Pointers in C – The Ultimate Guide
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Pointers
o What is a Pointer?
o Why Use Pointers?
o Memory Addresses & Variables
o Pointer Declaration & Initialization
o The & and * Operators
o Common Mistakes
2. Pointer Arithmetic and Arrays
o Pointer Increment/Decrement
o Array-Pointer Relationship
o Traversing Arrays Using Pointers
o Pointer Arithmetic vs. Array Indexing
o Multi-dimensional Arrays
3. Pointers to Pointers (Double Pointers)
o Concept and Syntax
o Use Cases (Dynamic 2D Arrays, Modifying Pointers in Functions)
o Memory Representation
4. Function Pointers
o Definition & Syntax
o Callback Functions
o Real-world Applications (qsort, State Machines)
5. Void Pointers (Generic Pointers)
o Introduction to void*
o Typecasting with Void Pointers
o Use in Memory Allocation (malloc, calloc)
6. Dynamic Memory Allocation
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o malloc, calloc, realloc, free
o Memory Leaks & Dangling Pointers
o Best Practices
7. Common Pointer Pitfalls & Debugging
o Null Pointer Dereference
o Buffer Overflows
o Tools: Valgrind, GDB
8. Advanced Topics
o Pointers and Structures
o Linked Lists (Singly & Doubly)
o Function Pointer Tables
9. Real-World Applications
o Embedded Systems (Memory-Mapped I/O)
o OS Development (Kernel Data Structures)
o Performance Optimization
10. Interview Questions & Exercises
20+ Practice Problems
Solutions & Explanations
1. Introduction to Pointers
1.1 What is a Pointer?
A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another
variable.
Example:
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int num = 42;
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int *ptr = # // ptr stores the address of num
1.2 Why Use Pointers?
Efficient memory access
Dynamic memory allocation
Passing by reference in functions
Building complex data structures
1.3 Memory Addresses & Variables
Every variable has a memory address.
& retrieves the address.
* dereferences (accesses the value at the address).
Example:
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int x = 10;
printf("Address of x: %p\n", &x);
printf("Value of x: %d\n", *(&x));
1.4 Common Mistakes
Uninitialized pointers → Undefined behavior
Dangling pointers → Accessing freed memory
Null dereference → Crash
2. Pointer Arithmetic and Arrays
2.1 Pointer Increment/Decrement
ptr + 1 moves to the next memory location (based on data type size).
Example:
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int arr[3] = {10, 20, 30};
int *ptr = arr;
printf("%d\n", *ptr); // 10
printf("%d\n", *(ptr+1)); // 20
2.2 Array-Pointer Relationship
arr[i] is equivalent to *(arr + i).
Array names decay into pointers when passed to functions.
Example:
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void printArray(int *arr, int size) {
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
}
}
3. Pointers to Pointers (Double Pointers)
3.1 Concept
A pointer that stores the address of another pointer.
Example:
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int x = 5;
int *p = &x;
int **pp = &p;
printf("%d", **pp); // Output: 5
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3.2 Use Cases
Dynamic 2D arrays
Modifying pointers inside functions
4. Function Pointers
4.1 Definition
A pointer that points to a function instead of a variable.
Example:
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int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }
int (*funcPtr)(int, int) = add;
printf("%d", funcPtr(5, 3)); // Output: 8
5. Void Pointers (Generic Pointers)
5.1 Introduction
Can hold any data type’s address.
Must be typecasted before dereferencing.
Example:
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int num = 10;
void *ptr = #
printf("%d", *(int *)ptr); // Output: 10
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6. Dynamic Memory Allocation
6.1 malloc, calloc, free
malloc allocates uninitialized memory.
calloc initializes memory to zero.
free releases memory.
Example:
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int *arr = malloc(5 * sizeof(int));
free(arr);
7. Common Pitfalls & Debugging
7.1 Memory Leaks
Forgetting to free() allocated memory.
7.2 Tools
Valgrind → Detects leaks.
GDB → Debugs pointer issues.
8. Advanced Topics
8.1 Pointers and Structures
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struct Node {
int data;
struct Node *next;
};
8.2 Linked Lists
Singly, Doubly, Circular Lists.
9. Real-World Applications
9.1 Embedded Systems
Memory-mapped I/O registers.
9.2 OS Development
Kernel data structures.
10. Interview Questions & Exercises
10.1 Practice Problems
1. Reverse an array using pointers.
2. Implement a linked list.
3. Find memory leaks in given code.
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Swap Two Numbers
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#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int *a, int *b) {
int temp = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = temp;
}
int main() {
int x = 5, y = 10;
swap(&x, &y);
printf("x = %d, y = %d\n", x, y); // x = 10, y = 5
return 0;
}
2. Pointer Arithmetic
Sum of Array Elements
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#include <stdio.h>
int sumArray(int *arr, int size) {
int sum = 0;
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for(int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
sum += *(arr + i);
}
return sum;
}
int main() {
int arr[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
printf("Sum: %d\n", sumArray(arr, 5)); // Sum: 15
return 0;
}
3. String Operations
String Length (strlen)
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#include <stdio.h>
int strLen(char *str) {
char *ptr = str;
while(*ptr != '\0') ptr++;
return ptr - str;
}
int main() {
char s[] = "Hello";
printf("Length: %d\n", strLen(s)); // Length: 5
return 0;
}
4. Dynamic Memory Allocation
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Dynamic 2D Array
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main() {
int rows = 3, cols = 3;
int **matrix = (int **)malloc(rows * sizeof(int *));
for(int i = 0; i < rows; i++) {
matrix[i] = (int *)malloc(cols * sizeof(int));
for(int j = 0; j < cols; j++) {
matrix[i][j] = i + j;
}
}
// Print matrix
for(int i = 0; i < rows; i++) {
for(int j = 0; j < cols; j++) {
printf("%d ", matrix[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
// Free memory
for(int i = 0; i < rows; i++) free(matrix[i]);
free(matrix);
return 0;
}
5. Function Pointers
Calculator Using Function Pointers
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#include <stdio.h>
int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }
int subtract(int a, int b) { return a - b; }
int calculate(int (*op)(int, int), int x, int y) {
return op(x, y);
}
int main() {
printf("5 + 3 = %d\n", calculate(add, 5, 3)); // 8
printf("5 - 3 = %d\n", calculate(subtract, 5, 3)); // 2
return 0;
}
6. Advanced Pointer Concepts
Linked List Implementation
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
struct Node {
int data;
struct Node *next;
};
void append(struct Node **head, int value) {
struct Node *newNode = (struct Node *)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
newNode->data = value;
newNode->next = NULL;
if(*head == NULL) {
*head = newNode;
return;
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}
struct Node *last = *head;
while(last->next != NULL) last = last->next;
last->next = newNode;
}
void printList(struct Node *node) {
while(node != NULL) {
printf("%d -> ", node->data);
node = node->next;
}
printf("NULL\n");
}
int main() {
struct Node *head = NULL;
append(&head, 10);
append(&head, 20);
append(&head, 30);
printList(head); // 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> NULL
return 0;
}
7. Pointer Pitfalls
Dangling Pointer Example
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main() {
int *ptr = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int));
*ptr = 5;
free(ptr); // ptr is now dangling
// printf("%d\n", *ptr); // Undefined behavior!
ptr = NULL; // Proper fix
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return 0;
}
8. Embedded Systems Example
Memory-Mapped Register Access
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#include <stdint.h>
#define GPIO_PORT ((volatile uint32_t *)0x40020000)
int main() {
*GPIO_PORT = 0x1; // Turn on LED
uint32_t status = *GPIO_PORT; // Read status
return 0;
}
How to Compile & Run
1. Save each code snippet in a .c file (e.g., swap.c)
2. Compile:
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gcc swap.c -o swap
3. Run:
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./swap
Key Concepts Covered
Concept Example Programs
Basic Pointers Swap, Sum Array
String Operations strlen, strcpy
Dynamic Memory 2D Array, Linked List
Function Pointers Calculator
Embedded Systems Memory-Mapped I/O
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