)

• Satellites are the foundations of modern positioning and navigation.
They are used by vehicle navigation systems, smartphones and land
surveyors alike. On the basis of satellite signals, the receiver can define
its position anywhere in the world with an accuracy of a few meters in
less than a minute. In addition, the time can be defined as a by-product
with an accuracy of approximately one hundred nanoseconds.
• Using assistance systems, the position can be pinpointed with an
accuracy of a few centimeters. Previously, the US-based GPS was
considered to be synonymous to satellite positioning. Currently, the
Russian GLONASS, as well as the European Galileo and the Chinese
BeiDou which are at the deployment stage, are openly accessible to all.
• For this reason, satellite positioning is currently referred to as the Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).

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 Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)
The GPS satellite system ?

• The US-based GPS was considered to be synonymous to

satellite positioning.
• Currently, the Russian GLONASS, as well as the European
Galileo and the Chinese BeiDou (which are at the deployment
stage) are openly accessible to all.
• For this reason, satellite positioning is currently referred to as
the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).

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Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)

The GPS satellite system ?

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 Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)
What is GPS?
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based
navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites
placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense.

• GPS was originally intended for military applications, but in

the 1980s, the government made the system available for
civilian use.

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Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)

What is GPS?

• GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world,

24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup
charges to use GPS.

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 Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)
How it works ?

• GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise

orbit and transmit signal information to earth.

• GPS receivers take this information and use triangulation to

calculate the user's exact location.

• Essentially, the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was

transmitted by a satellite with the time it was received.

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Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)

How it works ?
• The time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away the
satellite is.

• Now, with distance measurements from a few more satellites,

the receiver can determine the user's position and display it
on the unit's electronic map.

• A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least

three satellites to calculate a 2D position (latitude and
longitude) and track movement.
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 Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)
How it works ?
• With four or more satellites in view, the receiver can
determine the user's 3D position (latitude, longitude and
altitude).

• Once the user's position has been determined, the GPS unit
can calculate other information, such as speed, bearing, track,
trip distance, distance to destination, sunrise and sunset time
and more.

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Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)

The GPS satellite system ?
• The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are
orbiting the earth about 12,000 miles above us.
• They are constantly moving, making two complete orbits in
less than 24 hours.
• These satellites are travelling at speeds of roughly 7,000 miles
an hour.

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 Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)
The GPS satellite system ?
• GPS satellites are powered by solar energy.
• They have backup batteries on board to keep them running
in the event of a solar eclipse, when there's no solar power.
• Small rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in
the correct path.

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Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)

Some other interesting facts about the GPS satellites.

GPS satellites (also called NAVSTAR, the official U.S. Department

of Defense name for GPS):
• The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978.
• A full constellation of 24 satellites was achieved in 1994.
• Each satellite is built to last about 10 years. Replacements are
constantly being built and launched into orbit.

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 Global Navigation and Satellite Systems (GNSS)
Some other interesting facts about the GPS satellites.

• A GPS satellite weighs approximately 2,000 pounds and is

about 17 feet across with the solar panels extended.
• Transmitter power is only 50 watts or less.

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4.6 Basics of remote sensing (RS) technology

 Satellite based positioning

What is remote sensing ?

Types of remote sensing ?
Components of remote sensing ?
GPS: Global Positioning System

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Satellite based positioning

What is remote sensing ?
• Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an
object or phenomenon without making physical contact with
the object and thus in contrast to on site observation.
• In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial
sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth
(both on the surface, and in the atmosphere and oceans) by
means of propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic radiation).

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 Satellite based positioning
Types of remote sensing ?
In respect to the type of Energy Resources:

• Passive Remote Sensing: Makes use of sensors that detect

the reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from
natural sources.
• Active remote Sensing: Makes use of sensors that detect
reflected responses from objects that are irradiated from
artificially-generated energy sources, such as radar.

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Satellite based positioning

Types of remote sensing ?
It may be split into active remote sensing (when a signal is
first emitted from aircraft or satellites) or passive (e.g.
sunlight) when information is merely recorded.

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 Satellite based positioning

Types of remote sensing ?

Passive sensors gather natural

radiation that is emitted or reflected
by the object or surrounding areas.
Reflected sunlight is the most
common source of radiation
measured by passive sensors.

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Satellite based positioning

Satellite further can be classified as

 Passive Satellite
 Active Satellite

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 Satellite based positioning

Satellite further can be classified as

 Passive Satellite

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Satellite based positioning

Satellite further can be classified as

 Active Satellite

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 Components of Remote Sensing

A. the Sun: energy source

C. target
D. sensor: receiving and/or energy
source
E. transmission, reception, and pre-
processing
F. processing, interpretation and
analysis
G. analysis and application
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Satellite based positioning

Components of remote sensing ?
1. Energy Source
• Passive System: sun, irradiance from earth's materials;
• Active System: irradiance from artificially generated energy
sources such as radar.
2. Platforms: (Vehicle to carry the sensor) (truck, aircraft, space
shuttle, satellite, etc.)
3. Sensors: (Device to detect electro-magnetic radiation)
(camera, scanner, etc.).
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 Satellite based positioning
Components of remote sensing ?

4. Detectors: (Handling signal data) (photographic, digital, etc.)

5. Processing:(Handling Signal data) (photographic, digital etc.)
6. Institutionalization: (Organization for execution at all stages
of remote-sensing technology: international and national
organizations, centres, universities, etc.).

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4.7 Integration of RS and GNSS data into GIS

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Practical + Projection of Shape Files

Primary and Secondary Data Capture Techniques

Primary Techniques:
 Integration of GPS and RS data with GIS
 Text Files with x-, y-Coordinates
 Scanning and Digitizing

Secondary Techniques:
 Shape (SHP) files from different sources.

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Unit 3: Data Acquisition Techniques in GIS

GIS DATA ACQUISITION:
3. Creation of New Data
 Remotely Sensed Data
 Survey Data
 GPS Data
 Text Files with x-, y-Coordinates
 Digitizing Using a Digitizing Table
 Scanning
 On-Screen Digitizing
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How to convert GPS data to feature classes or shape files:
Open ArcToolbox > Conversion Tools > GPX to Features as shown below

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How to convert GPS data to feature classes or shape files:
1. Convert GDB file format to GPX file format in MapSourse
2. Open ArcToolbox > Conversion Tools > GPX to Features as shown
below
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How to convert Points to Lines from point feature shape files:
Open ArcToolbox > Data Management Tools > Features > PointsToLine as
shown below

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Text Files with x,y (Longitude, Latitude) Coordinates:
Open any shape file (KTM District boundary) in ArcMap
Go to File > Add Data > Add XY data

Select the excel file where you have saved Latitude and Longitude
 Note: Select X field: Longitude and Y field: Latitude while importing
EXCEL file
 Note: Select Geographic Coordinate System: Everest 1830
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Define Projection

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Define the Projection:
1. Click to start ArcToolbox
2. Data Management Tools > Projections and Transformations
3. Define Projection
a) Input Data: Drag the file from the TOC to this box, select from menu, or select via
the browse button
b) Coordinate System;
a) Either import the projection from one of our other shapefiles that you know has the same projection
OR
a) Select it from the list (Projected Coordinate System > UTM > WGS 1984 > Northern Hemisphere >
WGS 1984 UTM Zone 1984 )
c) OK
4. Now you can input this file to any project and the spatial reference will be
set correctly
5. Confirm the data is in the correct spot, if not there probably is an offset due
to incorrect projection settings
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Coordinate Systems Used in Nepal

1. Geographic Coordinate System

2. Projected Coordinate System

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Geographic Coordinate System:
In Nepal, most of the spatial data and maps are based on two Geographic
Coordinate System (GCS) as a reference.
1. Everest 1830 which is mostly used in topographic maps and maps
produced by governmental agencies like Department of Survey.
2. WGS84 as most of the images and maps available over the internet are
referenced in this system.
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Geographic Coordinate System:
GCS Everest_1830 WGS_1984
Angular Unit Degree (0.0174532925199433) Degree (0.0174532925199433)
Prime Meridian Greenwich (0.0) Greenwich (0.0)
Datum D_Everest_1830 D_WGS_1984
Spheroid Everest_1830 WGS_1984
Semi-major Axis 6377299.36 6378137
Semi-minor Axis 6356098.352 6356752.314
Inverse Flattening 300.8017 298.2572236

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Projected Coordinate System:
In Projected Coordinate System (PCS) of Nepal the projection system used is
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) which may be based on either
WGS84 or Everest 1830.
 Geographical Information System
Projected Coordinate System:
In Projected Coordinate System (PCS) of Nepal the projection system used is
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) which may be based on either
WGS84 or Everest 1830.
1. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) (based on GCS is WGS84)
WGS84 Nepal lies in two zones of UTM projection system which are 44 north
and 45 north zones. The former zone covers western half of Nepal whereas
latter zone covers the eastern half of the country.
Zones UTM_44N UTM_45N

Projection Transverse Mercator Transverse Mercator

False Easting 500000 500000

False Northing 0 0
Central Meridian 81 87
Scale Factor 0.9996 0.9996
Latitude of Origin 0 0
Linear Unit 1 1
GCS WGS 1984 WGS 1984

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Projected Coordinate System:
In Projected Coordinate System (PCS) of Nepal the projection system used is
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) which may be based on either
WGS84 or Everest 1830.
1. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) (based on GCS is Everest 1830)
Similarly, when UTM is based on Everest 1830 the two zones are modified into
three zones differentiated by longitude of the coordinate as 81, 84, and 87.
Each of these three zones of modified UTM (MUTM) covers west, central and
eastern Nepal respectively.
Zones MUTM_81 MUTM_84 MUTM_87
Projection Transverse Mercator Transverse Mercator Transverse Mercator
False Easting 500000 500000 500000
False Northing 0 0 0
Central
81 84 87
Meridian
Scale Factor 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
Latitude of
0 0 0
Origin
Linear Unit 1 1 1
GCS Everest 1830 Everest 1830 Everest 1830
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Projected Coordinate System:
1. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) If GCS is WGS84)

WGS 1984 based PCS

Zones UTM_44N UTM_45N

Projection Transverse Mercator Transverse Mercator

False Easting 500000 500000

False Northing 0 0
Central Meridian 81 87
Scale Factor 0.9996 0.9996
Latitude of Origin 0 0
Linear Unit 1 1
GCS WGS 1984 WGS 1984