DATABASE AND ML Schema A database schema defines the structure and organization of data within a database. It outlines how data is logically stored, including the relationships between different tables and other database objects. The schema serves as a blueprint for how data is stored, accessed, and manipulated, ensuring consistency and integrity throughout the system. Features of a good relational design Relational databases need ACID characteristics. ACID refers to four essential properties: Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability. These features are the key difference between a relational database and a non-relational database. Atomicity: The term atomicity defines that the data remains atomic. It means if any operation is performed on the data, either it should be performed or executed completely or should not be executed at all. It further means that the operation should not break in between or execute partially. In the case of executing operations on the transaction, the operation should be completely executed and not partially. 2) Consistency The word consistency means that the value should remain preserved always. In DBMS, the integrity of the data shouldbe maintained, which means if a change in the database is made, it should remain preserved always. In the case of transactions, the integrity of the data is very essential so that the database remains consistent before and after the transaction. The data should always be correct. 3) Isolation In DBMS, Isolation is the property of a database where no data should affect the other one and may occur concurrently. In short, the operation on one database should begin when the operation on the first database gets complete. It means if two operations are being performed on two different databases, they may not affect the value of one another. 4) Durability Durability ensures the permanency of something. In DBMS, the term durability ensures that the data after the successful execution of the operation becomes permanent in the database. The durability of the data should be so perfect that even if the system fails or leads to a crash, the database still survives. However, if gets lost, it becomes the responsibility of the recovery manager for ensuring the durability of the database. Design alternative: larger schemas and smaller schemas Rdb design The Relational Model represents data and their relationshipsthrough a collection of tables. Each table also known as a relation consists of rows and columns. Every column has a unique name and corresponds to a specific attribute, while each row contains a set of related data values representing a real-world entity or relationship. This model is part of the record-based models which structure data in fixed-format records each belonging to a particular type with a defined set of attributes. E.F. Codd introduced the Relational Model to organize data as relations or tables. Decomposition using fd: When we divide a table into multiple tables or divide a relation into multiple relations, then this process is termed Decomposition in DBMS. When a relation in the relational model is not in appropriate normal form then the decomposition of a relation is required. In a database, it breaks the table into multiple tables. + If the relation has no proper decomposition, then it may lead to problems like loss of information. + Decomposition is used to eliminate some of the problems of bad design like anomalies, inconsistencies, and redundancy. Decomposition }Sere Decomposition If the information is not lost from the relation that is decomposed, then the decomposition will be lossless. The lossless decomposition guarantees that the join of relations will result in the same relation as it was decomposed. The relation is said to be lossless decomposition if natural joins of all the decomposition give the original relation. Lossy Decomposition As the name suggests, lossy decomposition means when we perform join operation on the sub-relations it doesn't result to the same relation which was decomposed. After the join operation, we always found some extraneous tuples. These extra tuples genrates difficulty for the user to identify the original tuples. Dependency preservation + Dependency Preservation: Dependency Preservation is an important technique in database management system. It ensures that the functional dependencies between the entities is maintained while performing decomposition. It helps to improve the database efficiency, maintain consistency and integrity. It is an important constraint of the database. In the dependency preservation, at least onedecomposed table must satisfy every dependency. If a relation R is decomposed into relation R1 and R2, then the dependencies of R either must be a part of R1 or R2 or must be derivable from the combination of functional dependencies of R1 and R2. For example, suppose there is a relation R (A, B, C, D) with functional dependency set (A->BC). The relational R is decomposed into R1(ABC) and R2(AD) which is dependency preserving because FD A->BC is a part of relation R1(ABC). Normal forms First Normal Form (1NF): The table should have atomic (indivisible) values. Each column must contain only one value per row. The order in which data is stored does not matter. There should be no repeating groups or arrays in any column. Second Normal Form (2NF): The table must first be in 1NF. + All non-key attributes must be fully dependent on the primary key (no partial dependency). + This eliminates cases where attributes depend only on part of a composite primary key (in case of composite keys). Third Normal Form (3NF): The table must first be in 2NF. There should be no transitive dependency (i.e., non-key attributes should not depend on other non-key attributes).This ensures that each non-key attribute is only dependent on the primary key. Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): The table must be in 3NF. Every determinant (an attribute or set of attributes that determines another attribute) must be a candidate key. It is a stricter version of 3NF that eliminates certain types of anomalies that 3NF may allow. Fourth Normal Form (4NF): The table must first be in BCNF. There should be no multi-valued dependencies (i.e., no situation where one attribute determines multiple independent attributes). Fifth Normal Form (5NF): The table must first be in 4NF. There should be no join dependency and the table should not contain redundant data that can be reconstructed by joining other tables. Sixth Normal Form (6NF): This deals with temporal databases where data is related to time and is used to handle cases of temporal redundancy. It splits data into even more granular tables. Uma of Normal Forms: 1NF: Atomic values, no repeating groups. 2NF: 1NF + no partial dependency on the primary key. 3NF: 2NF + no transitive dependency. BCNF: 3NF + every determinant is a candidate key. ANF: BCNF + no multi-valued dependencies.5NF: 4NF + no join dependency. 6NF: Deals with temporal data and its redundancy. Machine learning Machine learning (ML) is a branch of artificial intelligence (Al) focused on enabling computers and machines to imitate the way that humans learn, to perform tasks autonomously, and to improve their performance and accuracy through experience and exposure to more data Types: Supervised learning and unsupervised learning are two fundamental types of machine learning, differing in how models are trained: Supervised Learning: Definition: In supervised learning, the model is trained on labeled data, where each input has a corresponding correct output (target or label). Goal: The goal is to learn a mapping from inputs to outputs so that the model can predict the output for new, unseen data. + Examples: Classification: Predicting whether an email is spam or not (label: "spam" or "not spam"). Regression: Predicting house prices based on features like location, size, etc. (label: price). Algorithms: Linear regression, decision trees, support vector machines, neural networks, etc. Unsupervised Learning:Definition: In unsupervised learning, the model is trained on data that has no labeled outputs. The goal is to identify patterns or structures in the data. Goal: The goal is to find hidden patterns, groupings, or relationships in the data without prior knowledge of the output labels. Examples: Clustering: Grouping customers based on purchasing behavior (no predefined labels). Dimensionality Reduction: Reducing the number of features while retaining essential information, like PCA (Principal Component Analysis). Algorithms: K-means clustering, hierarchical clustering, DBSCAN, PCA, etc. Linear regression Logistic regression Naive Bayes