DEENBANDHU CHHOTU RAM UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
MURTHAL SONIPAT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTERSHIP REPORT

REPORT SUBMITTED BY PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE

OF BTECH IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUKESH (21001009058)

MR. JITENDER KUMAR MR. PRAVEEN JANGRA

Internship Supervisor Faculty Member

Session 2024-2025

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 DEENBANDHU CHHOTU RAM UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY MURTHAL SONIPAT
INTERSHIP REPORT

DECLARATION BY STUDENT
We hereby certify that:

a. The work contained in this report has been done by SUKESH (21001009058)

& under the guidance of our supervisor and faculty mentor.

b. Wherever we have used materials from site. We have given due credit to them by citing
them in the text of the report and giving details in the references further We have taken
permission from the concerned authorities for using the data in our report and further
certify this data will be only used for academic purpose only.

DATE. SUKESH (21001009058)

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 DEENBANDHU CHHOTU RAM UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY MURTHAL SONIPAT

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Internship Report. Submitted in the partial fulfilment

of the requirements of the Degree of B. Tech. in Civil Engineering is completely

based on works and learnings by SUKESH (21001009058) who carried out

internship work under supervision of MR JITENDER KUMAR AND MR. PRAVEEN JANGRA.

SIGN SIGN

JITENDER KUMAR MR. PRAVEEN JANGRA

JUNIOR ENGINEER ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

PWD NARNAUL CED, DCRUSTM

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 DEENBANDHU CHOTU RAM UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY, MURTHAL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the
kind support and help of many individuals. We would like to extend our sincere thanks to
all of them.

We would like to express our gratitude towards our faculty mentor MR. PRAVEEN JANGRA

We are highly indebted to PwD Narnaul for their guidance and constant supervision as well
as for providing necessary information regarding the project & also for their support in
completing the project.

We would also like to express our gratitude towards our parents & member of department
for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project

SUKESH (21001009058)

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
Acknowledgement
1. Introduction
1.1 About
1.2 Specification of the project
1.3 Status of the project
1.4 Scope of project
1.5 Objective of the project
1.6 Purpose of the project
2. Literature review
2.1 Basic component of building
2.2 Step involve in building project
2.3 Steps involve during building construction
2.4 Materials
2.5 Types of load on structure
2.6 Concrete pavement
3. Experiment analysis and test
3.1 Testing on soil
3.2 Testing on cement
3.3 Testing of concrete
3.4 Testing on aggregate and sand
3.5 Testing of brick
4. Site work
4.1 Sequence of structural work
4.2 Construction process
4.3 RCC work
4.4 Construction of brick wall
4.5 Plastering
4.6 Construction of unreinfocement concrete pavement
5. Conclusion

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT

1.1 ABOUT

• The project of the location at Kanina ( Mahendergarh).

• My project work was the construction of SDO office building.
• This project is G+3 Storey building.
• The project was started on 15 August 2023 and the estimated date of
completion of the project is about 18 months.

1.2 Specification of the project

i. Department - PwD Narnaul

ii. Location - Kanina Mahendergarh
iii. Project - SDO Office building
iv. Estimated budget - 14.65Crore

1.3 Status of project

When I joined the project i.e. 08-07-2024 is in finishing stage.

1.4 Scope of the Project

Improved infrastructure: to provide modern and secure facilities for judicial purposes
replacing outdated buildings.

Efficiency: enhancing the efficiency of office by integrating advanced technologies such as

case management system video conferencing and electronic filing.

Safety and security: offering enhanced security measures for both court personal and
public, including secure facilities for high profile cases.

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1.5 Objective of the Project

The objective of the project is to implement the theoretical knowledge on the site. To gain
the practical knowledge of the site which helps in clearing the fundamental of civil
engineering. The quality of work and material are others aspects to learn from this project
work.

1.6 Purpose of the Project

• To provide modern and secure facilities for judicial purpose replacing outdated
building.
• Facilites the management and implementation of policies, programs and
operations at a more localize level making services accessible to stake holder in the
area.
• Acts as a hub for delivering services such as permits certification applications or
any administrative task related to its jurisdiction.
• Oversees activities within it juridiction ensuring adherence to regulation and
achieving sets goals or objective.
• Liaises with local entities such as schools, communities, organizations or
municipal offices to ensure efficient program implementation and compliance.
• Manages and distribute resources such as funding staff or material to local unites
effectively.
• Provides assistant to employes, institutions or residents in addressing concerns,
queries or issues specifics to the area.

1.7 Location of the Project

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 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Basic components of building

The basic components of a building structure are the foundation, floors, walls, beams, columns,
roof, stair, etc. These elements serve the purpose of supporting, enclosing and protecting the
building structure.

Basic components a building structure are mentioned below:

1. Roof
2. Parapet
3. Lintels
4. Beams
5. Columns
6. Damp proof course (DPC)
7. Walls
8. Floor
9. Stairs
10. Plinth Beam
11. Foundation
12. Plinth

1. Roof

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The roof forms the topmost component of a building structure. It covers the top face of the
building. Roofs can be either flat or sloped based on the location and weather conditions of the
area.

2. Parapet

Parapets are short walls extended above the roof slab. Parapets are installed for flat roofs. It acts
as a safety wall for people using the roof.

3. Lintels

Lintels are constructed above the wall openings like doors, windows, etc. These structures
support the weight of the wall coming over the opening. Normally, lintels are constructed by
reinforced cement concrete. In residential buildings, lintels can be either constructed from
concrete or from bricks

4. Beams and slabs

Beams and slabs form the horizontal members in a building. For a single storey building, the top
slab forms the roof. In case of a multi-storey building, the beam transfers the load coming from
the floor above the slab which is in turn transferred to the columns. Beams and slabs are
constructed by reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C).

5. Columns

Columns are vertical members constructed above the ground level. Columns can be of two types:
Architectural columns and structural columns. Architectural columns are constructed to improve
the building's aesthetics while a structural column takes the load coming from the slab above and
transfers safely to the foundation.

6. Damp proof course (DPC)

DPC is a layer of waterproofing material applied on the basement level to prevent the rise of
surface water into the walls. The walls are constructed over the DPC.

7. Walls

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Walls are vertical elements which support the roof. It can be made from stones, bricks, concrete
blocks, etc. Walls provide an enclosure and protect against wind, sunshine, rain etc. Openings
are provided in the walls for ventilation and access to the building.

8. Floors

The floor is the surface laid on the plinth level. Flooring can be done by a variety of materials
like tiles, granites, marbles, concrete, etc. Before flooring, the ground has to be properly
compacted and leveled.

9. Stairs

A stair is a sequence of steps that connects different floors in a building structure. The space
occupied by a stair is called as the stairway. There are different types of stairs like a wooden
stair, R.C.C stair etc.

10. Plinth beam

Plinth beam is a beam structure constructed either at or above the ground level to take up the
load of the wall coming over it.

11. Plinth

The plinth is constructed above the ground level. It is a cement-mortar layer lying between the
substructure and the superstructure.

12. Foundation

The Foundation is a structural unit that uniformly distributes the load from the superstructure
to the underlying soil. This is the first structural unit to be constructed for any building
construction. A good foundation prevents settlement of the building.

2.2 Steps involved in building project

There may be variations as every project is unique and follows different design and
construction process. In general, the basic steps involved in a building project are:

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1. Planning
2. Preparation of Construction Site
3. Foundation Construction
4. Superstructure Construction

1. PLANNING

The planning in building construction involves three major steps:

1. Developing the Building Plan

2. Analysing the Finance
3. Selecting the Construction Team

2. SITE PREPARATION

From here, the actual construction process starts. Based on the site and building plan, necessary
excavations, levelling, and filling can be undergone to prepare the site. The necessary
excavation for utilities, power, water and sanitation lines, temporary storage facilities are
prepared. Mostly the works needed to set up the utilities are prepared.

3. FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION

Building structures are generally constructed on concrete foundations. Based on the soil type
and water table level of the area, the foundation chosen can vary. If necessary, soil testing is
performed to check the bearing capacity.

4. SUPERSTRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

The superstructure is constructed once the substructure is complete. Generally, a framed

structured is developed which is later finished with masonry walls. Superstructure consists of the

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 all the elements above the plinth level, for example walls, roof, window, doors, etc.

2.3 Steps involved during building construction

A. SITE PREPARATION

From here, the actual construction process starts. Based on the site and building plan,
necessary excavations, levelling, and filling can be undergone to prepare the site. The
necessary excavation for utilities, power, water and sanitation lines, temporary storage
facilities are prepared. Mostly the works needed to set up the utilities are prepared.
Clearing grass and removal of the rubbish up to a distance of 50 m outside the periphery of
the area cleared. Earth work in excavation by mechanical means (Hydraulic excavator) /
manual means in foundation trenches or drains (not exceeding 1.5 m in width or 10 sqm on
plan), including dressing of sides and ramming of bottoms, lift up to 1.5 m, including
getting out the excavated soil and disposal of surplus excavated soil as directed, within a
lead of 50 m.

B. EXCAVATION

Excavation is the process of moving things like earth, rock, or other materials with tools,
equipment, or explosives. It includes earthwork, trenching, wall shafts, tunneling, and
underground. Excavation has several critical purposes, including exploration,
environmental restoration, mining, and construction.

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Guideline for excavation

• Avoid underground services and make sure not to undermine nearby structures –
use safe digging practice and dig away from them.
• Check the excavation each day before starting work and after any event that may
affect its stability.
• Provide safe access to get in and out.
• Prevent collapse – shore, bench, or batter back. Do not assume ground will stand
unsupported.
• Prevent people and materials falling in – with barriers strong enough not to collapse
if someone falls against them.

C. RCC works

Reinforced concrete (RCC) contains embedded steel bars, plates, or fibers reinforcing the
material. Such materials magnify the load-carrying capacity, and because of this, RCC
construction is commonly used in any building. Indeed, it has become the most frequently
used building material. It is one of the major developments of last decade's Real Estate
Technology. Especially in the field of Construction Technology.

Purpose of reinforcement

The purpose of reinforcement is to provide additional strength for concrete where it is

needed. The steel provides all the tensile strength where concrete is in tension, as in
beams and slabs; it supplements the compressive strength of concrete in columns and
walls; and it provides extra shear strength over and above that of concrete in beams.
There are some building components which are made from rcc:

1. Foundation and Footing

2. Column
3. Beams
4. Slab
5. Ramp
6. Staircase
7. Elevator shaft
8. Lintels

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a) Foundation and Footing

Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact
with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely. Generally, the
foundation can be classified into two, namely shallow foundation and deep foundation.

Sr. Shallow Deep

No Details Foundation Foundation
Deep means extending
1 far away from a point of
Meaning Shallow means having little reference, specially
depth. downwards. Extending
far down from the top or
surface.
2 Foundation which is placed Foundation which is
near the surface of the earth placed at a greater depth
Definition or transfers the loads at or transfers the loads to
shallow depth is called the deep strata is called the
shallow foundation. deep foundation.
3 Cost A shallow foundation is Deep foundation are
cheaper. generally more
expensive than shallow
foundation.
4 Types of foundation Shallow foundations Deep foundations
includes strip footing, include pile caps piles,
isolated footing, combined drilled piers and
footing, mat foundation and caissons.
grade beams.

Footing

A part of the foundation helps to transmit the load of the structure to soil with proper
distribution of the loads and it is made of concrete and reinforced cement concrete.
The foundation depends on the soil type and its bearing capacity. One can choose the type
of foundation or footing type by determining-
• Total dead load and live load of the structure, and
• Their bearing capacity of the soil.
Types of Shallow Foundation:

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1. Isolated footing
2. Combined footing
3. Wall footing
4. Cantilever or Strap footing
5. Strip footing
6. Mat or Raft Foundation

1. Isolated footing

It is the most commonly used footing, individually laid down and economical to use. It is
used where soil is in good condition. It depends on the factored load on the column and
safe bearing capacity of soil. If the factored load on the column is less, then this footing is
good for structure. It is used for two to three Storeys buildings. Generally, foundation depth
for 2 Storey to 3 Storeys buildings takes 1.5 m to 2 m.
The size of footing is in rectangular and square shape. It is also called pad footing. In this
footing the bearing capacity of soil is high.
There are different types of isolated footing
1. Pad footing.
2. Stepped footing.
3. Sloped footing.
4. Isolated beam and slab footing

2. Combined footing

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If two to three columns connected collectively with one single footing is called Combined
Footing. It provides where the distance between the two columns is small. The shape of
combined footing is in a rectangular or trapezoidal. It is the formation of two isolated
footings, together

3. Wall footing or strip footing

It is generally used as a load-bearing wall. The width of the footing is generally 2 -3 times
the thickness of the wall. This type of footing distributed all structure load into the soil. This
broader base of the footing area provides more stability to the structure. For the
construction of this footing, different materials like Brick, Stone, R.C.C, used. It is also
known as the Strip foundation. It can also be used for retaining wall foundation.

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4. Cantilever or strap footing

It is similar to the combined footing. In this footing, the exterior footing connected with
strap beam to the interior footing. In strap footing, the edge of the footing should not cross
the property line.

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5. Mat or raft footing

It is used where the bearing capacity of the soil is very low, base required in structure,
vertical load on the column are high, and columns are closed to each other. It covers the
entire area of the structure to support heavy column and wall loads.
If the area of foundation exceeds the total area of the building, we have to provide Mat or
Raft Foundation with Pile Foundation to make the structure stable.

Purpose of foundation

a. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.

b. To distribute the load of the structure over a large area so as to increase the lateral
stability of structure.
c. To anchor the structure against natural forces including earthquakes, floods, droughts,
frost heaves, tornadoes and wind.

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Requirement of good foundation

• The design and the construction of the foundation is done such that it can sustain
as well as transmit the dead and the imposed loads to the soil. This transfer has to
be carried out without resulting in any form of settlement that can result in any form
of stability issues for the structure.
• Differential settlements can be avoided by having a rigid base for the foundation.
These issues are more pronounced in areas where the superimposed loads are not
uniform in nature.
• Based on the soil and area it is recommended to have a deeper foundation so that it
can guard any form of damage or distress. These are mainly caused due to the
problem of shrinkage and swelling because of temperature changes.
• The location of the foundation chosen must be an area that is not affected or
influenced by future works or factors.
b) Column

Column is defined as a vertical compressive member which is subjected to a

compressive force or Column is a vertical structural member that carry loads
mainly in compression. It might transfer loads from a ceiling, floor slab, roof slab, or
from a beam, to a floor or foundations.

Longitudinal Reinforcement

The Steel Rod placed longitudinally in a column is known as Longitudinal reinforcement. It

is also known as main rod of a column.

Function of Longitudinal reinforcement

• It spread the compressive load to concrete.

• It resists Tensile Stress
• It Provides Ductility to column
• It reduces the effect of shrinkage.

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Lateral or Transverse reinforcement

The steel rod provided along the lateral dimension of the column is known as lateral or
Transverse reinforcement

Function of Transverse reinforcement

• It prevents buckling of the column due to excess load.

• It holds all the main or transverse reinforcement
• It Resists horizontal or diagonal tension on the column.

Type of columns

a) Tied Column

This type of column is commonly construction from reinforced concrete. Longitudinal

reinforcement are confined within closely spaced tie reinforcement. It is estimated that
95% of all columns in buildings are tied.

b) Spiral column

Spiral column is also construction from reinforced concrete. In this type of column,

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longitudinal bars are confined within closely spaced and continuously wound spiral
reinforcement. Spiral reinforcement provide lateral restrains (Poisson’s effect) and delays
axial load failure (ductile)

c) Composite column

When the longitudinal reinforcement is in the form of structural steel section or pipe
with or without longitudinal bars, it is called as a composite column. This type of
column have high strength with fairly small cross section, in addition to exhibit good
fire performance.

d) Axially Loaded Column

If vertical axial loads act on the center of gravity of the cross-section of the column,
then it is termed as axially loaded column. Axially loaded column is rare in
construction since coinciding vertical loads on the center of gravity of column cross
section is not practical. Interior column of multi-Storey buildings with symmetrical
loads from floor slabs from all sides is an example of this type of column.

e) Column with Uniaxially Eccentric Loading

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 When vertical loads do not coincide with center of gravity of column cross section,
but rather act eccentrically either on X or Y axis of the column cross section, then it
is called uniaxially eccentric loading column. Column with uniaxial loading are
generally encountered in the case of columns rigidly connected beam from one side
only such as edge columns.

f) Column with Biaxial eccentric loading

When vertical on the column is not coincide with center of gravity of column cross
section and does not act on either axis (X and Y axis), then the column is called
biaxially eccentric loaded column. Columns with biaxial loading is common in
corner columns with beams rigidly connected at right angles at the top of columns.

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 g) Long Column

If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension exceeds 12,
it is called as long column. A long column fails by bending or buckling.

h) Square or Rectangular Column

They are generally used in the construction of buildings. It is much easier to

construct and cast rectangular or square columns than circular ones because of
ease of shuttering and to support it from collapsing due to pressure while the
concrete is still in flowable form

i) Circular Column

They are specially designed columns, which are mostly used in piling and elevation
of the buildings.

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 End condition Effective length factor

1. Both end fixed 0.65L

2. One end fixed, one end hinged 0.80L

3. Both ends hinged 1.0L

4. One end fixed other end free 2.0L

Gerneral norms for RCC column design

• The minimum numbers of longitudinal bars in a column should not be less than
four in rectangular column and less than six in circular column.
• The longitudinal bars should not be less than 12 mm in diameter.
• Minimum clear cover should be 40mm.
• Minimum diameter of lateral reinforcement is lesser of 6mm or one fourth the
diameter of Main Reinforced bars.
• The cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement in a column should not
less than 0.8 percent and more than 6 percent of the gross cross-sectional area
of the column.

G. BRICK MASONRY:

Masonry is bricks or pieces of stone which have been stuck together with cement as part of
a wall or building. Masonry is the bricks and pieces of stone that are used to make a
building. Brick masonry is defined as the placement of bricks in a systematic manner using
mortar to bind the bricks together and create a solid mass that can withstand a great deal
of pressure.

General principle

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1. Good brick masonry should utilize bricks, which are sound, hard, well burnt and tough
with uniform color, shape and size.
2. The bricks should be compact, homogeneous, free form holes, cracks, flaws, air
bubbles and stone lumps and soaked in water for at least two hours before use.
3. In the brickwork, the bricks should be laid on their beds with the frogs pointing
upwards.
4. The brick courses should be laid truly horizontal and should have truly vertical joints.
5. As far as possible the use of brick – bats should be discouraged.
6. As far as possible the brick wall should be raised uniformly less than 1.5m in day with
proper bond.
7. When the mortar is green the face joints should be racked to a depth of 12 to 19mm in
order to have a proper key for plastering or pointing.
8. In order to ensure continuous bond between the old and new, the wall should be
stopped with a toothed end.
9. Finished brick work should be cured for a period of 2-3 weeks for lime mortar and 1-2
weeks for cement mortar.

Characteristic of brick bond or rules for loading

1. The brick masonry should have bricks of uniform shape and size.
2. For satisfactory bondage the lap should be one-fourth of the brick along the length of
the wall and half brick across thickness of the wall.
3. The vertical joints in the alternate courses should coincide with the center line of the
stretcher.
4. The alternate courses the center line of header should coincide with the center line of
stretcher, in course below or above it.
5. The stretcher should be used only in the facing while hearting should be done in the
headers only.

Types of bond

a) Stretcher Bond

It is the most commonly used bond. In this a pattern is made only using stretchers, with
the joins on each course centered above and below by half a brick. This type of bonding is
not particularly strong.

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 b) English Bond

This is a pattern formed by laying alternate courses of stretchers and headers. The joins
between the stretchers are centered on the headers in the course below. This is one of the
strongest bonds but requires more facing bricks than other bonds.

c) Flemish Bond

This is formed by laying headers and stretchers alternately in each course. The
headers of each course are centered on the stretchers of the course below.
This bond is strong and often used for walls which are two-bricks thick.
d) Header Bond

This bond features courses of headers offset by half a brick. It is similar to the
stretcher bond but with headers instead of stretchers.

Merits of English Bond

1. Avoids repetition of header faces in each course.

2. Often distinctly different from the color of stretcher faces.
3. Provides good strength.
4. Provides good stability.
5. No strict supervision and skill are demanded.
6. Can be preferred if plastering of finished wall is to be done.

Demerits of English Bond

1. Penetration of damp through transverse joint.

2. The appearance is not good as Flemish bond.
3. Quick oxidation.
4. Expensive as compared to Flemish bond.

Merits of Single Flemish Bond

1. It provides better appearance.

2. It can be made more economical by using cheap quality of bricks on the back of
the wall.
3. Economical as compared to English bond.

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 4. Can be preferred if only pointing is to be done to the finished wall.

Demerits of single Flemish Bond

1. It weakens the overall strength of the wall because of maximum use of brick bats.
and existence of continuous vertical joints.
2. It cannot be provided in walls having thickness less than one and half brick.
3. Less strong and compact compared to English bond.
4. Requires good workmanship and careful supervision.

H. PLASTERING

Plastering is a layer provide over masonry or concrete surface for the purpose of
protect wall and other concrete element against the atmospheric effect, and also
provide finishing surface.

Purpose of Plastering

1)Plastering is a method that is used to increase the durability of the wall. The
purpose of plastering is to decorate the structures of the walls. Plastering of
external walls refers to the process of covering the uneven surface and rough walls
with the help of a plastic material named as plaster.
2)The plaster is prepared by mixing sand and lime or cement concrete along with
water. There are various requirements of a plaster that must be fulfilled while doing
plastering of external walls.
3)To prevent water ingress into brickwork / blockwork, since both bricks and blocks
absorb water from outside. This is the reason why most stonework's are left un-
plastered.
4)In case of walls - to make up the issues in underlying brickwork / blockwork - like
plumb-outs, diagonal-outs, etc.
5)To prepare a proper base for further painting works (Putty application, paint
application, wall paper application, etc.)

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 Requirement of Good Plaster
• The surface of plaster should be smooth
• The surface of plaster should be nonabsorbent
• The plaster surface should not wash by water
• Plaster should not shrink when it dries or freezes
• The shrinkage cracks are not developed in plaster
• The plaster should be firmly attached to the masonry surface
• The fire resistance of plaster should be good
• The plaster should be sound insulated
• The surface of the plaster should be paintable

Different Layer of Plaster

❖ Three Coat Plaster

➢ Application of Rendering Coat
➢ Application of Floating Coat
➢ Application of Finishing Coat
❖ Two Coat Plaster
❖ Cement Plaster and Cement Lime Plaster
❖ Single Coat Plaster

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1) Three Coat Plaster

The procedure of applying three-coat plaster is similar to two-coat plaster only difference
is that an intermediate coat is known as a floating coat. The purpose of this coat is to bring
the plaster to an even surface. In the case of 3-coat plaster, the first coat is known id
rendering coat, the second coat is known as a floating coat, and third coat is known as
setting coat or finishing coat. The rendering coat is applied, and scratches are made. The
floating coat is applied, and after seven days finished coat is applied, after 6 hours of
applying a floating coat.

Application of Rendering Coat

The mortar is applied forcibly on the surface of wall. With masons trowel and pressed well
into joints and over the surface. The thickness of the coat should be such as to cover all
inequalities of the surface normally this thickness is 12mm.

This coat is allowed to harden slightly a then scratch marks are made on the surface with
the help of trowel ledge. During this period, the surface is curved and then allowed to dry
Completely.

Application of Floating Coat

The first coat is prepared properly to apply the second coat, i.e., a floating coat. All dirt and
dust are cleared. It is wetted properly. 10 cm wide strips or 15 cm x 15 cm patches are
applied at a suitable distance. These patches or strips act as a gauge for thickness or
floating coat. The mortar is dashed with mason’s trowel, spread, and rubbed to the
required plain surface with a wooden float. The floating coat is beaten with floats edge at
the close spacing of cm. Then it is allowed to dry completely. The thickness or floating coat
is 6 to 9 mm.

Application of Finishing Coat

The third coat is called a finishing coat. In the Case of lime-sand mortar, the finishing coat
is applied immediately after the floating coat cream of lime and sand in 4:1 are applied
with a steel trowel and rubbed and finished smooth.

2) Two Coat Plaster

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The joints are ranked at a depth of 20 mm. The surface is cleaned, and water is sprinkled
property on it. Before the first coat is applied preliminary coat is applied to make an uneven
surface in le. Then, the first coat is applied. The first coat is racked as a rendering coat. The
thickness first coat is kept 2 to 3 mm less than a total thickness of plaster. To maintain
interim thickness and vertically of plaster 15 cm * 15 cm dots or are provided, then a
vertical strip of mortar known as the spread is formed at a distance of 2 m. spacing. Then
the spaces between screeds are filled with mortar and properly finished. Scratches are
made on rendering coat to provide mechanical key before it hardens. The rendering coat is
watered for 2 days and then dried.
Before applying the final/coat, the rendering coat is damped well. The final coat is applied
with wooden floats to a true even surface with steel trowels. The thickness of the final coat
may vary from 2 to 3 mm.

3) Single Coat Plaster

This is used only in interior quality work. It is applied similar to two coat plaster except that
the rendering coat as applied fro two-coat plaster is finishing off immediately after it has
sufficiently hardened

4) Cement Plaster and Cement Lime Plaster

For interior work single coat plaster is applied. For good quality works, either two coat or
three coat plaster is applied. But two coat plaster is more common sow shall discuss it
first.

Guidelines for plastering

Pre-plaster inspection phases:

• The thickness of plaster should not surpass 15mm. If necessary, the plastering
should be performed in 2 coats. The first layer used should be cured for a day prior
to deploy the following coats
• All surfaces in concrete should be hacked/Chipped prior to plastering with the
purpose of providing a good bonding among plaster and concrete
• The following points should be taken into consideration during Plastering:
• All surfaces prepared for plastering should be soaked to get rid of absorption of
water from plaster Mix should be maintained according to specification but
normally it is 1:2 or 1-3 for ceiling and 1:3 or 1:4 for wall plastering.

30
 • Mix of mortar should be accomplished with Measuring Box (Farma) for volumetric
batching.
• Mix comprehensively for making it level and the mortar should be applied within 30
minutes to 1- hour maximum.
• Grooves and mortar bands should be provided when the plaster is soaked.
• If case of lime rendering, execute it within 3 to 4 hours of the setting of cement
mortar once the plastering is completed.
• As soon as the plastering work is finished, curing should be performed for minimum
3 days
• It is recommended to apply potable water/ sweet water for curing Care required
after Plastering:
• Cure the works for at least 7 days

2.4 Materials

There are many materials used on site during construction on lintel, fire sprinkler system,
wall, plastering, etc.

Material used during construction of wall:

➢ Bricks
➢ Cement
➢ Water
➢ Dust
➢ Sand

Material used during construction of lintel:

➢ Steel
➢ Sand
➢ Aggregate
➢ Cement
➢ Water

31
 ➢ Shuttering material
➢ Cover block

Material used during construction of plaster:

➢ Sand
➢ Cement
➢ Water

Material used during construction of fire sprinkler system:

➢ Steel pipe
➢ Anchor bolts
➢ Clamp
➢ Angle
➢ Red paint

BRICK:

A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry
construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of dried clay, but is now
also used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can be
joined using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them. In India, standard brick size is 190
mm x 90 mm x 90 mm as per the recommendation of BIS. With mortar thickness, the
dimension of the brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm which is also known as the
nominal size of the modular brick.

Classification of bricks as per common practice:

Bricks, which are used in construction works, are burnt bricks. They are classified into four
categories on the basis of its manufacturing and preparation, as given below.
➢ First class bricks
➢ Second class bricks
➢ Third class bricks
➢ Fourth class bricks

1. First Class brick:

32
 These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape and they are burnt in kilns.
The surface and edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight. They
comply with all the qualities of good bricks. These bricks are used for superior work
of permanent nature.

2. Second Class brick:

These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in kilns. The surface of these
bricks is somewhat rough and shape is also slightly irregular. These bricks may have
hair cracks and their edges may not be sharp and uniform. These bricks are
commonly used at places where brick work is to be provided with a coat of plaster.

3. Third Class brick:

These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in clamps. These bricks are not
hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted edges. These bricks
give dull sound when struck together. They are used for unimportant and temporary
structures and at places where rainfall is not heavy.

4. Fourth Class brick:

These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark color. These bricks are
used as aggregate for concrete in foundations, floors, roads etc, because of the fact
that the over burnt bricks have a compact structure and hence they are sometimes
found to be stronger than even the first class bricks.

Classification of Bricks as per constituent materials:

There are various types of bricks used in masonry.

➢ Common Burnt Clay Bricks
➢ Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)
➢ Engineering Bricks
➢ Concrete Bricks

33
 ➢ Fly ash Clay Bricks

1. Common burnt clay bricks:

Common burnt clay bricks are formed by pressing in Moulds. Then these bricks
are dried and fired in a kiln. Common burnt clay bricks are used in general work
with no special attractive appearances. When these bricks are used in walls,
they require plastering or rendering.

2. Sand Lime bricks:

Sand lime bricks are made by mixing sand, fly ash and lime followed by a
chemical process during wet mixing. The mix is then moulded under pressure
forming the brick. These bricks can offer advantages over clay bricks such as:
their color appearance is grey instead of the
regular reddish color. Their shape is uniform and presents a smoother finish that
doesn’t require plastering. These bricks offer excellent strength as a load-
bearing member.

3. Engineering Bricks:

Engineering bricks are bricks manufactured at extremely high temperatures,

forming a dense and strong brick, allowing the brick to limit strength and water
absorption. Engineering bricks offer excellent load bearing capacity damp-proof
characteristics and chemical resisting properties.

4. Concrete Bricks:

Concrete bricks are made from solid concrete. Concrete bricks are usually
placed in facades, fences, and provide an excellent aesthetic presence. These
bricks can be manufactured to provide different colors as pigmented during its
production.

5. Fly Ash Clay Bricks:

34
 Fly ash clay bricks are manufactured with clay and fly ash, at about 1,000
degrees C. Some studies have shown that these bricks tend to fail poor produce
pop-outs, when bricks come into contact with moisture and water, causing the
bricks to expand.

Characteristic of good bricks:

➢ Bricks should be uniform in color, size and shape. Standard size of brick
should be maintained.
➢ They should be sound and compact.
➢ They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone
nodules etc. with sharp and square edges.
➢ Bricks should not absorb more than 1⁄5 of their own weight of water when
immersed in water for 24 hours (15% to 20% of dry weight).
➢ The compressive strength of bricks should be in range of 2000 to 5000 psi (15
to 35 MPa).
➢ Salt attack hampers the durability of brick. The presence of excess soluble
salts in brick also causes efflorescence. The percentage of soluble salts
(sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium) should not
exceed 2.5% in brunt bricks.
➢ Brick should not change in volume when wetted.
➢ Bricks should neither overburnt nor under-brunt.
➢ The thermal conductivity of bricks should be low as it is desirable that the
building built with them should be cool in summer and warm in winter.
➢ Bricks should be non-inflammable and incombustible.

CEMENT:
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials
together. Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or
non-hydraulic, depending upon the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of
water. Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather it sets as
it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air.

Use of Cement:
➢ Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster and pointing etc.
➢ Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather shed,
stairs, pillars etc.

35
 ➢ Construction for important engineering structures such as bridge, culverts, dams,
tunnels, light house, clocks, etc.
➢ Construction of water, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lamp posts, telephone
cabins etc.
➢ Making joint for joints, pipes, etc.
➢ Manufacturing of precast pipes, garden seats, artistically designed wens, flower
posts, etc.
➢ Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.

Ordinary Portland Cement

Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the
world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small
quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a process known as
calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate
to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that
have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then
ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland
Cement'(often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete,
mortar and most non-specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the
production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel
and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost
any shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element.
Portland cement may be grey or white.

➢ This type of cement use in construction when there is no exposure to sulphates in

the soil or ground water.
➢ Lime saturation Factor is limited between i.e. 0.66 to 1.02.
➢ Free lime-cause the Cement to be unsound.
➢ Percentage of (AL2O3/Fe2O3) is not less than 0.66.
➢ Insoluble residue not more than 1.5%.
➢ Percentage of SO3 limited by 2.5% when C3A < 7% and not more than 3% when C3A
>7%.
➢ Loss of ignition -4%(max)
➢ Percentage of Mg0-5% (max.)
➢ Fineness -not less than 2250 cm2/g.

Water

36
Water is one of the most important elements in construction but people still ignore quality
aspect of this element. The water is required for preparation of mortar, mixing of cement
concrete and for curing work etc during construction work. The quality and quantity of
water has much effect on the strength of mortar and cement concrete in construction
work.

Quality of Water

The water used for mixing and curing should be clean and free from injurious quantities of
alkalis, acid, oils, salt, sugar, organic materials, vegetable growth and other substances
that may be deleterious to bricks, stone, concrete or steel. Potable water is generally
considered satisfactory for mixing. The pH value of water should be not less than 6.

Effects of bad quality water on cement concrete

➢ Presence of salt in water such as Calcium Chloride, Iron Salts, inorganic salts and
sodium etc. are so dangerous that they reduce initial strength of concrete and in
some cases no strength can be achieved. There is rusting problem in steel provided
in RCC.
• Presence of acid, alkali, industrial waste, sanitary sewage and water with sugar also
reduce the strength of concrete.
• Presence of silt or suspended particle in water has adverse effect on strength of
concrete.
• Presence of oil such as linseed oil, vegetable oil or mineral oil in water above 2 %
reduces the strength of concrete up to 25 %. Presence of algae/vegetable growth in
water used for mixing in cement concrete reduce of the strength of concrete
considerably and also reduce the bond between cement paste and aggregate.

DUST

Dust can be used in construction works. It is used as a binding material and can be a
possible replacement for fine aggregates i.e. sand. It is majorly used in various
construction industries such as building construction, road construction, etc. But
using dust in place of sand decreases the compressive strength of the concrete if there
is a rise in water cement ratio as quarry dust has the tendency to absorb water.

STEEL

37
 Most concrete used for construction is a combination of concrete and reinforcement
that is called reinforced concrete. Reinforcement for concrete is provided by
embedding deformed steel bars or welded wire fabric within freshly made concrete at
the time of casting. The purpose of reinforcement is to provide additional strength for
concrete where it is needed. The steel provides all the tensile strength where concrete
is in tension, as in beams and slabs; it supplements the compressive strength of
concrete in columns and walls; and it provides extra shear strength over and above that
of concrete in beams.

AGGREGATES

Aggregate’ is a term for any particulate material. It includes gravel, crushed stone,
sand, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregate may be natural,
manufactured or recycled.
• Aggregates make up some 60 -80% of the concrete mix. They provide compressive
strength and bulk to concrete.
• Aggregates in any particular mix of concrete are selected for their durability,
strength, workability and ability to receive finishes.
• For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of
absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause
the deterioration of concrete.
• Aggregates are divided into either ‘coarse’ or ‘fine’ categories.
• Coarse aggregates are particulates that are greater than 4.75mm. The usual range
employed is between 9.5mm and 37.5mm in diameter.
• Fine aggregates are usually sand or crushed stone that are less than 9.55mm in
diameter.
• Typically, the most common size of aggregate used in construction is 20mm. A
larger size, 40mm, is more common in mass concrete.
• Larger aggregate diameters reduce the quantity of cement and water needed.

COVER BLOCKS

In construction, cover blocks are used to ensure that reinforcing bars or rebars are put
into the concrete at the proper depth. In order to preserve the rebar from environmental

38
 variables including weathering, erosion and corrosion, the proper depth is crucial. The
structure may become weaker and more prone to failure if the rebar is not covered.

Membre Minimum cover

Slab 20mm
Beam 20mm
Column 40mm for d > 12mm
25mm for d < 12m
Footing 50mm

Exposure Nominal concrete

cover in mm not less
than
Mild 20
Moderate 30
Severe 45
Very Severe 50
Extreme 75

Cover blocks are small concrete elements that are used to maintain the required
cover between the reinforcement and the outer surface of a reinforced concrete
element. They are essential for preventing the steel bars from coming into direct
contact with environmental elements like moisture and corrosion-causing agents.
Grade of cover block = M25
Size of cover block = 40mm

2.5 Types of loads on structure

Various types of loads on a structure can cause stress or deformation in the structure. This
causes structural issues and even structural failure. Determining the overall load on
structures is a crucial and complicated process in structural design.
To determine the total load on structures, different types of loads acting on the structure
and their combination is one of the important parameters that need to be understood.

Different types of loads in civil engineering

Any structure must be created to be sufficiently strong to support any type of load at any

39
moment during its expected lifetime. IS: 875–1987 is the Indian Standard Code that gives
design considerations for various types of loads acting on a structure. These different
types of loads have been listed below:
➢ Dead Loads
➢ Imposed Loads
➢ Wind Loads
➢ Snow Loads
➢ Earthquake Loads

Dead loads

Dead loads are those types of loads that are permanent or immobile and are applied to a
structure over its entire lifetime. Dead load is generally caused by the own weight of
structural elements such as walls, roofs, beams, columns, etc., stationary equipment, and
the weight of various materials. The volume of each element is multiplied by the unit
weight of the material used for that element to determine the dead loads for each
structure. Unit weight of some of the materials commonly used in construction has been
listed below:

Materials Unit weight

Brick work 19 KN/m^3
Timber 6-8 KN/m^3
Plane cement concrete 24 KN/m^3
Reinforced cement concrete 25 KN/m^3
steel 78.5 KN/m^3

Imposed load or live load

Imposed or live loads are those types of loads that change with time. Live loads consist of
moving loads or movable loads such as the weight of the furniture, people occupying the
floor etc. The designer appropriately assumes these types of loads. The minimum value of
live loads for some of the important types of occupancy as per IS: 875–1987 has been
mentioned.

Wind load

40
Wind loads are generally horizontal loads caused due to the movement of air relative to the
earth surface. These types of loads are not considered for the design of small and low-rise
buildings but are assumed for high-rise buildings. As per IS: 875 (Part 3), the design wind
load depends upon wind speed, topography, location and shape of the structure, etc. The
design speed of wind Vz at any height z can be calculated as
VZ=k1k2k3Vb
where k1 = risk coefficient
k2 = Coefficient based on terrain, height, and size of the structure
k3 = topography factor
Vb = basic wind speed (m/sec)
The design wind pressure (pz) at a height z is given as
pz=0.6VZ2
where VZ is in m/s
pz is in N/m2

Snow load

The snow loads are to be considered for the buildings located in the regions where snow is
likely to fall. These types of loads act vertically downward. A roof’s shape plays a
significant role in the value of snow load. The design snow load on the plan area of the roof
or any other area above ground can be calculated as-
S=μS0
where S = design snow load
μ = shape coefficient
S0 = ground snow load

Earthquake loads

Shocks due to earthquakes can cause movement of the foundation of structures. Due to
these movements, additional inertial forces develop in the superstructure. Total vibration
caused by an earthquake may be resolved in three mutually perpendicular directions. (One
vertical and two horizontal directions). The movement in the vertical direction does not
cause significant forces in the superstructure, but movements in horizontal directions
need special consideration. The type of soil, the size, and method of construction, as well
as the duration and severity of ground motion, all affect how the building responds to
ground vibration. The details of such estimates for structures standing on soils that will not
noticeably settle or slide due to an earthquake are provided in IS 1893-2014.

41
 CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENT ANALYSIS AND TEST
TESTING

Building material testing helps in construction by disclosing any issues that may lead to
future deformities. Building material testing helps to identify future risks which could easily
be prevented after the testing results are understood by the executive.
The lab is used to determine the physical properties of building construction materials like
cement, fine and coarse aggregate. Students can design the mix, make the specimens and
test the same for their respective strengths.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTING

➢ Testing on soil
➢ Testing on cement
➢ Testing on aggregate and sand
➢ Testing on concrete
➢ Testing on brick

3.1 TESTING ON SOIL

Standard proctor test

Theory:

The determination of the relation between the water content and the dry density of soil. The
optimal moisture content at which a given soil type will become most dense and achieve
its maximum dry density.

Procedure:

1) Take a 5-kg sample of air-dried soil passing the 20 mm IS test sieve. The sample shall be
mixed thoroughly with about 5% of water at starting.
2) Weight the empty mould. with baseplate attached. The mould shall be placed on a solid
base and the moist soil shall be compacted into the mould, with the extension attached, in

42
three layers or approximately equal mass, each layer being given 25 blows from the 2'6.kg
rammer dropped from a height of 310 mm above the soil.
3) The extension. hall be removed and the compacted soil shall be levelled off carefully to
the top of the mould by means of the straightedge. The mould and. soil then to be weighed.
4) The compacted soil specimen shall be removed from the mould and placed in the
mixing tray. The water content of a representative sample of the specimen shall be
determine.
5) The remainder of the soil specimen be broken up then mixed with the remainder of
the original sample, now add more percentage of water to the soil sample and repeat the
same procedure until the weight of the soil is start decreasing. the range of moisture
content should be such that the optimum moisture content, at which the maximum dry
density occurs is reached.
6) A graph between the maximum density and water content shall be plotted.

3.2 Field test of cement

The following tests should undergo before mixing the cement at construction sites:

Color test of cement

The color of the cement should not be uneven. It should be a uniform grey color with a light
greenish shade.

Presence of lumps

The cement should not contain any hard lumps. These lumps are formed by the absorption
of moisture content from the atmosphere. The cement bags with lumps should be avoided
in construction.

Cement adulteration test

The cement should be smooth if you rubbed it between fingers. If not, then it is because of

43
adulteration with sand.

Date of manufacturing

It is very important to check the manufacturing date because the strength of cement
decreases with time. It's better to use cement before 3 months from the date of
manufacturing.

3.3 Testing on aggregate

SIEVE ANALYSIS

Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of the coarse and fine
aggregates. This is done by sieving the aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part I) – 1963. In this we
use different sieves as standardized by the IS code and then pass aggregates through them
and thus collect different sized particles left over different sieves.
The apparatus used are –
i) A set of IS Sieves of sizes – 80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm,31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm,
12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm, 300µm, 150µm and
75µm.
ii) Balance

Procedure to determine particle size distribution of aggregates.

i) The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110 + 5oC and weighed.
ii) The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves.
iii) On completion of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed.

44
iv) Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a percentage of the total
sample weight.
v) Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of aggregates retained
on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100.

Impact value test

The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to
sudden shock or impact, which in some aggregates differs from its resistance to a slow
compressive load.

Procedure

1. The test sample shall consist of aggregate the whole of which passes a 12.5 mm IS Sieve
and is retained on a 10 mm IS Sieve. The aggregate comprising the test sample shall be
dried in an oven for a period of four hours at a temperature of 100 to 110°C and cooled.
2. The measure shall be filled about one-third full with the aggregate and tamped with 25
strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod. Further similar quantity of aggregate shall
be added and a further tamping of 25 strokes given. The measure shall finally be filled to
overflowing, tamped 25 times and the surplus aggregate struck off, using the tamping rod
as a straight edge. The net weight of aggregate in the measure shall be determined to the
nearest 3. The impact machine shall rest without wedging or packing upon the level plate,
block or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns are vertical.
4. The cup shall be fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of the
test sample placed in it and compacted by a single tamping of 25 strokes of the tamping
rod.
5. The hammer shall be raised until its lower face is 380 mm above the upper surface of the
aggregate in the cup, and allowed to fall freely on to the aggregate. The test sample shall be
subjected to a total of 15 such blows each being delivered at an interval of not less than
one second.
6. The crushed aggregate shall then be removed from the cup and the whole of it sieved on
the 2.36 mm IS Sieve until no further significant amount passes in one minute. The fraction
passing the sieve shall be weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 g (Weight. B).
7. The fraction retained on the sieve shall also be weighed (Weight C) and, if the total
weight (C+B) is less than the initial weight (Weight A) by more than one gram, the result
shall be discarded and a fresh test made. Two tests shall be made. gram (Weight A).

45
3.4 Testing of concrete

SLUMP TEST

The concrete slump test measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is
performed to check the workability of freshly made concrete, and therefore the ease with
which concrete flows. It can also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch.
The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure. The
slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different loads of concrete under field
conditions.

Equipment required for slump test

Mold for slump test i.e. slump cone, non-porous base plate, measuring scale, temping rod.
The mold for the test is in the form of the frustum of a cone having height 30 cm, bottom
diameter 20 cm and top diameter 10 cm. The tamping rod is of steel 16 mm diameter and
60cm long and rounded at one end.

Procedure for slump test

➢ Clean the internal surface of the mould and apply oil.

➢ Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non- porous base plate.
➢ Fill the mould with the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately equal layers.
➢ Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a uniform
manner over the cross section of the mould. For the subsequent layers, the tamping
should penetrate into the underlying layer.
➢ Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel.
➢ Clean away the mortar or water leaked out between the mould and the base plate.
➢ Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical direction.
➢ Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould and that of
height point of the specimen being tested.

Results of slump test for concrete

The slump test is done for all the different constituents used in the site like column, slabs,
etc. In general slump required for the column will be more as compared to slab because in

46
column large quantity of steel is required. Hence in our site the slump is checked for the
column casting.

Sr. Description of works Recommended slump value(mm)

No.
1 Road work 25-50
2 Ordinary beam, slab 50-100
3 Column of thin vertical section, 75-125
retaining wall etc.
4 Mass concrete 25-50
When the slump test is carried out following are the shape of concrete slump that can be
observed

47
3.5 Testing of bricks

Field test on bricks

A field test on bricks gives the idea about its basic quality based on its shape, size and
color at first observation without any big appliances. They are the very common and
easiest way to check the quality of brick. Field tests of brick are very helpful on the site.
Some very common tests of brick that is followed to find if brick is good at first observation
are as follows:

Shape and size clay bricks

The clay bricks should have a uniform rectangular plan surface, as per standard size and
sharp straight edges. BSI recommends the standard size of brick is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90
mm and constructional size is 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm.

Visual inspection

In this test bricks are closely inspected for its shape. The bricks of good quality should be
uniform in shape and should have truly rectangular shape with sharp edges.

CHAPTER 4: SITE WORK

4.1 Sequence of structural work

1. Site clearance

2. Demarcation of Site

3. Surveying & Layout

4. Excavation

5. Laying of PCC

48
6. Bar binding and placement of foundation steel.

7. Concreting

8. Brickwork

9. Plastering

10. Flooring work

11. Painting

4.2 Construction process and materials used

Site Preparation- The start of construction begins with the preparation and clearance of
the site.

Site Clearance- It involves removal of grass and vegetation.

Demarcation – The whole area on which construction is to be done is marked so as to

identify the construction zone.

Excavation – It is carried out both manually and mechanically. Adequate precautions must
be taken to see that the excavation operations do not damage the adequate structures.

Cement – When water is mixed with cement, the paste so formed remains pliable and
plastic for a short time. As a reaction between water and cement continuous the paste
loses its plasticity. This early period in the hardening of cement is referred as setting of
cement.

Coarse Aggregate – It should be hard, strong, dense, durable, clean and free from clay or
loamy admixtures.

Fine aggregate- It is added to concrete to assist workability and to bring uniformity in

mixture.

Brickwork- Brick is masonry done with bricks and mortar and is generally used to build
partition walls.

49
Reinforcement- Plain concrete without steel or any other reinforcement is strong in
compression but week in tension. Steel is one of the best forms of reinforcements to take
care of stresses and to strengthen concrete to bear all kinds of loads.

Shuttering

It includes all forms, moulds, sheeting, planks, standards, struts, structures, ties,
bolts and all other temporary supports to the concrete during the process of sheeting.

4.3 RCC WORK

Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) is the combination of ordinary concrete with the
reinforcement to increase its compressive and tensile strength to a great extent.
Concrete is a versatile material for modern construction which is prepared by mixing well-
proportioned quantities of cement, sand, crushed rock or gravel, and water.

Purpose of reinforcement

➢ As you know that, Concrete has a very high compressive strength, but it is low in
tensile strength.
➢ Thus, when only the compressive loads are acting on the concrete surface, then
there is no need of using reinforcement in it.
➢ But where tensile forces are also involved, as in, beams and slabs, there is a very
high risk of its failure when plain concrete is used.
➢ Steel, however, as we know, has a very high tensile strength (and also have good
➢ compressive strength).
➢ Hence, when these two (concrete and steel) are combined together, a material of
➢ construction is obtained that is capable of withstanding all the three types of forces
likely to act upon a Structure, i.e., compressive loads, tensile stresses, and shear
forces.
➢ Such a material is known as Reinforced Cement Concrete.

4.4 Construction of brick wall

Tools used for making wall

50
 ➢ String
➢ Spirit level
➢ Tape
➢ Masonry trowel
➢ Plumb bob
➢ Hoe
➢ Wheel barrow
➢ Hammer
➢ Wire brush
➢ Rubber boots
➢ Gloves
➢ Shallow pan

Material used in wall construction

➢ Bricks
➢ Cement
➢ Sand
➢ Water
➢ Dust

Steps involved in construction of wall

Step 1: Start your brick wall at the corners

Firstly, lay out the bricks at both ends of your wall where the pillars will start. This should
be done after any necessary foundations have been prepared. Using your string line, make
straight guideline at brick height between the two outside bricks.

Step 2: Mix the mortar

Following this, heap five shovels full of sand and one of cement on an old board. Turn
shovel to mix to a consistent color. Form a central hollow, pour in water and mix. Repeat
for a smooth, creamy texture that’s wet but not too loose.
Step 3: Lay the first course of bedding mortar

Next you should lay a 1-2cm mortar bed along the string line. Starting at one end, lay the
first brick and tap slightly to ‘bed in’. ‘Butter up’ one end of the next brick with mortar and
abut it to the first. Repeat using string line as a guide.

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Step 4 build up the brick pillars

At the point where you want your pillars to start, place a brick side-on to the end of the
wall. As you build up the wall, each consecutive course of pillar bricks must be laid in the
opposite direction.

Step 5: Cutting bricks

When building pillars, at certain courses you’ll need to lay half-bricks. To make a cut, place
the brick on its side, locate the bolster at the split point and strike the head firmly with a
club hammer. It should split cleanly first time.

Step 6: Keep the pillars one course ahead

Always build at least a course higher on the pillars than the rest of the wall. Move the string
line up as you build, bedding it into the mortar on the pillars. For a stretcher bond, the end
of each brick should be over the Centre of the one beneath.

4.5 Plastering

Tools used in plastering

➢ Plasterer’s trowel: - Tools to scoop the plaster and apply it on the wall.
➢ Scraper: - To roughen the plaster surface for preparation of finishing plaster
(sometime worker use their trowels to roughen the plaster applied)
➢ The hawk: - To hold or acts as a small reservoir for the plaster, while plasterer apply
plaster to the wall.
➢ Large bucket: - For mixing of plaster to take place.
➢ Angle bending: - for much easier and neater corner.
➢ Mixture: - For mixing purpose, better if it is an electrical motorized mixture for best
mixing process.

Materials used in plaster

• Ordinary Portland cement

• Sand

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 • Water

Steps involved used in plastering

Step1 Curing of wall

Step2 Mix the plaster
Step3 Apply neat cement on wall
Step4 Apply plaster mortar on wall (hacking when apply on concrete surface)
Step5 Skim and smoothing
Step6 Making grove at intersection of brick and concrete

Defect after plastering

➢ Efflorescence on plastered surface

➢ Falling out of plaster

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 Chapter 5: Conclusion

The internship done in the field of Construction of Construction of SDO OFFICE kanina,
Mahendergarh under the department of PwD Narnual helps to inculcate very brief
knowledge about this field. It was quite interesting to applies all theoretical concepts to
practically in the field. It was really a very good opportunity to learn and enhance our skills
in the field of civil engineering. This internship opportunity helps to strengthen the
fundamentals of the civil engineering. The working at site is really challenging and on the
other side quite interesting too. We were able to acquire a high level of confidence to deal
with problems that arise in a building construction. The experiments performed helps to
clarify the quality of materials used and it’s really a very glad and interesting opportunities
to find the defects in the site. This project helps to shape us a real site worker. Working
with experienced engineers has enhanced my technical skills to a great extent for which I
am grateful to them. Their professional approach towards work is appreciable. As the
project is under the PwD Narnual department so we even get to know the working of
department that is about the office work. So, it’s very clear that all the knowledge gained in
the six months of internship will helps a lot in the coming future.

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References
1. A Text-Book of Building Construction, S.P.Bindra and S.P.Arora, Dhanpat Rai
Publications
2. Building Materials and Construction, Jena and Sahu, Mc. Graw Hill.
3. Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Mamlouk and Zaniewski, Pearson
4. Building Materials and Building Construction, by P C Verghese
5. Building Construction, by B. C. Punia, Laxmi Publicaton
6. Google
7. Is 456

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