PSY 502

UNIT IV
LANGUAGE
GROUP 3
 CONTENTS

1
PROPERTIES 2
of Language

3
Language

PROCESSING
Language

ACQUISITION
PROPERTIES
OF LANGUAGE
SWASTIKA ADHIKARI
 What is Language?

Language is a system of symbols (like sounds, words, or gestures)

used to communicate. It follows rules to help people share ideas,
feelings, and experiences. Certain rules—like how we put words
together (syntax ), how sentences are structured (grammar ), and what
those words and sentences mean (semantics/meaning ).
 Components of Language
Syntax: Word order in a sentence.
Example: “I love chocolate.” (✅) vs. “Chocolate love I.” (❌)
Grammar: Rules of language like tenses, verbs, punctuation.
Example: “She walks to school.” (✅) vs. “She walk to school.” (❌)
Meaning (Semantics): What the sentence means.
Example: The cat is sleeping on the mat. (✅)
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (❌)
 Components of Language

Phonemes (Sound System of Language) - smallest units of sound

/p/, /t/, /k/
Morphemes - smallest meaningful units of language (cats = "cat" +
"-s")
Lexicon - A collection of words in a language or the vocabulary
a person knows. Science Lexicon → gravity, DNA, experiment
Discourse - The larger structure of communication, such as
conversations, stories, or essays.
 Properties of Language

1. Arbitrariness

There is no inherent connection between a word’s form (sound or

symbol) and its meaning. Words don’t look/sound like what they mean.
Apple is
“स्याउ” in
Nepali

&

“Apple” in
English.

#It’s just an
agreed
label.
 2. Discreteness

Language is composed of distinct, separable units (e.g., phonemes,

morphemes, words)
Example:
The words "pin" and "bin" are almost the same.
Only the first sound (/p/ vs. /b/) is different, but it completely changes the meaning!
 3. Displacement

The ability to communicate about things that are not physically

present — past, future, hypothetical, or imaginary events.
Significance :
This property shows
our abstract thinking .
Humans can discuss
things beyond the
immediate here and
now, such as events in
the past or future, or
even imagined worlds.
 4. Evolution (Language Changes Over Time)

Language constantly evolves as society, technology, and culture

change.
New words emerge (selfie, podcast, cryptocurrency). Word
meanings shift ("nice" once meant "silly"; now it means "kind").
Grammar and pronunciation change over time (Old English vs.
Modern English).
 5. Regularly Structured

Language follows a structured system.

e.g., "The dog chases the cat" vs. "The cat chases the dog."
 5. Structured at Multiple Levels

Language is organized into different layers (hierarchical system)

Phonemes → Morphemes → Words → Sentences → Discourse
 6. Productivity

Productivity refers to the human ability to produce and understand

an infinite number of sentences and expressions using a finite set
of elements (like sounds, words, and grammatical rules).

Example: A purple giraffe wearing sunglasses is eating pizza on the

moon.
 7. Learnability

Humans can learn multiple languages through exposure and practice.

Example: A Nepali child growing up in Japan.

→ The child learns Japanese fluently just by living there and hearing it
every day.
 8. Semanticity

Semanticity means that in language, each word, sign, or symbol has a

specific meaning .
Example: Apples" refers to a specific fruit, not a dog.
“Cry” refers to the action of expressing sadness with tears.
9. Communicative: Language is designed for meaningful
interaction between speakers.

10. Reflexiveness: We use language to talk about language itself

(e.g., discussing grammar or word meanings).

11. Prevarication: Language allows expression of false,

hypothetical, or fictional ideas (e.g., lying, storytelling).
12. Interchangeability: Any competent speaker can both send and
receive messages, regardless of age or biology.

13. Cultural Transmission: Language is learned through

interaction within a cultural context.
Example: A Nepali baby raised in France will speak French, not Nepali.
LANGUAGE
PROCESSING
PUSHPA DEVKOTA
NIBHA KP
 2. LANGUAGE PROCESSING

Language processing is how the brain understands,

produces, and uses language.
Importance : Language processing affects memory,
attention, and perception, enabling effective
communication.
Stages of Language Processing

Perception – 🧏 Hearing or seeing language (e.g.,

hearing speech or reading text).
Comprehension – 🧠 Understanding the meaning of
the input.
Production – 🗣 Generating and expressing language
through speech or writing.
1.Phonological Processing
Phonological Awareness : The ability to recognize and
manipulate sounds, which is crucial for reading and
writing.It connects speech sounds to their meanings.
2.Syntactic Processing
Syntax : Rules for sentence structure, helping us form
understandable sentences (e.g., "The cat chased the dog").
a.Syntactic Parsing :
Breaking down a sentence to figure out what it means.
Example: "The cat chased the dog." You check the order of
words to see who’s doing what to whom.
b.Garden Path Sentences :
Sentences that make you think one thing, but then you
realize it’s something else.
Example: "The horse raced past the barn fell." You start
thinking it’s about a horse racing, but it’s actually about a
horse that fell after racing!
3. Semantic Processing
Lexical Access : Retrieving word meanings from our
mental dictionary.
Semantic Priming : Exposure to one word (e.g., "nurse")
makes it easier to recognize related words (e.g., "doctor").
Semantic Memory Models:
a.Feature-based Models : Meaning is stored as sets
of features.Imagine "dog" in your brain is like a
checklist:
Four legs? ✅Tail? ✅Barks? ✅
If it checks all the boxes, it's a dog!
b.Connectionist Models : Let’s say you hear the word:
"fire" 🔥
This activates a network of related concepts in your
mental lexicon — not just one word, but many connected
nodes .
Smoke ☁
Often co-occurs with fire
Heat 🔥
Fire produces heat
Burn 🔥
Action caused by fire
Alarm 🚨
Fire triggers alarms
4. Pragmatics
Pragmatic Inferences : Drawing conclusions based on
context (e.g., "It’s cold in here" as a request to close the
window).
5. Word Recognition and Lexical Access
Mental Lexicon : Our internal store of words and their
meanings.
Models of Lexical Access :
a.Spreading Activation :
When you think of one word, your brain starts activating
other related words.
Example: You think of "dog," and suddenly words like
"bone," "bark," and "tail" pop into your head.
b.Interactive Activation :
Recognizing a word depends on both the sounds you
hear and the context around it.

Example: If you hear "cat" in the sentence "The cat sat on

the ___," you’ll guess "mat" because it fits with the context
and sounds.
7. Sentence Comprehension
Syntax + Semantics : Working together for sentence
meaning.
Working Memory : Holds onto parts of a sentence while
you're processing the whole thing, like a mental sticky
note.
If someone says, "The dog that was chasing the cat ran
into the street," your working memory helps you remember
"the dog" and "the cat" as the sentence keeps going.
8. Language Production
Speech Production Steps :
a.Conceptualization : Forming an idea.I want to tell my
friend about a fun trip I had.
b.Formulation: Constructing the sentence.I went to the
beach and had a great time……

c.Articulation : Producing the speech.It's the moment

you actually speak, like saying, "I went to the beach
and had a great time!
 2. LANGUAGE PROCESSING:
Language in Context
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
- field that explores how the brain processes and uses language
LANGUAGE AND COGNITION
Words are representations of ideas. But can words shape the way we think?

● The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis proposed the concepts of

Linguistic Determinism & Linguistic Relativity
● Sapir’s Relativity: Language influences worldview v/s Whorf’s
Determinism - Language determines worldview
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
● For Example:
Relativity - Speakers of pronoun-drop languages (Japanese,
Korean, Spanish) tend to have more collectivistic cultural values
(Kashima & Kashima, 1998)
Determinism - Language without past-tense verbs challenged to
think about the past (Whorf, 1956). Language lacking number
words demonstrated difficulty distinguishing quantities beyond
'many’ (Gordon, 2004)
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context

● Criticism against Determinism:

- Existence of a pre-linguistic phase in early human and child
development, where thought is expressed through behavior or
imagery (Vygotsky, 1934; Piaget, 1932)
- Gesture-based communication in deaf children reflects
pre-linguistic thought (Goldin-Meadow, 1999)
- Cognitive neuroscience studies, particularly on aphasia , suggest
core consciousness and thinking can occur without language
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context

- Language reflects Culture: English recognize four seasons while

Tagalog only distinguishes between rainy and dry seasons
- Thought to Language: Eskimos have many words for snow due
to its importance in their lives unlike English speakers
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context

LANGUAGE AND COGNITION

So, how do they interact?

● Perception
- limited means to manipulate non-linguistic images (Hunt & Banaji,
1988). Such limitations make use of language to facilitate mental
representation
● Memory
- affects how we encode, store, and retrieve information in memory
LABELS INFLUENCE PERCEPTION
(Sternberg & Sternberg, 2011)
 LANGUAGE
INFLUENCES MEMORY

Car Crash Experiment

(Loftus & Palmer, 1974)
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
NEUROLINGUISTICS
- branch of linguistics that deals with comprehension and
explanation of neural bases for language knowledge and use
MAJOR AREAS OF STUDY
● Lateralization (Hemispheric Specialization) - the tendency of some
neural functions or cognitive processes to be specialized to one
side or hemisphere of the brain
- For 95% right-handed , language processing relies on the Left.
For about 5% right-handed and 50% - 70% left-handed, it is
either localized in the Right or processed equally by both
(Kinsbourne, 1998)
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
● The left hemisphere is especially active during speech
perception, reading comprehension or for high-imagery
sentences
● The right hemisphere is active while paying attention to the
emotional tone of a message (Gernsbacher & Kaschak, 2003;
Vingerhoets et al., 2003) and also in appreciating humor (Harley,
2010)
● Bilateral Processing in Women v/s Hemispheric Asymmetry in
Men (Hirnstein et al., 2018)
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
● Brain Anatomy & Physiology
1. Broca’s Area is situated in the left frontal lobe , near motor
cortex . Since speech production requires precise movements of
the lips and tongue, damage to this area results in difficulties with
producing speech
Broca’s area was active when participants completed the Stroop task. This result
provides further support for the role of Broca’s area in resolving conflict (Trueswell &
Thompson-Schill, 2009)

2. Wernicke’s Area is located in left temporal lobe , next to the

auditory cortex . It is involved in comprehension of written and
spoken language
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
● Language Disorders
1. Aphasia : inability to comprehend or formulate language as a
result of damage to specific brain regions following acquired
brain injury
● To be diagnosed, must be significantly impaired in one (or more)
of four aspects of communication:
auditory comprehension, verbal expression, reading and
writing, and functional communication
● Aphasia is not caused by damage to the brain that results in motor or sensory
deficits, which produces abnormal speech. It is not related to the mechanics of
speech but rather language cognition
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
● Either or both expressive language and receptive language can
be affected
● Aphasia also affects visual language such as sign language
(Damasio, 1992)
● Aphasia can range from occasional trouble finding words, to
losing the ability to speak, read, or write. However, intelligence is
unaffected
● In contrast, formulaic expressions in everyday communication is
often preserved (Stahl & Van Lancker Sidtis, 2015)
For example, while a person with aphasia, particularly Broca’s,
may not be able to ask when someone’s birthday is, they may
still be able to sing “Happy Birthday”
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context

2. Dyslexia: Learning Disorder that affect the acquisition of

reading and writing
● Caused due to problems in word identification and phonological
processing
● Several different processes may be impaired in dyslexia:
○ Phonological awareness - of the sound structure of spoken
language
○ Phonological reading - words in isolation
○ Phonological coding in working memory - is involved in
remembering strings of phonemes that are sometimes confusing
○ Lexical access - ability to retrieve phonemes from LTM
Critically acclaimed
Bollywood movie
depicting Dyslexia

Taaren Zameen Par

(2007) (Dir. Aamir Khan)
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
● Types of Dyslexia
a. Developmental - starts in childhood and typically continues
throughout adulthood. It is believed to have both biological
and environmental causes
Abnormalities seen in certain chromosomes, most notably, 3, 6, and 15
(Paracchini, Scerri, & Monaco, 2007), hypoactivation in their left
temporo-parietal cortex, atypical activation in the left prefrontal region
(linked with working memory), the left middle and the left
occipito-temporal regions (associated with the visual analysis of letters)
(Gabrieli, 2009)

b. Acquired - typically caused by traumatic brain damage

 2. LANGUAGE: in Context

3. Autism - NDD characterized by repetitive and inflexible patterns

of behavior and interests, as well as difficulties in social
interaction and communication
● Challenges varies across the spectrum, with significant delays to
selective mutism
● Includes difficulties with pragmatics, recognizing emotions in
language, and processing abstract concepts
● May result from a variety of underlying issues such as, difficulties
with speech perception, dyspraxia, or left hemisphere failure
(Williams & Minshew, 2010; Mody & Belliveau, 2013)
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
METHODS OF STUDY
● Behavioral Experiments: such as reaction time tasks,
eye-tracking, and behavioral observations
● Neuroimaging: non-invasive & real time techniques like PET
(Positron Emission Tomography) and fMRI (Functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging) help researchers identify brain areas and
neural pathways involved in different aspects of language
processing
● Computational Modeling: to simulate language processes and
test different theoretical hypotheses
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
BILINGUALISM & MULTILINGUALISM
- A superpower or a hassle?
TYPES
● Additive & Subtractive
● Simultaneous & Sequential

NEUROSCIENCE
● Increased Grey Matter (Early v/s Older Age)
SOCIOCULTURAL INFLUENCE
● Dialect & Linguicism (based on Intelligence, Education, SES)
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
GENDER & LANGUAGE
- Do men and women speak a different language?
Conversations between men and women are sometimes regarded as
cross-cultural communication (Tannen, 1986)

● Young girls more likely to ask for help than young boys
(Thompson, 1999)
● Adolescent and YA males prefer to talk about political views,
sources of personal pride, and what they like about the other
person. In contrast, females talk about parents, close friends,
classes, and their fears (Rubin et al., 1980). Women generally
disclose more about themselves (Morton, 1978)
 2. LANGUAGE: in Context
- Male–female differences in conversational style largely center on
differing understandings of the goals of conversation (Tannen,
1990, 1994)
● Men see the world as a hierarchical social order in which the
purpose of communication is to negotiate for the upper hand, to
preserve independence, and to avoid failure
● Women seek to establish a connection between the two
participants, to give support and confirmation to others, and to
reach consensus through communication
A caricature on
“Emergence of
Language”

Sternberg &
Sternberg (2011)
LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
SHREEYA BHOMJAN TAMANG
KIRAN KHADKA
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Language Acquisition is the process through which
children learn language, focusing on developing speaking,
listening, and understanding skills.

Importance : Language acquisition shapes cognitive

development, influencing memory, problem-solving, and
social skills.
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Theories of Language Acquisition

● Nativist Theory (Chomsky) :

○ Language is innate, driven by Universal Grammar (a

biological mechanism).

○ Criticism: Downplays the role of environmental input.

 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
● Learning Theory (Skinner) :

o Language is learned through reinforcement and

imitation .

o Criticism: Doesn't explain novel sentences created by

children.
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

● Interactionist Theory (Vygotsky) :

o Language develops through social

interactions, blending innate mechanisms and
learning.
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
● Connectionist Theory :

o Language learning emerges from pattern

recognition in the environment.

o Example: Learning plural forms like "dog/dogs"

from exposure.
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Phases of Language Acquisition
● Pre-linguistic Stage :
o Babies communicate through crying, cooing, and
babbling, developing phoneme awareness.
● One-Word Stage :
o Around 12 months, one word represents a complete idea
(e.g., “milk” = “I want milk”).
● Two-Word Stage :
o By 18-24 months, two words form simple sentences (e.g.,
“want cookie”).
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Phases of Language Acquisition
o Telegraphic Speech :
▪ At 2–3 years, children use short phrases (e.g., “I go
store”).
o Complex Sentences :
▪ By 3–4 years, children use more complex structures,
like conjunctions.
o Full Mastery :
By 4–5 years, children understand and use complex
grammar and social language rules.
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Cognitive Processes Involved
● Perception and Categorization :
o Infants categorize sounds, vital for phonological
development
● Memory and Language
o Working Memory helps children process and retain
language information.
● Attention :
Selective attention allows children to focus on relevant
linguistic cues.
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Critical Period Hypothesis
o Concept : Language acquisition is easiest during
early childhood. After a certain age, learning a
language becomes more difficult.
o Evidence :
▪ Support: Genie, who missed critical language
exposure, struggled with language later in life.
▪ Counter: Second-language learners show that
language can still be acquired after this period.
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Cognitive Neuroscience of Language Acquisition
o Brain Areas :
▪ Broca’s Area : Involved in speech production.
▪ Wernicke’s Area : Involved in understanding
language.
o Neuroplasticity : The brain's ability to adapt to
language input, even after brain injuries.
o Disorders : Conditions like SLI (Specific Language
Impairment) and aphasia disrupt normal language
development.
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Cross-linguistic and Cultural Differences
● Universal vs. Language-Specific Features :
o Some aspects of language acquisition are universal,
but many features depend on the specific language
learned.
● Cultural Influences :
o Different cultures use varying types of child-directed
speech and parenting practices to aid language
development.
 3. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Language Acquisition in Bilinguals
● Simultaneous vs. Sequential Bilingualism :
o Simultaneous : Learning two languages from birth.
o Sequential : Learning a second language after the first is
established.
● Cognitive Benefits :
o Bilingualism improves cognitive flexibility and
problem-solving skills .
● Code-Switching :
o Bilinguals alternate between languages, showing how the
brain manages multiple linguistic systems.
 References
● Bambini, V. (2012). Neurolinguistics. In Östman, J. O., & Verschueren, J. (Eds.), Handbook of
Pragmatics. John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hop.16.neu1
● Li, J. (2022). Relationship Between Language and Thought: Linguistic Determinism,
Independence, or Interaction? Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 6(5):32-37.
https://doi.org/10.26689/jcer.v6i5.3926
● Matlin, M. W. & Farmer, T. A. Cognition (9th ed.). Wiley, USA.
● Mody, M., & Belliveau, J. W. (2013). Speech and Language Impairments in Autism: Insights
from Behavior and Neuroimaging. North American Journal of Medicine & Science, 5(3),
157–161. https://doi.org/10.7156/v5i3p157
● Sternberg, R. J. & Sternberg, K. (2011 ). Cognitive Psychology (6th ed.). Cengage Learning,
UK.
● What is Aphasia? (2024). National Aphasia Association.
https://aphasia.org/what-is-aphasia/
● Williams, D. L. & Minshew, N. J. (2011). How the Brain Thinks in Autism: Implications for
Language Intervention. The ASHA Leader, 15 (5): 8-11.
https://doi.org/10.1044/leader.FTR1.15052010.8
 THE END
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