Name: Khansa Umer
Roll no: 23251401033
Section: B (Reg.)
Course Title: Environmental science
Course Code: GEDU-211P
Teacher: Dr. Fariha
Lahore Collage for Women University (LCWU),
Department of Graphic Design.
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Table of Contents
S. No. TOPICS Pg. No.
1. Biotic & Abiotic 3
2. Geological Time Scale (GTS) 10
3. News Articles of “Natural Disasters” 18
4. Earth Day Celebrations Report 22
5. Water Pollution 24
6. Air Pollution 27
7. Solid Waste 29
8. Species Diversity 32
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Practical # 1
Biotic & Abiotic Components
“BIOTIC Components”
Biotic components are all the living things in an ecosystem. They are the
animals, the plants and the microorganisms. Biotic components also include
the waste from living things and dead organisms.
They can be broadly classified into three main categories:
• Producers (Autotrophs)
• Consumers (Heterotrophs)
• Decomposers
Factors:
Producers (Autotrophs):
• These are organisms that produce their own food through
photosynthesis (using sunlight) or chemosynthesis (using chemical
energy).
• Examples: Plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria
• Role: They form the base of the food chain by supplying energy to other
organisms.
Consumers (Heterotrophs):
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• These organisms depend on other living things for food because they
cannot produce their own.
• Types of consumers:
➢ Herbivores (Primary consumers): Eat plants (e.g., deer, cows,
grasshoppers).
➢ Carnivores (Secondary & Tertiary consumers): Eat other animals (e.g.,
lions, hawks, snakes).
➢ Omnivores: Eat both plants and animals (e.g., humans, bears, raccoons).
➢ Detritivores: Feed on decaying organic matter (e.g., earthworms,
vultures, crabs).
Decomposers:
• These organisms break down dead plants, animals, and waste into
nutrients, recycling them into the ecosystem.
• Examples: Bacteria, fungi, some insects (like maggots)
• Role: They help maintain soil fertility and the natural balance of
ecosystems.
Importance of Biotic Components:
• They maintain the food chain and energy flow in ecosystems.
• They help in nutrient cycling (e.g., decomposers returning nutrients to
the soil).
• They support biodiversity and ecosystem stability.
“Abiotic Components”
Abiotic components are the non-living physical and chemical factors in an
ecosystem that influence living organisms. These components interact with
biotic (living) components to create a balanced environment.
They can be broadly classified into three main categories:
• Climatic Factors (Affect weather and climate)
• Edaphic (Soil-Related) Factors
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• Topographic Factors
• Chemical Factors
Factors:
Climatic Factors (Affect weather and climate):
• Sunlight: Essential for photosynthesis, influences temperature and
climate.
• Temperature: Determines the survival and distribution of organisms.
Some thrive in cold regions (polar bears), while others need warmth
(reptiles).
• Precipitation (Rain, Snow, Fog): Affects water availability, influencing
plant growth and animal survival.
• Wind: Helps with pollination, seed dispersal, and temperature
regulation.
• Humidity: Affects transpiration in plants and the hydration levels of
organisms.
Edaphic (Soil-Related) Factors:
• Soil Type: Determines the kinds of plants that can grow (e.g., sandy,
clayey, loamy).
• Soil pH: Influences nutrient availability and microbial activity.
• Mineral Content: Provides essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium for plant growth.
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Topographic Factors:
• Altitude: Higher altitudes have lower oxygen levels and cooler
temperatures, affecting vegetation and animal life.
• Slope & Terrain: Steep areas may have less vegetation, while flat regions
support rich plant growth.
• Water Bodies: Presence of rivers, lakes, and oceans impacts biodiversity
and climate.
Chemical Factors:
• Oxygen (O₂): Essential for respiration in animals and plants.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Used by plants for photosynthesis.
• Nitrogen (N₂): Vital for plant growth, absorbed from the soil as nitrates.
• Salinity: Affects freshwater and marine ecosystems. Some plants (mangroves)
adapt to high salt levels.
Importance of Abiotic Components:
• Regulate ecosystem functions (e.g., water cycle, carbon cycle).
• Affect species distribution (e.g., deserts support cacti, rainforests
support dense vegetation).
• Support life processes (e.g., sunlight drives photosynthesis, oxygen
supports respiration).
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Comparison Between Biotic & Abiotic
Abiotic Components (Non-
Feature Biotic Components (Living)
living)
Non-living physical and chemical
Definition Living organisms in an ecosystem
factors in an ecosystem
Sunlight, air, water, soil,
Examples Plants, animals, bacteria, fungi
temperature, minerals
Participate in food chains, Provide essential conditions for
Role reproduction, and nutrient life, regulate climate, and support
cycling ecosystems
Depend on abiotic components
Exist independently but influence
Dependence for survival (e.g., plants need
biotic components
sunlight and water)
Transfer energy through food
Provide energy sources (sunlight)
Energy Flow chains (producers → consumers
and support life processes
→ decomposers)
Directly affect population Influence habitat conditions,
Impact on
growth, food chains, and weather patterns, and natural
Ecosystem
biodiversity selection
Interaction Between Biotic & Abiotic Components
• Plants (biotic) use sunlight, water, and CO₂ (abiotic) for photosynthesis.
• Animals (biotic) depend on oxygen and water (abiotic) for survival.
• Decomposers (biotic) break down dead matter, returning nutrients to
the soil (abiotic).
Both biotic and abiotic components work together to maintain ecosystem
balance.
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Biotic
8
Abiotic
Dep. Of GRAPHIC DESIGN, Lahore Collage for Women
University (LCWU).
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Practical # 2
Geological Time Scale (GTS)
The Geological Time Scale (GTS) is a system of chronological measurement
used by geologists, palaeontologists, and other Earth scientists to describe the
timing and relationships between events that have occurred throughout
Earth's history. It divides Earth's history into a series of hierarchical time
intervals, from the formation of the planet approximately 4.6 billion years ago
to the present day.
📅 Major Divisions of the Geological Time Scale:
• Eons – Largest time units (e.g., Phanerozoic, Proterozoic)
• Eras – Subdivisions of eons (e.g., Mesozoic, Cenozoic)
• Periods – Subdivisions of eras (e.g., Jurassic, Cretaceous)
• Epochs – Subdivisions of periods (e.g., Holocene, Pleistocene)
• Ages – Smallest divisions marking specific events.
📊 Purpose of the Geological Time Scale:
1. Organize Earth's History:
It provides a structured way to categorize and study the vast expanse of Earth's
history.
2. Understand Evolution of Life:
It helps scientists track the evolution of life forms and their relationships to
environmental changes.
3. Study Geological Processes:
It allows researchers to analyse the timing and causes of major geological
events, such as mountain building, continental drift, and climate shifts.
4. Facilitate Communication:
It provides a common language for scientists to discuss and compare geological
and biological events across different regions and time periods.
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🌍 Importance of the Geological Time Scale:
• Helps understand Earth's history and evolution.
• Provides a timeline for the development of life and major geological
events.
• Used in fields like palaeontology, archaeology, and environmental
science to study past climates and ecosystems.
QUATERNARY:
Holocene (11,700 years ago)
Pleistocene (2.6 million-11,700 years ago)
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NEOGENE:
Pliocene (5.3-2.6 million years ago)
Miocene (23-5.3 million years ago)
PALEOGENE:
Oligocene (34-23 million years ago), Eocene (56-34 million years ago),
Palaeocene (23-5.3 million years ago)
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CRETACEOUS:
(145-66 million years ago)
JURASSIC:
(201-145 million years ago)
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TRIASSIC:
(252–201million years ago)
PERMIAN:
(299-252 million years ago)
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CARBONIFEROUS:
(359-299 million years ago)
DEVONIAN:
(419-359 million years ago)
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SILURIAN:
(444-419 million years ago)
ORDOVICIAN:
(485-444 million years ago)
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CAMBRIAN:
(541-485 million years ago)
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Practical # 3
News Articles
Volcano Deforestation
Climate change waste management
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Sustainable development volcano
Biodiversity
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Climate change air pollution
Noise pollution Water pollution
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Natural Disasters
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Practical # 4
Earth Day Celebrations Report
Earth Day is celebrated globally on April 22nd to raise awareness about
environmental protection and to encourage actions that contribute to the
preservation of our planet. It serves as a reminder of the urgent need to
address issues like climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss. Celebrating
Earth Day helps people understand their role in protecting natural resources
and promotes sustainable living practices for a healthier Earth.
To mark the occasion, an event was organized by the Environmental Science
Department. As students from the Graphic Design Department studying the
subject Introduction to Environment, we enthusiastically participated by
preparing informative posters on various environmental issues, including water
pollution, air pollution, waste management, ozone depletion and global
warming. These posters aimed to educate others on the causes, effects, and
solutions to these pressing problems and highlighted the importance of
collective action for environmental sustainability.
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Some of these Posters are:
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Practical # 5
Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (lakes, rivers, oceans,
aquifers, and groundwater) due to human activities. It occurs when pollutants
are discharged directly or indirectly into water without adequate treatment.
🌍 Resources (Sources) of Water Pollution
Water pollution originates from two main types of sources:
Point Sources:
• Discharge pipes from factories
• Sewage treatment plants
• Oil spills
Non-point Sources:
• Agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers)
• Urban runoff (streets, lawns)
• Atmospheric deposition (acid rain)
⚠️ Effects of Water Pollution
On Environment:
• Destruction of aquatic habitats
• Eutrophication (oxygen depletion)
• Coral reef destruction
• Disruption of food chains
On Human Health:
• Waterborne diseases (cholera, dysentery, typhoid)
• Heavy metal poisoning
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• Reproductive issues and cancer risks
On Economy:
• Loss of tourism revenue
• Decline in fishing industries
• Increased water treatment costs
🧪 Types of Water Pollution
Type Description Examples
Chemical Heavy metals (mercury,
Involves harmful chemicals
Pollution lead), pesticides
Biological Bacteria, viruses from
Introduction of pathogens
Pollution sewage
Thermal Temperature increases in
Industrial cooling systems
Pollution water
Nutrient Excessive nutrients causing Nitrogen and phosphorus
Pollution algal blooms from fertilizers
Sediment
Soil erosion into water bodies Construction, deforestation
Pollution
Plastic & Waste dumped into Plastic bottles, bags,
Solid Waste oceans/rivers microplastics
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Diagrams
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Practical # 6
Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence of harmful or excessive substances in the air that
we breathe. These substances, known as pollutants, can come from natural
sources (like wildfires or volcanic eruptions) or human activities (such as
factories, vehicles, and burning fossil fuels).
Types of Air Pollution:
• Particulate Matter (PM): Small particles suspended in the air, affecting
human health and visibility.
• Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Contributing to ground-level ozone formation,
respiratory issues, and environmental damage.
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Causing acid rain, respiratory problems, and
cardiovascular issues.
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Contributing to ground-level ozone
formation and indoor air pollution.
• Carbon Monoxide (CO): Toxic gas affecting human health, particularly
cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
Resources Affected:
• Human Health: Air pollution can cause respiratory issues, cardiovascular
problems, and other health concerns.
• Environment: Air pollution can damage crops, forests, and ecosystems,
leading to biodiversity loss and climate change.
• Infrastructure: Air pollution can damage buildings, monuments, and
other infrastructure through acid rain and particulate matter deposition.
• Agriculture: Air pollution can reduce crop yields, damage plants, and
affect soil quality.
• Water Resources: Air pollution can contaminate water bodies through
acid rain and particulate matter deposition.
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Sources of Air Pollution:
• Fossil Fuel Combustion: Burning fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas for
energy and transportation.
• Industrial Processes: Emissions from industrial activities, such as
manufacturing and mining.
• Vehicle Emissions: Emissions from cars, trucks, buses, and other
vehicles.
• Agricultural Activities: Emissions from agricultural practices, such as
fertilizer use and livestock production.
• Waste Management: Emissions from waste disposal, such as landfills
and incineration.
Diagrams:
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Practical # 7
Solid Waste
Solid waste refers to any non-liquid waste materials that are discarded after
use. These include refuse from households, commercial activities, industries,
agriculture, and institutions. Solid waste may be hazardous or non-hazardous,
and its improper disposal can significantly harm the environment and public
health.
Resources of Solid Waste:
Solid waste is generated from various sources, including:
1. Residential (Domestic) Waste
• E.g., food scraps, packaging, newspapers, bottles, cans.
2. Commercial Waste
• E.g., office paper, cardboard, plastics from shops and businesses.
3. Industrial Waste
• E.g., chemicals, metal shavings, manufacturing scraps.
4. Institutional Waste
• E.g., school, hospital, and government office waste.
5. Agricultural Waste
• E.g., crop residues, animal manure.
6. Construction and Demolition Waste
• E.g., concrete, wood, bricks.
7. Municipal Services Waste
• E.g., street sweepings, park waste, sludge from wastewater treatment.
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Comparing Organic & Inorganic Solid Waste
Category Organic Solid Waste Inorganic Solid Waste
Waste that is biodegradable Waste that is non-
Definition and comes from plant or biodegradable and does not
animal sources come from living organisms
Food scraps, fruit and
Plastics, glass, metals,
Examples vegetable peels, garden
synthetic materials, e-waste
waste, paper
Easily decomposes through Takes a very long time or
Decomposition
natural processes does not decompose
Environmental Can enrich soil if composted Can cause pollution if not
Impact properly managed properly
Can be composted or Can be recycled (e.g., plastic,
Recyclability
converted into biogas glass, metal)
Natural sources (plants, Man-made or synthetic
Origin
animals) sources
Can produce foul smell Usually odourless unless
Odor
during decomposition contaminated
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Effects of Solid Waste:
1. Environmental Effects:
• Pollution: Air, water, and soil pollution from waste decomposition or
incineration.
• Land Degradation: Improper landfilling reduces land quality.
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Organic waste decomposition emits
methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
• Water Contamination: Leachate from landfills pollutes groundwater.
2. Health Effects:
• Disease Spread: Breeding grounds for pests (flies, rats), leading to
diseases like cholera, typhoid.
• Respiratory Issues: Burning of waste releases toxic fumes causing
asthma and other lung conditions.
• Injuries: Sharp or hazardous items in waste can cause harm to waste
handlers.
3. Economic Effects:
• High Management Costs: Collection, transportation, and treatment of
waste require substantial funding.
• Reduced Tourism: Accumulated waste can make areas unattractive to
tourists.
4. Social Effects:
• Community Nuisance: Foul Odors, ugly sights, and unsanitary conditions
reduce quality of life.
• Waste Picker Exploitation: Informal sector workers often face unsafe
conditions and low income.
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Practical # 8
To study the species diversity
Species Diversity:
Species diversity refers to the variety of different species (types of plants,
animals, fungi, bacteria, etc.) found in a particular area or ecosystem.
It includes:
• Species richness: the number of different species present.
• Species evenness: how evenly individuals are distributed among those
species.
High species diversity means a balanced, healthy ecosystem, while low
diversity can be a sign of environmental stress or human disturbance.
Examples of Species Diversity:
A Rainforest:
High diversity: Hundreds of tree species, birds, insects, mammals.
Examples: Macaws, Jaguars, Toucans, Rubber Trees, Orchids, Frogs.
Macaw Orchid
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A Coral Reef:
High diversity of marine life.
Examples: Clownfish, Corals, Sea Turtles, Starfish, Anemone, Octopus.
Sea Turtles Corals
A Grassland:
Moderate species diversity.
Examples: Buffalo, Prairie dogs, Grasses, Hawks, Wildflowers.
Prairie dogs Wildflowers
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Urban Garden or Park:
Lower diversity than natural ecosystems, but still meaningful.
Examples: Pigeons, Squirrels, Roses, Ants, Butterflies, Mango Trees.
Squirrel Pigeons
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