THE INTERACTION OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

SCIENCE : the process by which we study and gain knowledge of our surrounding..

It can also be, defined as knowledge gained through observing, asking questions and carrying out experiments
to find out answers.

TECHNOLOGY : This is the use of our knowledge, skills and information gained from science to make items
that make our lives easier.

It can also simply be defined as, the application of science. For instance, it uses scientific knowledge to design
and make something that we can use to solve a problem or meet our needs.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY
It result in new knowledge being created Result in new things being made
The knowledge created by science does not always need Technology uses scientific knowledge to make useful
technology things
Science thinks of ideas and ways of solving problems Technology use scientific knowledge, skills and tools to
solve problems.
It does not always result in the creation of knowledge It involves making new things in order to meet people’s
that meet the people’s needs needs
Science may not lead to anything new being created Technology result in new tools being made
It involves observation and experimentation It involves designing new products needed to make work
easier.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIETY (POSITIVE)

1. Communication technologies such as television, radio, telephone, cell phones, internet and electronic
mail have made easier, faster and cheaper for us to communicate and know what is going on around
the world.

2. Transport technologies such as cars, trains and air craft have made it easy to travel long distances in a
short of time.

3. Technology has enabled medical practitioners to discover and treat different kinds of diseases

4. Technology has allowed people to do more work in less time.

5. Jobs have been created to manufacture different technologies.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIETY (NEGATIVE)

1. Jobs are lost as new technology means that some jobs that were done by hands are now done by
machines.

2. Waste from technology result pollution of the environment e.g. used oil, plastic bags, empty cans etc.

3. Technology is used to design to design new weapons that are used in battles and wars to kill other
people.

4. When technology fails, it may cause serious accidents leading to the death of many people.

THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIETY ON TECHNOLOGY

1. The need for people to communicate with others anywhere and at any time led to the development of
mobile phones, internet and electronic mail.

2. New situations such as the discovery of HIV have resulted in the development of new technologies
used to test a person’s HIV status.

3. The need by society for quicker, smaller and more powerful technology has led to the development of
memory sticks and cards.

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ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO TECHNOLOGY (NEGATIVE)POLLUTION

i) Technology creates waste such as plastic, oil and metal which when not properly disposed of pollutes the
land, air and water.

ii) Technologies such as fertilisers can damage the environment if they are not properly used.

iii) Pesticides do not only kill unwanted pests, but also kill other animals

iv) Some technologies pollute the atmosphere

DEFORESTATION-Cutting down of trees for making chairs and tables.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO TECHNOLOGY (POSITIVE)

1. Technology is used to recycle waste products made from materials such as glass, paper, plastic and
metals.

2. Solar and wind energy technologies allow us to use energy sources that do not pollute the
environment.

HEALTH ISSUES RELATED TO TECHNOLOGY

1. X- ray technology allows us to see inside the human body so that we can identify broken bones.

2. The development of vaccine technology has meant that diseases that used to cause death and illness
can no longer affect us.

3. The development of drugs such as antibiotics and pain killers has meant that many diseases can be
cured.

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY(ICT)

MEDIA AND FORMATS USED TO COMMUNICATE SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION AND IDEAS

Communication is transferring of information from one place to another.

Media refers to the means of communication, E.g. radio, computer, television, books, leaflets, Facebook,
twitter, internet, magazines and newspapers.

Format means methods in which information is communicated or presented. E.g tables, graphs and
diagrams.

THE IMPACT OF SOCIETY ON HAVING LIMITLESS ACCESS TO INFORMATION PROVIDED BY COMMUNICATION

NETWORKS

Positive Negative

Information reaches people very quickly. Some information found in these networks (internet) is inaccurate
and misleading and can be used in dangerous and harmful ways.

It has created job opportunities Unskilled people have lost jobs as some of the work is done
through communication tools.

People can find information about anything People can use the internet to spread and access offensive and
that interest them illegal materials such as pornography.

Information can be gained from many Anyone can place information on the internet that can be
different sources accessed by anyone so groups such as terrorists and racists can
spread information of violence against each other.

Educational materials and information can Not all information obtained in the internet is factually correct
be obtained more easily means people may learn wrong things.

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THE CULTURAL IMPACT OF GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

Positive Negative

Conflicts and misunderstandings between different Local cultures and languages will disappear as they
cultures will no longer take place as people will be are taken over by the dominant cultures.
aware of the cultural differences.

People throughout the world can view artist creations People may feel that other cultures and traditions are
of other cultures. better than theirs and stop practicing their own
culture

CAREERS IN ICT

Computer programmer- designs and creates computer programs (software) that can perform tasks.

Hardware technician- solves problems/ maintains equipment or computers.

ICT trainer/ teacher- trains people about new technology

Multimedia developer- creates and manipulates graphic images, animations, sound, text and video for
use in computer programs.

DOING SCIENCE

Scientists are people who spend most of their time doing science. They work from what is known to what is
not known. They use a method known as the scientific method which has the following steps.

1. Problem identification- They decide a project to investigate

2. Make a hypothesis- They suggest a possible explanation or an intelligent guess called a hypothesis

3. Experimentation- They carry out experiments to test their hypothesis

4. Recording- They record their observations

5. Analysis- They analyze their results

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 6. Conclusion- They make conclusions. This is done by looking at the results of the experiments

Example

1. Identify a problem

-Neo wanted to find out if black absorbs heat faster than silver.

2. Make a hypothesis

May provide a possible explanation or an intelligent guess called a hypothesis.

-Black colour absorbs heat faster than silver.

3. Experimentation

-Scientists carry out experiments to test the possible explanation. In an experiment there is an experimental
group and control group.

Experimental group- the group you are interested in

Control group-something that is used to compare your experimental group to.

THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

We learnt earlier on that science is the knowledge gained through observing, asking questions and carrying out
experiments to find out answers. The process of doing science follows certain steps called the scientific
process. Below is the summary of the sequence of events followed in a scientific investigation:

Process skills

These are skills needed by scientists to carryout accurate and fair scientific investigation. Below are some
process skills needed by scientists to carry out accurate and fair investigations:

Observations comparison asking questions analyzing interpretation

inferring hypothesizing controlling variables Experimenting drawing
conclusions communicating results

SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS

Scientific questions are those questions that are measurable or very clear and specific. These questions can
only be, proved through a scientific investigation. The first step in a scientific process is to ask questions. These
questions are, based on what, scientists have observed and wants to know more about. Possible answers to
these questions are, referred to as a hypothesis. A hypothesis can also be, defined to as, an intelligent
guesses to scientific questions.

Planning an investigation

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This is the process of thinking through how we are going test the hypothesis to see whether it is correct or
incorrect. The following are some things to think through when planning an experiment:

1. Write your question clearly

2. Write out your hypothesis

3. Make a prediction based on your hypothesis.

4. State the possible variables (variables are things that can be changed in an investigation
and that may affect the final result).

5. State the independent variable(independent variable is the variable can be observed in

an experiment. All variables must be kept the same (constant) all the time except for the
one under investigation in order to know which variable has caused an effect.

6. State the dependent variable(dependent variable is the variable that can be changed in the
experiment /investigation).

7. State the experimental group (is the group in which you made a change to the independent
variable that you are interested in).

8. State the control group (is something that is used to compare your experimental group to).
Without a control, you cannot tell whether or not a change has happened in your
experimental group.

9. State what will be measured and compared in the investigation.

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WORKING SAFELY IN THE LABORATORY

Safety means being free from danger and its effects. The following are some safety guidelines to follow when
working in the laboratory

1. Follow the instructions given by the teacher in order to avoid accidents

2. Protective clothing should be worn in the laboratory

3. Safety goggles should be worn at all times when chemicals are being used

4. Everyone should behave themselves when they are in the laboratory

5. Always read the name of the contents of a bottle or container that is going to be used to make sure
that you have the right substance.

6. Always look on the label of a container to see if there is a hazard warning sign.

7. Do not drink, eat, or do your make up in the laboratory.

8. Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory.

9. No materials, equipment, or chemicals should be removed from the laboratory without the teacher’s
permission.

10. All unnecessary obstacles on the floor such as school bags should put away so that people do not trip
on them.

SAFETY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

COMMON HAZARDS IN THE LABORATORY

Hazards- Things that are around us and can cause damage if they are not used safely e.g. knives, razor
blade, broken glass, open flames etc

i) Being burnt by fire

ii) Being burnt by corrosive chemicals

iii) Being cut by broken glass

iv) Being burnt by hot liquids or hot substances

v) Having an electric shock

vi) Swallowing something poisonous.

vii) Obstacles in the laboratory, like chairs and tables if not arranged well

Interpretation of safety symbols

Symbol Meaning
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 Corrosive

Toxic

Flammable

Oxidizing

Radioactiv
e

Irritants or
harmful

Explosive

Safety techniques when using equipment and materials

 Do not point the mouth of a test-tube at yourself or anyone when burning substances.
 Use clamps or thongs to hold to hold hot objects or objects being heated
 Open flames from burners should be, left to burn with a yellow flame rather than a blue one when
there is nothing on them.
 Do not directly inhale or smell unknown substances

SCALARS AND VECTORS

SCALARS

A scalar quantity is a quantity that has magnitude.

VECTORS

A vector quantity is a quantity that has both a magnitude and direction eg the wind is travelling at 20km/h
south.

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CALCULATING THE RESULTANT VECTOR

Resultant force is the overall resultant of the vectors acting on a body or object.

The resultant vector can be calculated by

i) Adding the magnitude of the vectors together if both vectors are acting in exactly the same
direction.

Examples- leave 6 lines

ii) Subtracting the magnitude of the vectors from each other if the vectors are acting in exactly the
opposite direction.

Examples- leave 6 lines

CLASSIFYING PHYSICAL QUANTITIES INTO SCALARS AND VECTORS.

SCALAR QUANTITY VECTOR QUANTITY

Temperature Acceleration

Length Velocity

Volume force

Area

Density

Time

Speed

MAKING MEASUREMENTS

MEASURING LENGTH

Length is the distance between two points or objects.

THE STANDARD UNIT OF LENGTH

The standard unit of length is known as the metre (m)

OTHER UNITS OF LENGTH

i) Kilometres (km)

ii) Millimetres (mm)

iii) Centimetres (cm)

UNIT CONVETION

1 cm = 10 mm

1 m = 100 cm

1 km = 1000 m

CHANGE OF NON- STANDARD UNITS OF LENGTH TO METRES

1 feet = 0.3048 m

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1 inch = 0.0254 m

1 yard = 0.9144 m

1 mile = 1600 m

SOURCES OF ERROR WHEN MEASURING LENGTH.

i) The zero point of the scale is not lined up properly with end of the object that is being measured

ii) The ruler is not placed straight and lined up along the object that is being measured

iii) Parallax error- this occurs when the eye is not placed directly opposite the scale from which a
reading is being made.

MEASURING AREA

UNITS USED WHEN MEASURING AREA

i) Square metres (m²)

ii) Square kilometres (km²)

iii) Square centimetres (cm²)

In order to find the area of a regular object such as a square or a rectangular object, the following
formula is used: Area = length x width

FINDING THE AREA OF AN IRREGULAR SHAPE

A grid is used to trace the object. The following are steps to follow

1. Trace the object on a grid paper.

2. Count all the squares which are full enclosed and write them down

3. Count all the squares which are than half enclosed and write them down.

4. Add the number of squares of full squares to the number of more than half enclosed. This is the
approximate area of the object

5. All squares which are less than half enclosed are not counted.

VOLUME

Volume means the space something takes or occupies.

In order to find the volume of a regularly shaped object such as a cube, we use the following formula.

Volume = length x width x height.

MEASURING VOLUMES OF LIQUIDS

In order to find the volume of a liquid a measuring cylinder is used. In order to measure volumes of liquids
accurately with a measuring cylinder, the following rules must be followed:

1. Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface.

2. Take readings at the bottom of the meniscus

3. Make sure that the eyes are at the same level with the meniscus of the liquid being measured.

MEASURING THE VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SINKING OBJECT

1. Pour water of a known volume into the measuring cylinder

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 2. Tie the object with a string and lower it down into the measuring cylinder gently

3. Take the reading and record

4. Subtract the volume of the water from the new volume to find the volume of the sinking object.

5. Record your results like this

Volume of water = __________________

Volume of water + object = ________________

Volume of object = _____________________________

MEASURING VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR FLOATING OBJECT

1. Pour water of a known volume into a measuring cylinder

2. Tie a sinking object with a string and lower it gently into the measuring cylinder and record the
volume.

3. Tie the floating object to the sinking object and then lower them gently into the measuring cylinder.
Take the reading and record it down.

4. Subtract the volume of the sinking object and water from the new volume in order to find the volume
of the floating object

Record your results like this:

Volume of water = ____________________

Volume of water + sinking object = ______________________

Volume of water + sinking object + floating object = __________________

Volume of floating object = ___________________________

MEASURING MASS

Mass is the quantity of matter making the object.

Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

INSTRUMENT USED TO MEASURE MASS

i) Triple beam balance

ii) Lever arm balance

iii) Electric balance

iv) Bathroom scale

v) Top pan balance

The diagram below shows readings on a triple beam balance

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THE STANDARD (SI) UNIT OF MASS

The standard (SI) unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)

OTHER UNITS OF MASS

i) Grams (g)

ii) Kilograms (kg)

iii) Milligrams (mg)

iv) Tonnes (t)

UNIT CONVETION

1 g = 1000 mg

1 kg = 1000 g

1 tonne = 1000kg

SOURCES OF ERROR WHEN MEASURING MASS

1. Measuring when the instrument is not set to zero

2. Parallax error- this occurs when the eye is not placed directly opposite the scale from which a reading
is being made.

MEASURING DENSITY.

Density is mass per unit volume.Objects that are, heavier but smaller in size are, usually denser, than those
that are light in weight but bigger in size.

UNITS USED WHEN MEASURING DENSITY

i) Kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)

ii) Grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)

CALCULATING DENSITY

Density = mass ÷ volume

MEASURING DENSITY OF LIQUIDS USING A HYDROMETER

The hydrometer is made of a glass which consist of three main points

i) The bottom of the hydrometer contains weight

ii) The upper part of the hydrometer has a graduated scale

When placed in a liquid it floats upright. It floats more in liquids that are denser and sinks a little in substances
that are less dense. Below are diagrams of hydrometers in liquids of different densities:

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An object sinks in a liquid of smaller density than its own and float in a liquid of high density than its own. For
example, a piece of glass of density 2.5g/cm³ will sink in water whereas that of wood with a density of 0.7g/cm³
will float in water. The density of water is 1 g/cm³. It should be noted that densities of pure substances do not
change. That is the density of pure water will always be 1g/cm³ regardless of its volume.

RELATING DENSITY TO BUOYANCY

Buoyancy of something means the way in which it floats on a liquid. Objects which have less density float on a
liquid and those which have high densities sink into a liquid.

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MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Temperature is how hot or cold something is. The instrument used to measure temperature is known as the
thermometer.

UNITS USED WHEN MEASURING TEMPERATURE

The SI unit of temperature is known as the degree Celsius ( ºC)

Other units of temperature are : Kelvin (k)

: Degree Fahrenheit (ºF)

UNIT CONVERSION

Temperature in degree Celsius (ºC) = temperature in kelvin (k) – 273

°C = (K - 273)

Temperature in kelvin (k) = temperature in degree Celsius (ºC) + 273

K = (°C + 273)

Temperature in degree Celsius (ºC) = (temperature in Fahrenheit – 32) x 0.55

°C = (°F – 32) × 5/9

Temperature in Fahrenheit = (temperature in degree Celsius x 1.8) + 32

°F = (°C× 1.8) + 32

TYPES OF THERMOMETERS

There are two types of thermometers. These are laboratory thermometers and clinical thermometers.

USING A LABORATORY THERMOMETER

Laboratory thermometers are usually filled with mercury or alcohol and able to measure temperatures between
-20ºc and 120ºc although there may be differences between thermometers. Most laboratory thermometers can
measure temperature over a wide range. As a result they are long.

USING A CLINICAL THERMOMETER.

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A clinical thermometer looks similar to a laboratory thermometer in that it has a scale, bulb and a bore. The
main characteristics of a clinical thermometer are as follows

i) The liquid used is mercury

ii) The scale is from 35ºc to 42ºc

iii) It has a narrow curve known as the kink or constriction which prevents the mercury from going
down the bulb before the reading is taken.

When measuring body temperature, the clinical thermometer is usually placed in the following body parts.

i) Under the armpit

ii) Under the tongue

iii) Between the buttocks

The normal body temperature of a person is 37ºc. After measuring body temperature the clinical thermometer
is shaken to make the mercury go down the bulb. It is also put in alcohol or sterilised to kill germs.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CLINICAL THERMOMETER AND A LABORATORY THERMOMETER.

CLINICAL THERMOMTER LABORATORY THERMOMETER

 It uses mercury as the measuring liquid  It uses mercury or alcohol as the measuring
liquid
 It has a kink/constriction  It has no constriction
 Its scale has a range between 35ºc and 42ºc  Its scale has a range between -20ºc and 120ºc
 The level of mercury column remains at the  The measuring liquid can move freely up and
highest reading as it cools because of a coil in down the bore as the temperature changes
the bore
 It can measure temperature to the nearest 0.1  It can measure temperature to the nearest 1 ºc
ºc

Homework

1. Explain why a clinical thermometer has a kink.

2. Convert the following to Degree Celsius
a. 310K
b. 96 .7 °F
3. convert 100 °C to
a. Fahrenheit
b. Kelvin

MEASURING TIME

Time is the period of an event.

INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE TIME

i) Clocks

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 ii) Watches

iii) Shadow stick

iv) Stop watches/clocks

UNITS USED WHEN MEASURING TIME

The standard unit of time is the second.

The SI unit for time is second(s) and the symbol is ‘s ‘. There are :

- 60 seconds in 1 minute.

- 60 minutes in 1 hour.

- 24 hours in 1 day

- 7 days in 1 week.

- 30 days in 1 month.

- 12 months in 1 year.

- 10 years in 1 decade.

- 100 years in 1 century

OTHER UNITS OF TIME

i) Minutes

ii) Hours

iii) Days

iv) Weeks

v) Months

vi) Years

UNIT CONVERTION

1 minute = 60 seconds

1 hour = 60 minutes

1 day = 24 hours

1 year = 365¼ days

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A simple pendulum

This consist of a piece of string which is fixed at one end and has a small metal ball, called the bob, on the
other end. Below is the diagram of a pendulum and the formula for measuring its period:

Period = number of oscillation ÷ time taken

The period of the pendulum depend on only depends on the length of the string. It is unaffected by the mass of
the bob and the angle of displacement.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASURING TIME

1. Forgetting to reset the stopwatch to zero before making the next measurement

2. When the needle does not line up with 0 point

3. Reaction time error

LIVING MATTER

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

All living things share the same features known as the characteristics of life.

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 1. Feeding

2. Movement

3. Respiration

4. Excretion

5. Growth

6. Sensitivity

7. Reproduction

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Classification is the orderly arrangement of things according to their characteristics. The branch of science
which involves the classification of species based on the similarity of their physical characteristics is known
as taxonomy.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS

Animals are divided into two large groups. These are vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates are further
divided into five groups. These are

i) Mammals

ii) Reptiles

iii) Amphibians

iv) Birds

v) Fish

Invertebrates are divided into further into six groups. These are

i) Arthropods

ii) Molluscs

iii) Round worms

iv) Flat worms

v) Star fish

vi) Jelly fish

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

Plants are also divided into two larger groups. These are seed bearing and non-seed bearing plants. Seed
bearing are further divided into larger groups. These are flowering and non-flowering plants. Non-seed bearing
are further divided into two groups these are algae and ferns

KEYS TO CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS

A simple way to classify and identify an organism is to use a key. The simplest form of key known as
dichotomous key, because one uses a series of steps to help him/her identify an organism. At each step there
are only two choices. The other key is the one that uses lists of questions to identify structure of features of
organisms.

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Diagram of classification

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

A cell is the basic unit of life of plant and animals.

EXAMPLES OF ANIMAL CELLS EXAMPLES OF PLANT CELLS

i) Red blood cells Guard cells

ii) White blood cells Xylem cells

iii) Cheek cells Phloem cells

iv) Nerve cell Palisade cells

v) Muscle cells

vi) Sperm cell

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PARTS OF AN ANIMAL CELL

Nucleus

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF AN ANIMAL CELL

PART FUNCTION
CELL MEMBRANE Controls the movement of substances in and out of a cell

CYTOPLASM This is where chemical reactions take place in the cell

NUCLEUS Controls all activities taking place in the cell

MITOCHONDRIA Generates energy for the cells

It is the site for respiration

PARTS OF A PLANT CELL

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A PLANT CELL

PART FUNTION
CELL WALL Gives a plant its rigid structure / shape. It is made of cellulose and is freely
permeable to most substances.
Protects the cell from damage
CELL MEMBRANE Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell (it is selectively
permeable)
CYTOPLASM This is where chemical reactions take place

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 CHLOROPLASTS They help plants to make their own food through the process of photosynthesis
by converting light energy from the sun into chemical energy of foods.
NUCLEUS Controls all activities taking place in the cell

VACUOLE Contains/ stores food such as starch produced during photosynthesis

MITOCHONDRIA Generates energy for the cells
It is the site for respiration

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

Have chloroplasts No chloroplasts
Have cell wall No cell wall
Have large vacuole Have a small vacuole that disappears as the cell grows
or matures.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

-They both have a nucleus

-They both have a cell membrane

-They both have a cytoplasm

CELL SPECIALISATION

Cells are made in such a way that they carry out different functions in the body. Each type of a cell carries its
own function. This is known as cell specialisation. For example a sperm cell fuses with egg cell to form a zygote
during fertilisation.

EXAMPLES OF SPECIALISED ANIMAL CELLS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

CELL FUNCTION
RED BLOOD CELL Transport oxygen around the body.
 The cytoplasm is filled with the red pigment called haemoglobin which carries oxygen
 They do not have nucleus leaving more space for haemoglobin.
 They are very flexible (they can be forced through the narrowest of blood vessels)

WHITE BLOOD CELL

phagocte Protect the body against infection or defend the body against pathogens. They many types:
 Phagocytes- they engulf harmful microorganisms.
- Irregular shaped nucleus allows the cell to squeeze through gaps in walls of
capillaries
- Sensitive cell surface membrane can detect microorganisms
- Enzymes in cytoplasm digest microorganisms once engulfed

Lymphocyte
 Lymphocytes- produce antibodies ( proteins that help in defense by destroying
microorganisms)
- Large nucleus contains many copies of genes for the control of antibody protein
protection

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NERVE CELL Carry nerve impulses from one part of the body to another

MUSCLE CELL They move bones by either contracting and relaxing

 Muscle cells are long and have many protein fibres in the cytoplasm.

EXAMPLES OF PLANTS CELLS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

CELL FUNCTION
CONDUCTING CELLS(xylem and phloem cells) Transport food and water together with dissolved
mineral salts around the plants
PALISADE CELLS Contains a large number of chloroplasts because most
plant’s photosynthesis takes place here.
GUARD CELLS Open and closes the stomata

USING A MICROSCOPE

A microscope is used to look at very small objects which cannot be seen with a naked eye.

1. Place the microscope on a table or any flat surface.

2. Adjust the mirror to focus natural light on the slide

3. Adjust the iris diaphragm to the largest hole diameter allowing the greatest amount of light through

4. Rotate the nose piece so that the lowest magnification objective lens is in place.

5. Place a microscope slide on the stage

PLANT AND ANIMAL SYSTEMS

Multicellular organisms- These are organisms which are made up of many cells.

Examples: human beings, mophane tree, monkey, dog, baobab, orange tree, cabbage, fish.

Unicellular organisms- These are organisms that are made up of one cell. They are also referred to as single
celled organisms.

Examples: bacteria, yeast, paramecium, virus, amoeba.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

TISSUE – A tissue is a group of similar cells working out together to carry out a certain function.

EXAMPLES OF PLANT AND ANIMAL TISSUES

ANIMAL TISSUES PLANT TISSUES

Epithelial tissue Xylem tissue
Muscle tissue Phloem tissue
Connective tissue Leaf epirdermis
Nerve tissue
Blood tissue
Bone tissue

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ORGANS- An organ is a group of tissues carrying out a special function.

EXAMPLES OF PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGANS

ANIMAL ORGANS PLANT ORGANS

Heart Root
Liver Branch
Lungs Stem
Stomach Leaves
Ears
Eyes

SYSTEM- a system is a group of organs working together to perform a specific function.

EXAMPLES OF PLANT AND ANIMAL SYSTEM

ANIMAL SYSTEM PLANT SYSTEM

Skeletal system Reproductive system
Muscular system Transporting system
Circulatory system Manufacturing system
Respiratory system
Reproductive system
Nervous system

ANIMAL SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

SYSTEM FUNCTION ORGANS INVOLVED

SKELETAL -Support the body Bones, cartilage, tendons
-Protect inner organs and ligaments
-Helps the body to move

MUSCULAR -Provide the body with movement Skeletal, smooth and

cardiac muscles

CIRCULATORY -Control movement of materials through some organs Heart, blood vessels and
-Transport nutrients around the body blood
-Transport gases around the body
-Transport hormones around the body
NERVOUS -Carries messages around the body Brain, spinal cord and
-Control and coordinate parts of the body so that they work nerves
together
-Helps to coordinate things like heartbeat, breathing etc.
RESPIRATORY -Carry out gas exchange between the blood and the environment Lungs and nose

EXCRETORY -Remove excess water from the body Kidneys, bladder, lungs,
-Remove waste materials poisonous substances from the body skin
ENDOCRINE -Send hormones through the body Hypothalamus, pituitary,
thyroid, pancrease and
adrenal glands
REPRODUCTIVE -make organisms to produce young ones Female: ovaries, oviducts,
uterus, vagina and
mammary glands
Male: testes, penis

PLANT SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

SYSTEM FUNCTION
REPRODUCTIVE Make plant create young ones
MANUFACTURING Make plant produce their own food
NUTRIENT TRANSPORT Moves nutrients around the plant
22
WATER TRANSPORT Moves water from the roots to the leaves
EXCHANGE This is where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged

LEAF STRUCTURE

i) Leaves are flat so that they have large surface area.

ii) Leaves are green in colour because they contain chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis

iii) Leaves have a dark green waxy upper surface which prevent water loss from the leaf surface

GASEOUS
EXCHANGE
IN PLANTS

This take place on the leaves. This is because the leaves have tiny holes known as the stomata. These are holes
through which oxygen leaves and carbon dioxide enters.

Thick cuticle

This is a waxy transparent layer on the upper surface of the leaf. It helps reduce water loss by transpiration. It
is transparent to allow light to pass through it.

Palisade mesophyll

Contains a lot of chloroplasts because most of the plants photosynthesis takes place there.

Spongy mesophyll

Are loosely packed with air spaces to allow free movement of water and carbon dioxide to all cells in the leaf.

23
Stomata

These are holes or opening found at the lower surface of the leaf not facing the sun. They open and close to
allow for the exchange of gases between the leaf and air. That is the movement of carbon dioxide into the leaf
and oxygen out of the leaf.

Guard cells

These are cells that exist in pairs. They change shape to open and close the stomata. When they have enough
water (are turgid), they curve leaving an opening between them. This allows for gaseous exchange. When they
have less water (are flaccid), they straighten and close the stomata and stop gaseous exchange

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the process in which green plants make their own food using carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll. The process of photosynthesis involves the following:

i) Taking in carbon dioxide from the air through the stomata

ii) Taking in of water through the roots

iii) Trapping of light energy of sunlight by chlorophyll in the leaves

iv) Combining carbon dioxide and water using energy from the sun

v) Production of oxygen and glucose.

WORD EQUATION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Carbon dioxide + water sun light glucose(carbohydrates) + oxygen

Chlorophyll

Chemical formular

CO2 + H2O sunlight C6H12O6 + O2

chlorophyll

PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen.

TESTING A GREEN LEAF FOR STARCH

24
APPARATUS NEEDED

-Iodine solution, ethanol/ alcohol, water bath, green leaf, white tile, test tube, dropper

METHOD/ PROCEDURE

1. Boil the leaf in water for about 10 minute. Reason: to kill and break opens the cells of the leaf.

2. Boil the leaf in alcohol for about 10 minutes. Reason: to remove chlorophyll (the green colour in the
leaf). (Alcohol should be heated in water bath as is flammable). The leaf becomes pale yellow, hard
and brittle.

3. Put the leaf in warm water. Reason: to soften it.

4. Place the leaf on a white tile for easy observation and add a few drops of iodine solution . (Iodine is the
reagent (chemical substance) used to test starch).

5. If starch is present the iodine solution changes colour from brown to blue-black.

Is oxygen produced during photosynthesis?

To find this a pondweed is put under a funnel, exposed to all conditions necessary for photosynthesis and the
gas produced is collected and tested. Below is the set-up for the experiment:

Observations

Bubbles of a gas collect into the test-tube and the

water level goes down. When a glowing splint is brought to the gas it relights.

Conclusion
Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis.
NB: Oxygen is the only gas that relights a glowing splint.

If a similar set up can be made and placed in a dark cupboard. In the dark oxygen will not be produced
because there is no light and there will be no bubbles produces.

Conditions necessary for photosynthesis

For photosynthesis to occur, all of the following conditions should be present:

 Sunlight
 Water
 Carbon dioxide
 Chlorophyll

INVESTIGATING THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

This is done by providing a plant with all the conditions necessary for photosynthesis stated above except for
the one being investigated. The leaves from the variable being investigated are then tested for starch. Testing

25
a leaf for starch is the same as testing if photosynthesis took place. A blue-black colour indicates
photosynthesis took place whereas no colour change means photosynthesis did not take place.

Is sunlight necessary for photosynthesis?

Two identical plants are destarched for 24 hours. One is then placed in light for another 24 hours while the
other is placed in the dark for the same duration. Leafs from both plants will then be tested for starch to see if
photosynthesis took place. Below is the set-up for the experiment:

Set up Y is the
experimental group and set up X is the control group it has all the conditions necessary for photosynthesis.

Observations

When tested for starch, the leave from the plant in the dark did not change colour whereas the one from a plant
in sunlight turned blue-black.

Conclusion

Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

Is chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis?

A variegated leaf is used. This leaf has some green areas and pale areas. Green areas have chlorophyll whereas
pale areas do not have chlorophyll. The leaf is also tested for starch. Below is the diagram of a variegated leaf:

Observations

Areas with chlorophyll turned blue-black whereas those without did not show any colour change. That is
positive results for areas with chlorophyll and negative results for areas without chlorophyll.

Conclusion

Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

Is carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis?

Two potted plants are each covered with a bell jar. One has sodium hydroxide while the other has sodium
hydrogen carbonate. Sodium hydroxide absorbs or removes carbon dioxide from the jar whereas sodium
26
hydrogen carbonate produces or releases carbon dioxide into the bell jar. The set-up is left for some days as
shown below and then tested for starch.

Observations

The plant with carbon dioxide turned blue-black whereas the one without carbon dioxide did not show any
colour change.

Conclusions

Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

THE IMPORTANCES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

i) It produces oxygen for respiration which living things need to survive.

ii) Produces all the food for consumers

iii) It controls the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

RESPIRATION

Respiration is the process through which cells break down food to release energy.

THE WORD EQUATION OF RESPIRATION

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BREATHING AND RESPIRATION

RESPIRATION BREATHING
This is a chemical process by which cells use oxygen This is a physical process of taking in air and taking
to produce energy it out

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Respiration uses the products (glucose and oxygen) of photosynthesis to produce energy.
Photosynthesis uses the products (carbon dioxide and water) of respiration to produce starch.

EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT

i) Increases the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Too much carbondioxide traps heat
making the Earth’s temperature to increase leading to Global warming.Global warming is the
average increase in the Earth’s temperature

ii) Increases the temperature of the earth

iii) Reduces the amount of rainfall

iv) Increases soil erosion

v) Increases the desert

vi) Some wild animals have no place to live.

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Transportation of substances in plants is carried out by the vascular bundles. These are the phloem
vessels(made of living cells) and the xylem vessels (made of dead cells).

27
PHLOEM VESSELS

Transport products of photosynthesis from where they are produced to where they are used or stored.

XYLEM VESSELS

Transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the upper part of the plant.

TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration is the loss of water from the plant through the stomata in the leaves.

The experimental set-up below is, used to investigate transpiration in plants. The set-up was, left for one hour.

NB; Cobalt chloride paper is blue when dry but turns from blue to pink when it comes in, contact with water.
This is, used to test for the presence of water.

Observations

The plant with leaves covered with Vaseline did not show any change while those not covered with Vaseline
had some droplets of water in it and the blue cobalt chloride paper in it changed from blue to pink.

Conclusion

Plants lose water through leaves. We reached this conclusion because Vaseline is water resistant hence
prevented the leaves covered with it from losing water and only the plant without Vaseline lost water through
leaves.

The rate of transpiration can be, measured using an instrument called potometer.

28
Importance of transpiration

-helps to cool the plant

-carries mineral salts to the cells of the plant

29
CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

INCREASED TRANSPIRATION RATE REDUCED TRANSPIRATION RATE

High temperature Low temperature
Low humidity High humidity
High wind speed Low wind speed
Increased light Decreased light
Large leaf surface Small leaf surface
Large number of stomata Small number of stomata
Large size of stomata Small size of stomata

NITROGEN CYCLESCYCLE

For nitrogen gas to become

useful, it first needs to
be changed into different chemical forms that can be used by plants and other organisms eg nitrates. The
process of converting nitrogen gas into the atmosphere into useful chemical forms of nitrogen is known as
fixation. The fixation of nitrogen happens in three main ways

i) Atmospheric fixation of nitrogen by lightening

ii) Biological fixation of nitrogen by bacteria

iii) Industrial fixation of nitrogen

The second step in nitrogen fixation is use of nitrogen by plants and animals. Once nitrogen has been fixed
from the atmosphere, it will be absorbed by plants. Animals get nitrogen by eating plants.

The last part of the nitrogen cycle is denitrification, nitrogen containing chemicals are converted back
into nitrogen gas which is then returned to the atmosphere.

THE CARBON CYCLE

30
The first step in the carbon cycle is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is absorbed by plants during
photosynthesis. Other organisms get carbon by eating plants. The carbon of living organisms can be returned
to the atmosphere in three main ways:

i) When an organism dies (decomposition), it decays and carbon dioxide is returned to the
atmosphere.

ii) Organisms release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through the process of respiration.

iii) The combustion of carbon containing compounds release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
during burning of fossil fuels.

NATURAL RESOURCES

A natural resource is a material, substance or a place that is found in nature and is used by human beings.
Examples oil, forests, minerals, water, animals, wildlife, energy.

IMPORTANT NATURAL RESOURCES FOUND IN BOTSWANA

i) Diamonds

ii) Copper

iii) Nickel

iv) Coal

v) Wild life

vi) water

THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

It is important to conserve natural resources because of the following

i) when destroyed they disappear for ever

ii) so that they are available for people many years to come

WAYS OF CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

WILDLIFE

i) protecting endangered species

ii) replanting trees as old ones are cut

iii) using alternative sources of energy

iv) Setting up game reserves and national parks where hunting is not allowed.

v) There should be controlled killing of animals

MINERAL RESOURCES

i) Not relying only on natural resources

ii) Diversifying the economy

WATER

i) Reducing the amount used per day.

ii) Avoiding wasting water

iii) Repairing leaking and damaged taps and pipes

31
 iv) Construction of dams

v) Collecting rain water when available

RECYCLING

Recycling means using materials / items more than ones.

IMPORTANCE OF RECYCLING

i) Makes resources last longer

ii) Reduces materials that is thrown away

iii) Reduces pollution of the environment

iv) It creates employment.

METHODS OF RECYCLING

Recycling is usually carried out by companies which use recycled material to make money

Recycling companies tend to specialise in recycling a particular type of waste such as paper, tins or glass.

BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES IN RECYCLING

i) Recycling factories

ii) Manufacture of recycled goods from waste material

iii) Some people make a living from waste produced by other people

MATTER

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

i) Matter has mass

ii) Matter take up space

iii) Matter is made up of particles

iv) Matter exists in three states

ATOMS

The particles that make up matter are known as atoms.

THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

An atom is made up of three particles. These are

i) Protons

32
 ii) Neutrons

iii) Electrons

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom while electrons are found on the shells of the atom.

Each particle has got its own position and charge

PARTICLE POSITION CHARGE

PROTON Nucleus Positive +
NEUTRON Nucleus No charge
ELECTRON Shell Negative -

STATES OF MATTER

There are three states of matter. These are solid, liquid and gas.

PROPERTIES OF STATES OF MATTER

SOLID LIQUID GAS

-Particles are very close together and neatly -Particles are loosely packed -Particles are further apart
packed
-Particles are not free to move but vibrate -Particles can move slightly -Particles are free to move
within a fixed position
-Have fixed shape and volume -Have a fixed volume but no fixed shape; they -Have no fixed shape
take the shape of the container.
-Are very dense and hard -Wet to touch Cannot be touched
-Have high densities Have high densities Have low densities
-Particles are incompressible -There is very little compressibility -Can be easily compressed
-Expand a little when heated -Expand a bit when heated -Expand a lot when heated

Demonstration of heat expansion and contractionin solids

Before heating, the metal

ball passes easily through the ring. After heating, the metal ball expands and cannot pass through the ring.If
the ball is left to cool, it contracts and passes through the ring again. This shows that solids expands when
heated and contracts when cooled.

Expansion and contraction in liquids

When the flask is heated, the water level in the glass tube rises and when it is cooled the water level drops This
shows that liquids expands when heated and contracts when cooled.

Expansion and contraction in gases

33
As the flask was heated, some bubbles escapes from the glass tube because gas particles when heated and
occupies more space. When the flask was cooled, water moved into the glass tube because the gas particles
remaining in the flask contracted and occupies less space. This shows that gases expands when heated and
contracts when cooled.

CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER

Changes of states of matter are the rearrangement of particles

MELTING

Melting is the
change in state from
a solid to a liquid usually caused by heating. On heating the particles in a solid gain energy and move more.
They remain in contact but with weaker forces of attraction, and so they are not held in fixed positions and the
material becomes a liquid.

FREEZING - when a liquid become a solid due to cooling.

CONDENSATION - when a gas becomes a liquid due to cooling.

EVAPORATION - when a liquid become a gas.

SUBLIMATION- is the direct change of state from a solid to a gas or from a gas to a solid on cooling.

DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the process by which particles of matter move from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration until they are evenly distributed.

Diffusion in fluids

A fluid is a substance that can flow.

Diffusion in gases

34
The brown gas moves from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration until they are
evenly distributed. This demonstrates diffusion.

DIAGRAM

Diffusion in two gases

DIAGRAM

The concentrated hydrochloric acid release hydrogen gas and ammonia solution releases ammonia gas.
Hydrogen chloride gas reacts with ammonia solution to form white fumes or solid called ammonium chloride.

-Particles of ammonia and hydrochloric acid were moved by air in the glass tube

-Ammonia particles are less dense, hence they move faster than hydrochloric acid particles. That is why the
white solid is formed close to hydrochloric acid.

Diffusion in liquids

Diagram

Potassium permanganate crystals are placed at the bottom of a beaker. The purple potassium permanganate
crystals spread throughout the water to form a purple solution.

1. Diffusion is fastest in gases because;

-gas particles have a lot of energy

-there are greater spaces between the particles

-particles are moving at a high speed

2. Diffusion is fast in liquids because;

-particles have more energy to move

-particles are free to move

3. Diffusion are very slow in solids because;

-particles have little energy

DIFFUSION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

1. All the things that we smell during the course of a day good or bad arrive to our noses by diffusion.

2. When tasting things, molecules diffuse from the food onto the test buds.

3. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the stomata of leaves and then to the cells of leaves

4. Oxygen also leaves the leaves by diffusion

5. Oxygen dissolved in our blood moves into our cells by diffusion

6. Carbon dioxide moves out of our blood into the air in our lungs by diffusion

7. Embryo receive nutrients and remove waste products by diffusion

35
THE SCIENCE OF WATER

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

i) It is colourless, odourless and tasteless.

ii) It boils at 100ºC at sea level

iii) It freezes and melts at 0ºC

iv) Many substances can dissolve in water (universal solvent)

CHEMICAL TEST FOR WATER

TEST: Insert blue cobalt paper into the liquid that is tested for water.

RESULT: Blue cobalt chloride paper will turn if water is present.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT OF A WATER MOLECULE

Water is made up of two elements; Hydrogen and Oxygen. A water molecule is made up of two atoms of
Hydrogen and one atom Oxygen. Its formula is H2O

THE ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

Anomalous means “unexpected” or “unusual”

-When water is cooled down it contracts until the temperature reaches 4 oC.

-Water has its maximum density of 1g/cm3 of 4oC.

-When water is cooled further below 4oC, it starts expanding slightly again

-When water freezes at 0oC it expands even more. This means ice has a lower density than water and that is
why ice floats on water.

-it is very unusual for any liquid to expand when cooled like water does when it is cooled from 4 oc to 0oc. this is
called anomalous expansion of water.

EFFECTS OF ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

i) It breaks water pipes when it freezes in those pipes

ii) It causes soil erosion by expanding cracks in rocks

THE IMPORTANCE / SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EXPANSION OF FREEZING WATER TO LIVES OF MARINE

ANIMALS

The anomalous expansion of water helps to keep the life in water safe. When the surface of the water freezes
the marine animals moves downwards to liquid water at the bottom. They are kept warm because the heat
cannot be lost from water. The water at the bottom is insulated by floating ice.

AICDS AND BASES

Acids are chemicals that release hydrogen ion when added to water.

Bases are all substances which react chemically with water.

Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water

36
ACIDS

The following are some examples of acids:

-Sulphuric acid

-Hydrochloric acid

-Ethanoic acid

-Nitric acid

-Citric acid

-Tartaric acid

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

i) They turn blue litmus paper red

ii) They have a sour taste

iii) They have a pH less than 7

iv) They react with most metals forming hydrogen and salt

v) They react with alkalis to form water and salt only

vi) They react with carbonates to give out carbon dioxide, water and salt.

BASES AND ALKALIS

The following are examples of alkalis and bases

i) Copper II oxide

ii) Iron III hydroxide

iii) Zinc oxide

iv) Calcium hydroxide

v) Ammonia

vi) Sodium hydroxide

vii) Potassium hydroxide

viii) Ammonium hydroxide

PROPERTIES OF BASES AND ALKALIS

i) They turn red litmus paper blue

ii) They have a pH more than 7

iii) They react with acids to give out salt and water.

iv) They have a bitter test

v) They are soluble in water

vi) They are corrosive

37
ACID ALKALI INDICATOR

An acid alkali indicator is a substance used to determine whether a chemical is an acid or an alkali.

EXAMPLES OF ACID-ALKALI INDICATORS

i) Litmus

ii) Methyl orange

iii) Phenolphthalein

iv) Bromothymol blue

In acidic solutions, it varies from deep red for strong acids to orange for weak acids. In alkaline solutions, it
varies from deep violet in strong alkalis to green in weak alkalis. Neutral appears green.

THE CORROSION OF STRONG ACIDS AND STRONG ALKALIS

Strong acids and alkalis are corrosive. This means that they can cause damage to non- living substances such
as metals and also living things. The main hazard to people includes damage to the eyes, the skin and tissues
under the skin. Inhalation or swallowing of strong acids and alkalis can damage the lungs and the gut.

Symbol Meaning
Corrosive

Toxic

Flammable SAFETY SYMBOLS AND LABELS

Interpretation of safety symbols

Oxidizing

Irritants or harmful

38
explosive
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS

House hold chemicals can be divided into three main groups. These are acidic, alkaline and neutral chemicals.

ACIDIC ALKALINE NEUTRAL

Vinegar Toothpaste Table salt
Tartaric acid Stomach powders Sugar
Lemon juice Cleaning agents Fertilizers

SAFE STORAGE OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS

1. Store house hold chemicals in a cool dry cup boards.

2. Make sure lids are tight and child prof with no leakage.

3. Large containers should be stored on the floor not on high shelves.

4. Chemicals stored for a long time should be thrown away.

5. Acidic substances should be kept away from alkaline substances.

6. Containers of chemicals should be labeled clearly.

ACTION TO TAKE WHEN ACCIDENTS HAPPENS TO YOU

1. POISON ON THE SKIN-Remove all contaminated clothing and wash with clean running water for 10
minutes.

2. POISON BY INHALATION- Immediately take the person to fresh air. If the person is not breathing one
should start artificial respiration.

3. POISON BY SWALLOWING- Give the person water or milk immediately. Then take the person to the
hospital.

4. TREATING BURNS

-Remove the cause of the burn

39
 -Remove any contaminated clothing or jewellery.

-Wash the chemical off the skin surface using cool running water for 10 minutes.

-Wrap the burnt surface with a clean cloth. If the person is seriously burnt take him/her to clinic or hospital

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system lies within the body in the pelvic region.

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

PART FUNCTION

Ovaries Produce ova and two female hormones- oestrogen and progesterone

40
Oviducts/ fallopian tubes This is where fertilisationtakes place.

Uterus This is where the fertilised ovum develops until birth.

Cervix This is the entrance to the uterus. Closes off during pregnancy

Vagina This is where the semen is deposited during sexual intercourse.

Vulva This is the outer part of the vagina that is on the outside of the body

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

In humans, the male sexual organs are found mostly outside the body.

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE PARTS

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

PART FUNCTIONS

Testes They produce sperms and hormone called testosterone

Epididymis Stores sperms after they have been produced by the testes.

Penis It deposits sperms into the vagina during sexual intercourse

Scrotum It acts as a sack to holds, protects and keeps the testis at the right temperature for
sperms.

Urethra Passes semen and urine outside the male`s body at different times

Sperm duct Passage for sperms from testis to the urethra

Accessory glands This makes the liquid that sperm swim in.

THE MALE AND FEMALE SEX CELL

SPERM (male sex cell) OVUM(female sex cell)

-Very small -Larger than a sperm

41
 -Produced in millions -Produced and released one at a time.
-Have head and a tail -Cannot move on their own
-Live for three days inside the female`s body after -Live for one day following release from ovary.
ejaculation

PUBERTY AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Puberty is the time when someone become sexual mature.

CHANGES AT PUBERTY

BOYS GIRLS
-Develop strong muscles -Develop breasts
-Hairs grows under armpits -Hair grow under armpits
-Hair grow around sex organs -Hair grow around the sex organs
-Hair grow on the face -Layer of body fat develops
-Develop deep voice -Hips grow wide
-Sex cells are produced -Sex cells are produced
-Experience wet dreams -Develop interest towards the boys
-Develop interest towards the girls

Sexual characteristics that are present at birth are called Primary Sexual characteristics while those that
develop during puberty are called Secondary Sexual characteristics.

Definition of term

a) Fertilisation-the fusion (joining together) of a male sex cell and a female sex cell to form a zygote.

b) Ovulation-the release of a mature egg from one of the ovaries.

c) Menstruation-the loss of a dead ovum and the lining of the uterus.

d) Mernache- the start of first menstruation.

e) Menopause-the time when menstruation and ovulation permanently stops at around the age of 45 to
50 years.

f) Fertile period- days when fertilization is likely to occur following sexual intercourse.

HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGES AT PUBERTY

There are three hormones responsible for changes at puberty. These are:

i) Testosterone

ii) Oestrogen

iii) Progesterone

FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGES AT PUBERTY

HORMONE WHERE FUNCTION

PRODUCED
TESTOSTERONE Testes Stimulate the development of secondary Sexual characteristics in boys at puberty
OESTROGEN Ovary Stimulate the development of secondary Sexual characteristics in girls at puberty
PROGESTERONE ovary Prepares the uterus so that it is ready to receive zygote if fertilization takes place.
It also maintains the wall of the uterus during pregnancy

42
 THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The period between the release of one ovum and another is known as menstrual cycle

The
menstrual cycle can be divided into four main stages. These are

STAGE 1 (DAY 1 – 5) Menstruation(shedding of blood)

Day 1 of the menstrual cycle is when bleeding begins. The bleeding happens because the lining of the uterus
thickens during the menstrual cycle so that it is ready to receive the fertilised ovum. If fertilisation does not
take place during the cycle, then the thickened lining of the uterus falls away and passes out through the
vagina together with the unfertilised ovum for a period of about five days.

STAGE 2 (DAY 6- 12) The repair phase

A new lining begins to form in uterus. The ovum begins to mature rapidly in the ovary.

STAGE 3 (DAY 13 – 16) The fertile phase

The uterus lining is thicker and is ready to receive a fertilised ovum. The ovum is released from the ovary into
the oviduct on day 14. This is known as ovulation. The time that fertilisation and pregnancy is most likely to
occur is between 13- 16 although this may be different from one person to person.

STAGE 4 (DAY 17 – 28) Pre- menstrual phase

If fertilisation does not occur, then the lining of the uterus begins to break down in preparation for
menstruation, some woman can have pre- menstrual syndrome.

MENOPAUSE

Menopause is when ovulation and menstruation stops permanently. This takes place about the ages 45 to 55.
The woman can no longer have babies.

METHODS OF BITH CONTROL

METHOD HOW IT WORKS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

CONDOM Prevents i) Effective, but not 100% i.Some people are allergic to latex
fertilisation ii) No side effects ii)May burst/rupture if not used
iii) Can prevent both STIs and properly
43
 pregnancy iii) Easily destroyed by heat and light
iv) It is cheap

THE CONTRACEDPTIVEPrevents i) Highly effective i) Possible side effects

PILL ovulation ii) Requires no preparation just beforeii) Can be forgotten
sex iii) May cause heart, liver and breast
iii)Readily available at clinics problems in older woman
iv)cannot prevent STIs

SPERMICIDES Prevents i) Increases effectiveness of thei) Not effective on its own.

fertilisation condom or diaphragm. ii) Must be changed before each sex
ii) Give extra protection to IUD users act

LOOP/IUD Prevents i) Highly effective and long lasting i) May come out
implantation-it isii) Nothing to remember ii) Possible side effects e.g. periods
placed inside theiii) Requires no preparations justmight be heaviour, cramps
vagina over thebefore sex act iii) Must be inserted by a doctor
cervix iv)replaced after a long time iv)cannot prevent STIs

DEPO PROVERAPrevents i) Highly effective i) Changes menstrual pattern

INJECTION ovulation ii) Needs to be remembered onlyii) Contraceptive effective may last
times in a year very long
iii) Requires no preparation justiii) Possible side effects
before sex

STERILISATION- Prevents i) No side effects Cannot be reversed

permanent andfertilisation ii) Not suitable for young men and Suitable for people who no longer
irreversible. women want children
It involves cutting and
tying of the oviduct in
females and sperm
duct in males
ABSTINENCE i) No health risks Requires extra ordinary self control
ii) The best for all teenagers
iii)no threats of pregnancy or STIs
iv)100% effective

OUTLETS PROVIDING FAMILY PLANNING AVDICE AND SERVICES

i) Clinics

ii) Hospitals

iii) Health centres

iv) Family welfare Education centres

v) Social workers

THE IMPLICATIONS OF FAMILY PLANNING IN THE LIGHT OF FAMILY SIZE

i) Large families, result in difficulties in caring for all the children

ii) Parents need to take measures to control birth, so that they can decide how many children to have.

iii) If there are many children this result in poverty and rapid population increase

iv) Prevents unwanted pregnancies

44
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Sexually transmitted infections are infections that are passed on from one person to another following sexual
intercourse.

i) Syphilis

ii) Gonorrhea

iii) HIV and AIDS

iv) Genital herpes

v) Thrush

vi) Genital warts

vii) Chancroid

viii) Chlamydia

Disease and Transmission symptoms Treatment Effect of no

cause treatment

Gonorrhoea – Unprotected Sexual Women – pelvic pain ; painful Antibiotics Severe infection ;
bacteria intercourse with an urination ; vaginal discharge , infertility ; babies
infected person. fever may be born blind

Men – painful urination ;

discharge or drip from penis

Candida or Unprotected Sexual Women ;Severe itching , Anti-fungal cream Vaginal discomfort
thrush – fungus intercourse with an burning , soreness , and and medications discharge
infected person. irritation of vagina and vulva

Men; red patchy sores near

the head of the penis or near
foreskin , severe itching and a
burning sensation , whitish
grey fluid may leak from the
penis

45
Genital herpes Unprotected Sexual Painless sore or blisters that Medications may Sore disappear
– virus intercourse with an may break into open be used to stop without treatment
infected person , sores ,sores appear on the outbreaks but no but reappear often
infected pregnant mouth and sex organs , sores cure when ill or under
mothers may infect may be accompanied by flu stress
during birth , contact like symptoms eg fever ,
with the sore headache

Genital warts Unprotected Sexual Painless bumps in the May be removed May cause cervical
intercourse with an genitals by burning or cancer , grow large
infected person , contact minor surgery and spread
with sores

Chlamydia – Unprotected Sexual Women ; pelvic pain , painful Antibiotics Infection of other
bacteria intercourse with an frequent urination , bleeding organs , may pass
infected person after sexual intercourse infection to baby

Men ; discharge from the

penis

SYPHILLIS, Unprotected Sexual Primary stage Antibiotics If not treated it can

intercourse with an lead to death
Bacteria infected person. - Signs start to show two or
Infected mother to the three weeks from the date of
infections but will disappear if
unborn baby
diseases if not treated.

Signs-a painless sore called

chancre around genital
organs,mouth and lips or
around anus.

Secondary stage

Signs shows after those of

primary have disappeared and
they include;

Nausea, headache, loss of

appetite, sore throat, body
rash that do not itch, white
patches in the mouth

Tertiary stage

The disease has done too

much harm to the body that it
cannot be cured. Theseparts
of the body can be
permanently damaged;

Liver, bones, nervous system,

brain disorder leading to
mental disorder, heart leading
to heart diseases, spinal cord.

46
AIDS

AIDS stand for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. This infection is caused by a virus known as Human
Immuno-deficiency Virus (HIV).

TRANSMISSION

i) The main transmission of HIV is through sexual contact with an infected person

ii) Contact with infected blood

iii) Infected body fluids

iv) Sharing sharp objects

v) From a pregnant mother to the unborn child during pregnancy

THE MEDICAL CONDITIONS OF ADVANCED HIV AND AIDS

A test is carried out to find out how advanced the disease is. The tests are for the CD4 count and
the viral load. If the CD4 count is very low then the therapy is started.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BEING HIV POSITIVE AND HAVING AIDS

BEING HIV POSITIVE

A person who has HIV is said to be HIV positive. An HIV person looks healthy like anyone else who
does not have the virus. This person can pass the virus to others.

HAVING AIDS

When an HIV positive develops symptoms of AIDS. The person is said to have AIDS. These are
normally caused by different types of diseases. At this stage, the person’s immune system is very
weak and cannot fight infections effectively. The person tends to be sick more often and may not
recover quickly from illness.

OPPORTUNITISC INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH HIV AND AIDS

HIV destroys the body’s immune system until the body can no longer fight off infections. These
infections that attack the body after the body’s immune system is destroyed are known as
opportunistic infections.

Examples of opportunistic infections

i) Tuberculosis

ii) Candida albicons infections

iii) Pneumonia (lung cancer)

iv) Herpes infections

v) Kaposi’s sarcoma (skin cancer)

vi) Cervical cancer

vii) Leukemia (cancer of blood)

viii) Mental disorder

PROGRAMMES FOR THE TREATMENT OF HIV AND AIDS CONDITIONS

HIV and AIDS cannot be cured. There are some programmes in place which delay the beginning of AIDS in HIV
positive people for many years. Some these are

47
- Anti- Retroviral therapy programme

- Sexually transmitted infections control programme

- Prevention from Mother ToChild Transmission of HIV programme (PMTCT)

- Isoniazid prevention therapy programme

Prevention against HIV/AIDS and other STI’s

-Abstaining

-Condomising

-Being faithful

ENERGY FORMS AND SOURCES

Kinetic energy

This is the energy in moving objects. The faster the objects move the more the kinetic energy it has. For
example, bird flying, donkey cart being driven, flying aeroplane etc.

Chemical potential energy

This is the energy stored in chemicals such as food, cells and fuels like coal, oil, wood and gas. It is, usually
released during chemical reactions like burning and respiration.

Gravitational potential energy

This is the energy due to objects being place above the ground. They usually lose gravitational energy when
they fall.

Electrical energy

It is the energy carried by wires connected to cell, generators and the mains electricity.

Light energy

This is the energy produced by burning objects. It enables us to see. It is, often accompanied by heat energy.

Heat energy

This energy warms objects. It is, also produced by burning objects. It is, usually accompanied by light energy.

Strain or elastic or mechanical energy

Sometimes referred to as mechanical energy, is stored in compressed or stretched elastic objects when they
want to go back to their original shape or size.

Solar energy

Energy from the sun.

48
Sound energy

Energy produced by vibrating object / material.

SOURCES OF ENERGY

Energy sources can be, classified as renewable or non-renewable. Renewable sources of energy are those
that can be replaced once they are finished. Non-renewable sources of energy are those that cannot be
replaced once they are finished. The table below shows some examples of renewable and non-renewable
sources of energy.

Renewable Non-renewable

The sun (solar) Coal

Hydroelectric (water) Oil

Wind Natural gas

Biomass Nuclear

FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels are fuels that formed from decayed remains of plants and animals that died a million of years ago.
Oil, coal and natural gas are some examples of fossil fuels.

Origins of fossil fuels

Oil and natural gas- was formed a millions of years ago from the remains bodies of dead water creatures.
High temperatures (heat)and pressure turned the remains of the organisms into crude oil and natural gas.

Coal-was formed from the remains of dead plants over millions of years ago. As the plants remains were put
under great pressure and high temperatures for a long time they turned into coal.

Importance of fossil fuels

They are used to prepare the food we need as energy.

They are used to heat our houses during cold days.

They are used to power machines such as vehicles, computers, televisions, radios etc.

Ways of harnessing (obtaining) alternative sources of energy

a) Solar energy-uses energy from the sun. Solar panels are used to capture the energy from the sun.

b) Biomass- made from organic matter that makes up animals and plants materials such as cow dung.

c) Wind energy- windmills harness/ capture the wind’s energy and convert it to mechanical energy which can
be used to pump water or grind sorghum.

d) Hydroelectric energy- uses energy of moving water to produce electricity.

The importance of conserving

i) Non- renewable fossil fuels run out.

ii) Burning of fossil fuels causes global warming

iii) Energy is becoming more expensive

49
iv) The production of energy in coal fired power stations uses a lot of water.

v) Cutting down of trees for wood causes deforestation, soil erosion and desertification.

vi) Waste from energy production is difficult to dispose of.

vii) The burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution.

Ways of conserving energy

Switching off lights during the day or they are not in use

Not using too much hot water

Using small cars that use less petrol

Servicing machines regularly to avoid fuel waste

The feasibility of harnessing different sources of energy in Botswana

Feasibility- means weighing up costs against benefits

i) Provide power to run Primary Schools and clinics

ii) Provide power for communication equipment

iii) Health benefits include fighting infections by boiling water

iv) Providing electricity for communication

v) Ending the negative effects on the environment

The business potential of harnessing alternative energy sources in Botswana

1. Business potential of solar power in Botswana

2. Business potential of wind power

3. Business potential of hydroelectric power

Sources of chemical energy in the home

i) Wood- used for cooking and heating water

ii) Diesel/petrol- put in generators which produce electric power

iii) Cells (batteries)- used to generate electric current

iv) Candle – used for lighting

v) Paraffin - used for cooking and lighting water

Sources of heat and light energy in the home

i) Chemical energy

ii) Electricity

Financial and environmental implications of using energy sources in the home

ENERGY SOURCE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS FINANCIAL IMPLICTIONS

WOOD - Large scale of deforestation as trees
are chopped down
- Less trees reduce habitats of some
animals - It does not cost money
- Cutting down increases soil erosion

50
 - Increases carbon dioxide level in the
atmosphere
- reduces the amount of rain fall

COAL - Its mining causes environmental

damage - Expensive for many Batswana
- Its burning causes air pollution

PARAFFIN - Caused many accidents when drunk

by mistake
- Have caused many fires in homes
- Its burning releases carbon dioxide It is expensive
into the atmosphere

GAS - Gas cylinders have caused many

fires in homes It is very expensive
- Its burning releases carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere
SOLAR POWER - Does not cause any harm to the It is expensive to buy and install
environment
ELECTRICITY - As fossil fuel, coal is non-renewable
resource
- The burning of coal causes air - Expensive to install
pollution - Expensive to use
-The mining of coal causes
environmental damage
- The burning of coal releases carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere

The benefits of choosing a specific energy source for use in the home

Some of the benefits of choosing a specific energy source are that they can be used for two different purposes;
lighting and providing heat. This makes life easier for household as you will not have to buy two sources for
each purpose.

Costs of using energy sources at home is varied .Candle wax, wood and paraffin are cheaper than petrol,
batteries, cells, gas etc.

Applications of energy changes in everyday life

i) Photosynthesis- Light energy from the sun is changed into chemical energy in plants

ii) Respiration- Chemical energy in food is changed into work and heat energy

iii) Car engine- Chemical energy in petrol/diesel is changed into sound, heat and kinetic energy.

iv) CD player- electrical energy is changed to kinetic energy

v) Paraffin lamp- Chemical energy is changed into light and heat energy.

vi) Torch- Chemical energy is changed to light and heat energy

The importance of energy transformation to people, animals and plants.

The changing of energy from one form to another is known as the transformation of energy. Energy
transformation is very important to the lives of people, animals and plants.

Examples

1. The chemical energy stored in petrol is changed into heat, sound and kinetic energy in the car engine.

2. In a thermal power station the chemical energy stored in coal is changed into electrical energy
51
3. People get energy from food because plants have changed solar energy into chemical energy. Both animals
and people benefit from this energy change.

4. In a solar panel, light energy from the sun is changed into chemical potential energy in a battery. This energy
can be used as heat energy to heat water.

5. When people burn wood, the chemical potential energy is changed into heat energy.

6. Fossil fuels were formed when light energy is changed into chemical energy. When people use fossil fuels,
the chemical energy can be changed into heat energy, light energy and kinetic energy.

 What energy changes occur when a car using petrol moves?

 What energy changes occur when a candle burns?

 What energy changes occur when a morula tree falls from a morula tree?

Natural phenomenon caused by energy transformations

A phenomena is an event especially one that occurs in nature. There are many natural phenomena caused
when energy changes from one form to another.

a) Lightning- it is a result of build-up of opposite electrical energy found in a cloud and on the ground. The
gravitational potential energy in the cloud changes into electrical energy and moves towards the ground.

b) Thunder- lightning heat the air around it rapidly. The air expands and causes the loud noise called thunder.
The light energy changes into sound energy.

c) Water fall- when water tumbles (falls) down to a lower level, gravitational energy changes to kinetic and
sound energy.

d) Earth’s temperature- light energy from the sun changes into heat energy which heats up the earth.

The cause of the greenhouse effect

The Earth’s atmosphere allows heat and light energy from the sun to pass through and strike the earth’s
surface. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps the heat when it is reflected by the earth. This process keeps
the earth warm enough to support life.

The consequences of the greenhouse effect

The increase in the carbon dioxide, which is called a greenhouse gas, has caused the earth to trap more heat,
leading to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This is called global warming. This global warming
results in

i) Increase in sea level

ii) Severe storms

8hiii) Crop yields failing

iv) Increase in skin related diseases

Using energy safely

Safety precautions to be taken when using electricity

i) Keep electric wires insulated

ii) Do not over load electric sockets

iii) Do not mix electricity and water

iv) Do not touch overhead cables

52
v) Dot push any object other than the main plug into the mains socket

vi) Never handle electrical apparatus with wet hands

vii) Never take off the cover of an electrical apparatus while it is plugged into the mains.

viii) Always switch off electrical apparatus while not in use

Diagnosing faults in appliances

If any electrical appliance is not working properly, there are some there are some simple steps to follow to
identify a problem and fix it.

1. Is the appliance properly connected to the power socket? Is the plug pushed in all the way?

2. Is the power socket switched on?

3. Is the appliance switched on?

4. Has the bulb of the electric lamp blown?

5. Is there a fault in the plug? Open and check the wiring and the fuse.

6. Is the plug correctly wired?

7. Is the wire cut or loose

Safety precautions to be taken when using fossil fuels at home/school

1. Store liquid fuels such as oil and paraffin carefully so that they do not spill.

2. Stoves, lamps and heaters must be fixed securely so that they do not fall.

3. Never put gas cylinders near heat source.

4. Ensure that there is good ventilation in a room where fuel is burning.

5. Paraffin must not be stored in soft drinks bottles or milk bottles. The containers must be clearly labeled and
stored out of reach of children.

Ways of preventing accidents when burning fuels

-Supervise young children when any fossil fuel is burned.

-Never leave fire unattended.

-If the fuel is being burned indoors insure that there is good ventilation.

-Never play with matches.

-Never light matches near petrol containers.

53
THE SOUND WE HEAR

Sound is a wave which is produced by a vibrating object.

PRODUCTION OF LOW AND HIGH NOTES

The highness and lowness of a note is pitch .The pitch of a note depends on the rate of vibration from a source.
I f there are many vibrations a source the pitch is high and this will make the note to be high. If there are few
vibrations from a source the pitch will be low and this makes the note to be low.

PITCH AND FREQUENCY

-Pitch is the highness or the lowness of a note.

-Frequency is the number of vibrations produced in a second.

The greater the frequency the higher the pitch.

LOUDNESS AND AMPLITUDE

Amplitude of a wave is how the wave goes up and down from the resting position.

The loudness of sound depend on the amplitude. If the amplitude is larger the sound will be loud. If the
amplitude is low the sound will be low.

REFLECTION OF SOUND

The name given to the reflected sound is known as echo. This happens when sound hit hard surfaces such as
wall. The sound will then go back to its source. This will be heard as different sound (sound echo)

THE SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

MEDIA SPEED(m/s)
Air (gas) 330
Water (liquid) 1483
Steel (solid) 4000
60

54
LONGITUDINAL WAVE AND TRANSVERSE WAVE

The difference between a longitudinal wave and a transverse wave is that in a longitudinal wave the particles
move in the same direction to the movement of the wave while in a transverse wave move at 90 to the
direction of the wave.

LONGITUDINAL WAVE TRANSVERSE WAVE

Particles move in the same direction of wave Particles move at 90 to the direction of the wave

LONGITUDINAL WAVE

Sound travels through air where the vibrations are moving backwards and forwards forming stretches
squashes. This makes areas where air particles are close together and where they are far apart.

THE ENERGY TRANSMISSION BY A TRANSVERSE WAVE

WAVE LENTH, FREQUENCY AND AMPLITUDE

WAVE LENGTH

This is the shortest distance between two identical points in a wave.

61

FREQUENCY

This is the number of vibrations produced in a second.

AMPLITUDE

This is how far the wave goes up and down from the resting position.

TRANSVERSE WAVE

55
WAVE LENGTH AND AMPLITUDE OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE

HOW WE HEAR

We receive information from our surrounding through our sense of hearing.

THE EAR

62

The ear is the organ which collects sound, and turns it into massages which the brain can interpret.

PARTS OF THE EAR THAT ENABLES HEARING AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

PART FUNCTION
Ear flap Collects sound wave into the air
Ear canal Directs sound waves to the middle ear
Ear drum Vibrates when sound waves reach it
Small bones Amplifies vibrations
Cochlea Change sound waves into electrical impulses
Auditory nerve Send electrical impulses to the brain

FUNCTIONS OF THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE

1. Protect and drain the middle ear

2. Allows movement of air in and out of the middle ear.

PARTS OF THE MIDDLE EAR AND INNER EAR

MIDDLE EAR INNER EAR

Ear drum Cochlea
Small bones Auditory nerve

THE MOVEMENT OF SOUND WAVES INTO THE EAR

The ear flap catches sound waves, which pas through the ear canal and reaches the ear drum. The ear drum
vibrates when hit by incoming sound. The vibrations are then passed on to the three tiny bones which amplify
the vibrations and send them to the cochlea. The cochlea changes the sound waves into electrical impulses and
passes them to the auditory nerve. The auditory nerve passes the electrical impulses to the brain. The brain
then works up the message.

56
 63

DIFFERENT DEGREES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT

DEGREE OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT DESCRIPTION

Mild The person may not even be aware of their inability to
hear certain sounds
Moderate The person will have some difficult in hearing, for
example in back ground noise, but not in every situation.
Many to moderate hearing impairment blame others,
saying people are always mumbling.
Severe The person will have considerate difficulty in following
speech and in hearing environmental sounds. Their own
speech may not be affected by their hearing disability.
Profound The person`s range of hearing is extremely limited. They
may hear low toned sounds at a much higher than
normal volume, but are not able to hear enough to follow
speech and will not hear most environmental sounds
such as a telephone or alarm. They may use sign
language or have difficulty monitoring the volume and
pitch of their own voice when speaking.

POSSIBLE CAUSES OF EAR DEFECTS AND THEIR METHODS OF PREVENTION

CAUSES OF EAR DEFECTS

i) Being born deaf

ii) Infections in a woman during pregnancy

iii) The use of drugs during pregnancy

iv) Jaundice in a new born baby

v) Infectious diseases such as meningitis, measles, mumps and chronic ear infections.

vi) Head injury or injury to the ear

vii) Hard wax or foreign bodies blocking the ear canal

viii) Too much loud sound into the ear

ix) Old age

64

SIGNS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT ON A PERSON

i) Hearing loss

ii) Dizziness

iii) Reduced awareness of what is going on.

iv) Loss of balance

57
v) Ringing in the ears

SAFE AND HEALTHY CARE OF EARS

i) Clean ears carefully

ii) Wipe the outer ear gentle with a clea

iii) Have hearing checked occasionally

iv) Wear a helmet when riding a bicycle

v) See a doctor if having ringing ears or a sore ear.

vi) Do not listen to loud music with ear phones

vii) Do not ever put sharp objects into the ear

viii) Wear ear protection when using machines that make loud noise.

PREVENTING HEARING IMPAIRMENT

i) Wear protective gear

ii) Immunise children against infections

iii) Avoid use of certain drugs

iv) Treat chronic ear illnesses such as ear infections

58
PERSONAL HYGIENE

Personal hygiene means keeping one self-clean.

THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE TOOTH

59
Enamel –the hardest substance in the human body. It is made of proteins.

Dentine- softer than enamel

Pulp cavity- contains blood vessels (veins and arteries) which bring food and oxygen, so that the tooth can grow
and remain alive when growth has stopped.

RELATING THE SHAPE OF THE TOOTH TO ITS FUNCTION

TYPE OF TOOTH DIAGRAM SHAPE FUNCTION

INCISORS Have a flat chisel likeUsed for biting and cutting
shape

CANINES They are sharp, pointyUsed for tearing food

and cone shaped

PRE- MOLARS Have two projectionsUsed to crush and grind up

called cusps on their topfood into small pieces.
surface

MOLARS Have more cusps thanUsed to crush and grind up

premolars food into small pieces.

CAUSES OF TOOTH DECAY AND GUM DISEASE

CAUSES OF TOOTH DECAY

i) Eating too much sugary food

ii) Keeping sugary food in the mouth for a long time

iii) Not brushing teeth

WAYS OF PREVENTING TOOTH DECAY

 Brush your teeth at least twice a day with mild alkaline, fluoride-containing toothpaste. Fluoride
strengthens the tooth enamel and alkaline neutralizes mouth acids.
 Include vitamins C in your diet. Vitamin C prevents gum disease-like scurvy.
 Visit your dentist regularly
 Avoid eating too much sugary foods

TOOTH DECAY AND GUM DISEASES

This is how tooth decay occurs;

1. Particles of food remain in the teeth after eating

60
2. Bacteria in the mouth feed on these food particles forming on acid as a waste product

3. The acid attacks (corrodes) the enamel making it soft

4. The enamel becomes worn away and cavities (holes) develop in the teeth.

5. The cavity becomes deeper and eventually reaches the softer dentine. Slight toothache can be felt at this
stage.

6. The cavity eventually reaches the pulp cavity exposing the nerves fibres leading to severe pain. Damage to
blood vessels leads to bleeding.

This demonstrates what happens during tooth decay.

DIAGRAM(LEAVE 10 LINES)

CAUSES OF GUM DISEASE

Gum disease is caused by plaque that builds up between the teeth and gums. The bacteria feed on this plaque
then release chemicals and acids that damage the gums.

THE ACTION OF THE ACID ON THE TOOTH

When a tooth is put into an acid, the acid will dissolve the enamel making the tooth soft.

Investigating effect of acid on the tooth

A tooth is, placed in an acid for 24hrs and the removed.

Observations
The tooth had dissolved or damaged.
Conclusion
Acid can damage the enamel of the tooth and cause tooth decay.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

WHAT IS AN INFECTIOUS DISEASE

An infectious disease is any disease that is caused by virus, bacteria, fungi and single celled animals such as
protozoa.

61
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFECTIOUS AND COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

An infectious disease is any disease that is caused by any type of micro-organism. A communicable disease is a
disease that can be passes from one person to another or from one species to another.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNICABLE DISEASE AND NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Communicable diseases are diseases that can be passed from one person to another or from one species to
another, while non-communicable diseases are diseases that cannot be passed from one person to another.
(examples of non-communicable diseases cancer, diabetes and heart disease)

CLASSIFYING COMMUNICABLE DISEASES USING COMMON CAUSITIVE AGENTS

1. BACTERIA

DISEASE EFFECT ON THE BODY

TUBERCULOSIS Damages lungs and other tissues
May cause blood to be coughed
GONORRHOEA Infect the genital and causes pus to oozes from urethra
and pain when urinating
CHOLERA Causes a severe diarrhoea and loss of body fluids.
People of cholera dies of dehydration if the disease is not
treated.
TYPHOID Causes a high fever, dry cough and diarrhea.
BOILS Caused by infections by various bacteria found on the
surface of our skin.
BUBONIC PLAGUE Causes painful inflammation of the lymph gland, fever
and vomiting of food.

2. VIRUS

DISEASES EFFECT ON THE BODY

AIDS The HIV virus attacks immune system and prevents the
body defending itself against infection.
INFLUENZA (Flu) Causes fever, aches and pains and lungs problems.
POLIOMYELITICS (Polio) The virus attacks the nerves and causes paralysis.
SMALLPOX Causes a disfiguring rash and high temperature often
fatal.
MEASLES Flu-like sytoms, high fever and red rash.
CHICKEN POX High fever. Itchy rash which develops into blisters. Burst
blisters may scar and cause pork marks.
GERMAN MEASLES Mild flu like sytomps, red rush after 2-3 days. Glands in
the neck become painful.

3. FUNGI

DISEASES EFFECT ON THE BODY

Thrush (candida) albicans(infections) Causes itchiness and discomfort. Infections often occur
in the genital region
Athlete foot Itchiness and flaky skin between the toes.
Ring worm Small scally area skin with a bright red ring around it.
May be itchy.

4. PROTOZOA (Single celled animals)

DISEASES EFFECT ON THE BODY

MALARIA Flu-like symptoms, very high fever, diarrhoea, liver
damage, loss of appetite.
AMOEBIC DYSENTERY Severe diarrhoea and blood in stools. Liver damage.

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VECTORS OF COMMOON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN BOTSWANA

VECTORS THAT TRANSFER THE MICRO-DISEASES

ORGANISIMS TO HUMAN
Fresh water snails Bilharzia -A parasitic worm called
schistosama
The female anopheles mosquito Malaria – A protozoa called plasmodia falciparum
Ticks Ticks bite fever - A family of bacteria known as ricketsia
The tsetse fly Sleeping sickness - a protozoa called trypanasama
The house fly Food poisoning –Various micro-organisms found in
rotting organic matter and faeces.

METHODS OF PREVENTION AND CONTROLLING OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

There are number of different ways in which we can contact communicable diseases. These are listed below
together with ways to prevent and control the spread of communicable diseases. We can contact diseases
through;

A) WATER (water borne diseases)- Many of the micro-organisms that causes diseases in humans are found
in water, example: cholera typhoid, bilharzia and other germs that cause diarrhoea.

METHODS OF CONTROL AND PREVENTION

 To purify the water supply in the water purification facility.

 If no water purification facility, all water to be used for drinking or cooking should be boiled or treated
with purification tablets before being used.

B) FOOD WE EAT (food borne diseases) –Food that is not treated hygienically can contain micro-organisms
that can cause diseases, example food that is left out will attract house flies that carry diseases-causing
bacteria and people may handle food with dirty hands that contains traces and faeces.

METHOD OF CONTROL AND PRERVENTION

 Keep food in cold, closed place, preferably a fridge, so that flies cannot get onto it and so that the rate
of bacteria growth in the food is slowed down.

 Always wash hands properly before preparing foods.

 Make sure that food, especially meat is cooked properly before eaten.

 If the food smells bad, it is probably contaminated with bacteria, rather throw it away than try to eat it.

C) AIR (air borne diseases)- People who are ill and coughing and sneeze, when this happen some droplets of
fluids fly out of their mouth and nose containing germs that can be breathed by other people who will contact
the infection diseases, for example influenza, tuberculosis and measles.

METHOD OF CONTROL AND PREVENTION

 People should cover their mouths and nose when they cough and sneeze with a handkerchief, tissue or
their hands to prevent spraying those around them with infected droplets fluids

 If you are ill, cough and sneeze, then stay home and away from school until you become better.

D)PERSON TO PERSON CONTACT –Touching someone, exchanging bodily fluids them or sharing items can
lead to the transfer of germs from one person to another, example HIV is spread through the exchange of body
fluids.

63
METHOD OF CONTROL AND PREVENTION

 Practice good person hygiene. Example, wash yourself regularly with soap and water and clean your
hands thoroughly after using toilet.

 Wear latex when touching blood, urine, faeces or other body fluids.

 Practice safe sex method by using a condom during sexual intercourse.

E) VECTORS- Other animal species can transmit diseases to human’s example, mosquitos, houseflies and fresh
water snails.

THE LIFE CYCLE OF A HOUSEFLY

The lifecycle of a housefly begins with the adult housefly laying eggs. The eggs then hatch and become larvae
(maggots). The larvae changes into pupa after about 5 days. The pupa becomes an adult housefly 3 days later.
The female adult houseflies lay eggs 3 days after coming from the pupa. The life cycle of a housefly takes
about 11 days to complete.

CONTROLLING HOUSEFLIES

i) Removing rotting food, dead animals and rotting vegetation so that houseflies do not breed.

ii) By spraying with insecticides to kill the flies in places where they breed.

iii) By using fly traps to trap and kill them.

(iv) Covering all food

64
(v) Spray their feeding and breeding places with insecticides

THE MOSQUITO

They are many types of mosquitoes. The Female Anopheles mosquito is the one that transmit malaria
causing protozoa.

THE LIFECYCLE OF THE MALARIA MOSQUITO

The mosquitoes lay their eggs on the surface of still water. The eggs hatch within 48 hours and become larvae
which live in the water. The larva becomes pupa. The pupa develops into an adult house fly. The life cycle takes
about 10 days to complete.

CONTROLLING MOSQUITOES

i) Draining areas of still water so that they become dry.

ii) Covering still water with oil to suffocate mosquito

iii) Killing mosquitoes with insecticides

iv) Removing grasses and bushes around the yards.

v) Use mosquito nets to prevent mosquito bites

THE LIFE CYCLE OF A BILHARZIA FLUKE

The life cycle of a bilharzia fluke begins with an adult fluke in the human body laying eggs which reach the
urinary bladder. The eggs stick and hook themselves into the walls of the bladder, then are passed out with
urine. The eggs hatch into larva. The larva enters the water snail where they develop into embryo flukes. The

65
flukes leave the snail and swim in water where they get into the bodies of people who swim in the water, where
they develop into adult flukes.

CONTROLLING BILHARZIA FLUKES

i) Using the toilet instead of the bush

ii) Killing water snails.

iii) Avoid swimming in stagnant water

iv) Fencing bodies of contaminated water

FOOD POISONING

Food poisoning is an illness or condition caused by eating contaminated or poisonous food.

CAUSES OF FOOD POISONING

i) Bacteria and virus

ii) Chemicals

iii) Poisonous plants such as mushrooms and berries

Conditions that promote bacterial growth

a) Moisture-bacteria need moist (water) conditions to multiply and grow e.gpowdered milk will not rot while
fresh milk will turn sour quickly.

b) Warmth- Food always have bacteria in them, but the bacteria in the food kept in a cool place does not
multiply while those kept in a warm place multiply quickly
66
c) Time- The longer the time the food is kept, the more the micro-organisms multiply in it.

d) Type / Kind of food- Micro-organisms need proteins to grow and multiply. This means that food containing
more proteins will rot faster e.g meat, milk, pork etc

SYMPTOMS OF FOOD POISONING

Some of the most common symptoms of food poisoning are as follows

i) Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea

ii) Bloody diarrhoea or pus in the faeces

iii) Upset stomach, some abdominal pain, cramps

iv) Fever that last more than 24 hours

v) Dizziness, fainting, rapid heart rate

WAYS OF PREVENTING FOOD POISONING

 Always wash your hands properly before and after preparing food.

 Cook food properly especially meat to kill the bacteria

 Never buy food that is torn or leaking packages.

 Keep food rich in proteins in the refrigerator

FOOD PRESERVATION AND HANDLING

One of the first things that one should do to reduce the amount of bacteria that are in the food is to learn how
to handle and prepare food properly. The proper preparation of food involves trying to do the three things.

i) Protecting food from being contaminated by bacteria

ii) Stopping from growing in food

iii) Killing bacteria in food

METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION

a) Refrigeration and freezing

Refrigeration slows bacterial action down so that it takes food much longer to spoil. Freezing stops bacterial
action and growth.

b) Drying food

When food is dried moisture is removed or reduced from the food, thus preventing microbes from multiplying in
the food. Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat (biltong) are examples of food that can be well preserved by drying
in the air.

c) Salting

The salt draws out moisture which makes it difficult for bacteria to grow. The high concentration of salt makes
it difficult for microbes to live in such food.

d) Canning

Food is cooked to sterilize it before it is put in air tight containers while still hot. The cans are then sealed to
keep the germs away from the food.

e) Pickling
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Food is preserved in chemicals which kills bacteria. The chemicals include vinegar and alcohol. Beetroots and
onions can be preserved in vinegar. Acid stops bacterial growth.

f) Pasteurisation

Milk is heated and cooled quickly to kill bacteria and make it last longer. The milk is then kept in sealed air tight
containers so that micro-organisms cannot enter.

g) Sterilisation

Milk is heated at high temperature and put in air tight containers while still hot. All microbes are killed.

DIGESTION

 Is breaking down of ingested food into chemically simpler forms that can be easily absorbed and
assimilated into the body

 Is the breakdown of large food particles into smaller particles that can be easily absorbed by the body

Assimilation- is the use of absorbed food molecules in the process of growth, tissue repair and reproduction.

Absorption- is the passing of soluble food molecules through the walls intestines and stomach into blood
stream.

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 They are two types of digestion namely:

i) Physical/ Mechanical digestion-teeth break down large food particles into smaller particles that can be
easily acted upon by enzymes.

ii) Chemical digestion- break down of food by chemical substances called enzymes.

THE IMPORTANCE OF DIGESTION

-The cells of the body need a constant supply of energy to carry out their work.

- Parts of the body and cells are also continually being repaired and replaced

- The body needs vitamins and minerals.

THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

PART FUNCTION
MOUTH i) Cutting and grinding of food by the teeth
ii) Mixing of food with saliva by the tongue
iii) Salivary amylase start to digest starch into maltose
OESOPHAGUS/ GULLET Passes food from the mouth to the stomach

STOMACH Where gastric juice is secreted to begin digestion of proteins. Hydrochloric Acid is produced
for suitable conditions for enzymes- pepsin and rennin
LIVER Produces bile which emulsifies fats.
GALL BLADDER Stores bile
PANCREAS Secrets pancreatic juice into the duodenum.
SMALL INTESTINES
Duodenum i) Final digestion of food take place here

Ilium i) This is where absorption of food into the blood takes place.
LARGE INTESTINES
Colon i)This is where water is absorbed

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Rectum i)Stores indigestible faeces
ANUS Removes indigestible faeces from the body

ENZYMES

Enzymes are chemical substances that break down food into simpler substances which can be absorbed into
the body.

END PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION

FOOD DIGESTIVE WHERE IT IS SECRETED END PRODUCT

SUBSTANCE ENZYME

Carbohydrates Amylase Salivary glands Glucose

Pancreas
Small intestine
Proteins Protease Gastric juice glands Amino acids
Pancreas
Small intestine
Fats Lipase Pancreas Fatty acids and glycerol
Small intestine

FOOD ABSORPTION

Food absorption takes place in the small intestines. The end products of digestion are absorbed into the blood
capillaries by diffusion. This is because the small intestines:

a) are very long making them have a large surface area for food absorption.

b) the walls of the small intestine are lined with tiny finger-like projections called villi. The soluble digested food
products pass through the walls of the villi into the blood.

Villi

Demonstration of absorption

70
The set-up below is of an activity to demonstrate absorption of digested food by the walls of the ileum. Water
represents blood; visking tubing represents the ileum/small intestine; starch undigested food and glucose end
products of digestion.

RESULTS

Water will test positive for

glucose because glucose particles
are small enough to pass through the
thin lining of the visking tubing into the water.

Water will test negative for starch because starch particles are large and cannot pass through the thin lining of
the visking tubing into the water.

This is what happens in the small intestine. Glucose molecules are smaller than starch molecules and can pass
through the thin lining of the small intestine into the blood through diffusion. Starch remains in the gut
because its molecules are big and cannot pass through the villi.

FOOD TESTS

TESTING FOR STARCH (CARBOHYDRATES)(Iodine test)

MATERIALS

Food samples, white tile, iodine solution and dropping pipet

METHOD

i) Place a food sample on a white tile

ii) Add somefew drops of Iodine solution

iii) What do you observe?

Observation

__________________________________________________________________________

TESTING FOR GLUCOSE/REDUCING SUGAR (Benedicts test)

METHOD

i) Make an aqueous (watery) solution of a food sample by shaking with water in a test tube

iii) Add benedict solution to the food sample and mix thoroughly.

iv) Using a test tube holder, place the test tube in a beaker and heat it for about 5 minutes. Shake the
test tube occasionally.

v) Observe the colour changes.

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Observation

_______________________________________________________________________

TESTING FOR FATS

TRANSLUCENT SPOT TEST

METHOD

i) Rub the food sample on one side of a piece of filter paper

ii) Put water on one side of another piece of filter paper using a dropping pipette.

iii) Place both pieces of filter paper by the window and leave them for 10 minutes

iv) Hold both pieces of filter paper towards light look at the filter paper and write what you observe

Observation

___________________________________________________________________

EMULSION TEST

METHOD

i) Add ethanol to a food sample in a beater

ii) Shake the mixture thoroughly to dissolve out any fat present in the food sample.

iii) Allow the solution to settle

iv) Use the syringe to measure 5cm³ of the settled alcoholic solution into a test tube.

v) Measure out 5cm³ of water, add it to the solution in the test tube and shake gentle

- What do you notice in the contents?

Observation

_______________________________________________________________________

TESTING FOR PROTEINS (Biuret Test)

METHOD

i) Measure 2cm³ of food sample solution and 2cm³ of potassium hydroxide solution into a test tube. Mix them
thoroughly.

ii) Add Copper (II) Sulphate solution to the mixture, a drop at a time, using a dropper. Shake the test tube
continuously

iii) Record any colour changes that you see.

Observation

________________________________________________________________________

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DRUG USE

A drug is a chemical substance which affect the nervous system and change some function of the body or
mind.

A drug is any chemical substance which has an effect on the body when taken in.

Types of drugs

 Medicinal drugs: drugs taken to cure diseases or relieve disease symptoms. E.g. antibodies,
penicillin and paracetamol.

 Non-medicinal drugs: drugs people introduce in to their bodies purely to get a pleasurable feeling
e.g. alcohol, dagga and caffeine. Non-medicinal drugs are also known as recreational drugs.

Difference between Medicinal and Non-medicinal drugs

Medicinal drugs Non-medicinal drugs

 They are used to cure diseases  Have no use in curing diseases

 Used to relieve symptoms of diseases  Taken purely for pleasurable feeling

 Taken according to strict instruction  No instruction for use

Commonly abused drugs in Botswana

Cannabis / marijuana/dagga - Tobacco

 Cocaine - Alcohol

 Lysergic acid - Solvents and glues

 Solvents and glues

 Alcohol

 Tobacco

Types of abused drugs

 Stimulants: makes body energetic and more confident. They keep one awake and give extra strength
and energy for a while. E.g. Cocaine, nicotine and caffeine.

 Depressants: makes a person to feel relaxed and less worried. E.g. Marijuana and alcohol.

 Hallucinogens: they increase self-awareness and make one feel cleverer than they are. E.g.
Cannabis/ Marijuana and LSD – Lysergic acid.

 Sedatives: These are drugs that affect the nervous system. They cause one to become calmer and
sometimes become sleepy. E. g sleeping pills, alcohol, Marijuana

LOCAL MEDICINAL PLANTS

PLANT USE

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 Monepenepe Treats headaches, diarrhoea and skin disorders
Sengaparile Treats heart and blood disorders
Mukwa Treats stomach problems

ALLERGIC REACTIONS TO DRUGS AND OTHER SUBSTANCES

When someone is sensitive to a particular substance, he/she is said to be allergic to it. Some of the reactions
are as follows:

i) Itchy ears and eyes

ii) Running nose

iii) Tickly throat

iv) Sneezing

v) Difficulty in breathing

vi) A drop of blood pressure

vii) Unconsciousness

viii) Itchy, rash all over the body

ix) Swelling of lips, face, neck and throat

Misuse of drugs (not using drugs according to instructions)

Drug abuse happens in the following ways;

 A person takes a medical drug for longer than they should because it gives them a good feeling. This
can lead to one being addicted to such a drug.

 A person takes too much drug and begins to damage their health.

Effects of drug abuse

Drug abuse is a serious problem in society because it can have negative effects on people’s lives. e.g.

 They drop out of society and school and lose their jobs

 People’s personalities change when they take drugs and they may lose families and friends.

 People take too much drugs (overdose) and die

 People contract HIV and other communicable diseases from sharing contaminated needles that
they use to inject the drugs with.

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BLOOD, THE HEART AND CIRCULATORY PROBLEMS

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD

i) It transports food materials, hormones, waste products ( e.g.- carbon-dioxide) and oxygen in solution

ii) It regulate body temperature by carrying heat to all parts of the body.

iii) Carries special cells which protect the body against infection

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Blood is made up of different substances. It made up of white blood cells, red blood cells, plasma and platelets.
These help it to carry out its functions. The diagram below shows components of blood:

COMPONENT FUNCTION

RED BLOOD CELLS (Erythrocytes) Haemoglobin in red blood cells help them carry oxygen to all cells of the body

WHITE BLOOD CELLS Phagocytes-Fight infection by either engulfing or digesting the pathogen.

Lymphocytes- Produce antibodies which kill pathogens or germs

PLATELETS (Thrombocytes) Prevent bleeding by clotting when the skin is cut

PLASMA Transport substances in solution around the body

BLOOD GROUPS

If two non-compatible blood groups are mixed blood transfusion a reaction may occur causing the red blood
cells to clump together and form a clot. This is known as agglutination. Therefore blood transfusion must only
be given to people of compatible blood groups whose blood can mix without agglutination of red blood cells.

75
Recipient’s blood group Donor’s Blood group

A B AB O
A  x X 
B
AB
O

Key

√ safely mixes (compatible)

Х will clot if mixed (incompatible)

Blood group AB is a universal recipient- Receives blood from all blood groups.

Blood group O is a universal donor- It donates blood to all blood groups.

USES OF BLOOD GROUPS IN MEDICINE

i) Blood groups enables medical practitioners to develop a wide range of cures by studying antigens
and antibodies

ii) Blood groups can be used to explain some paternity issues, even though they are not 100%
effective.

iii) Blood groups allows for administrating of safe blood transfusion

SAFETY MEASURES TAKEN DURING BLOOD TRANSFUSION

i) Blood should be tested for compatibility.

ii) The donor’s blood is tested for infections -eg HIV, hepatitis and syphilis

iii) The blood must be warmed up to normal body temperature to ensure that the recipient temperature does
not drop

iv) All equipment that is used such as containers, needles and tubes must be sterilized to insure outmost
hygiene

THE HEART AND CIRCULATORY PROBLEMS

THE STRUCTURE AND THE FUNCTION OF THE HEART

76
The heart is the muscular organ which pumps blood around the body. Through the blood vessels. It is divided
into four chambers. The heart is slightly located to the left of the chest and left side of the heart is more
muscular that the right side as it pumps blood at high pressure to all parts of the body while the right side only
pumps blood to the lungs.

The two chambers at the top are called atria (left atrium and right atrium)

The two chambers at the bottom are called the ventricles (left ventricle and right ventricle)

FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD VESSELS

Pulmonary Artery- Carries deoxygenated blood form the right ventricle to the lungs- this is the only artery to
carry deoxygenated blood.

Aorta- Carry oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to all parts of the body- this is the largest artery in the
body.

Pulmonary Vein- Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium – this is the only vein to carry
oxygenated blood.

Vena Cava- Carry deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body to the right atrium- this is the biggest vein
the body.

Structure of blood vessels and their functions

Arteries

-They have thick, elastic muscular walls which expand to give room for
blood at high pressure.

- Carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery.

-They carry blood away from the heart

- They have no valves

- Blood flows at high pressure

Veins

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 -Carry oxygenated blood to the heart (except the vena cava)

-Blood flows at low pressure

-Have valves which prevent back flow of blood

-Have thin elastic muscular walls

Difference between arteries and veins

ARTERIES VEINS

Carry blood away from the heart Carry blood away from the heart

Carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery) Carry deoxygenated blood (except vena cava)

Have thick muscular wall Have thin elastic muscular walls

Carry blood under high pressure Carry blood under low pressure

Have no valves Have valves

Capillaries

-They are a link between arteries and veins

-Have very thin walls

-Have no valves

DIEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

DISEASE CAUSES PREVENTION

HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE i) Smoking - Not smoking
ii) Excess alcohol intake - Not taking alcohol
iii) Lack of exercise - Regular exercises
iv) Eating too much salt and fat - Eating less fatty food
Being over weight
HEART ATTACK(thrombosis in thei) Smoking, over eating of fatty food - Reducing the amount of fat and
heart) ii)obesity cholesterol in the diet
iii)fear, anger, worry and anxiety - taking regular exercises
STROKE (thrombosis in the brain) i) Eating fatty foods - Exercises
ii)rupturing of the arteries in the brain - Healthy diet
- Not smoking
- Not taking alcohol
- Losing weight

NB; Coronary thrombosis is the blocking of the coronary artery

BREATHING

Breathing is a process which takes air into the body (inhaling) and out of the body (exhaling).

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THE PROCESS OF BREATHING

Inhalation- Is the movement of air into the lungs by the diaphragm being pulled down (flattened) and the rib
cage being raised by contraction of the intercostal muscles.

Exhalation- is the movement of air out of the lungs by the diaphragm relaxing upwards and the intercostal
muscles relaxing so that the rib cage moves inward

Air enters the body through the mouth and nose. The air is then passed to the trachea (windpipe). The trachea
then divides into bronchi. One leading into the left lung and the other one into the right lung. Inside the lung
the bronchi divides into bronchioles. The bronchioles then lead to a network of sac-like structures called the
alveoli (air-sac).

THE BREATHING SYSTEM

The set-up below is of an experiment to

show this:

Observations

When the diaphragm is pulled down, the balloons increase in size. When it is moved upwards they decrease in
size.

Conclusion

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Inhalation and exhalation is not controlled by the lungs but by the movement of the diaphragm.

Below is the table illustrating in detail the breathing action:

Breathing out (exhalation) Breathing in (inhalation)

Diaphragm Relax and move up Flatten and move down

Ribs Move down and in Move up and out

Volume of the chest Decreases Increases

Lungs Contracts(air is forced out of the lungs) Expands(air is forced into the lungs)

THE ROLE OF THE LUNGS IN THE PROCESS OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE

Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the blood stream. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells were it is as a
waste product of metabolism. It exits the lungs during exhalation.

The Alveolus

Oxygen diffuses through the walls of the alveoli into the blood stream. The blood then transports oxygen to all
parts of the body.

Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells where it is a waste products and it is carried by the blood to the lungs. It
is then removed from the lungs during exhalation

The levels of carbon

dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air

The experimental set-up below is of an experiment to investigate the levels of carbon dioxide in inhaled and
exhaled air. Air was breathed in and out of the set-up through the mouth of the glass tube at point marked Xfor
30 seconds.

80
Observations
Lime water in the test-tube with exhaled air turns milk whereas the one which has inhaled air turns less milky.
Conclusion
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide than inhaled air. That is the air we breathe out contains more carbon
dioxide than the air we breathe in. the table below shows the levels of gases in inhaled and exhaled air:
Inhaled air Exhaled air
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.04% 4%
Nitrogen 78% 78%

THE EFFECT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON THE RATE AND DEPTH OF BREATHING

During physical activity, the pulse rate is high. This means that the heart is beating faster. The heart beats
faster to carry more nutrients and oxygen to the body parts. As a result, the breathing rate increases to supply
more oxygen to respiring cells and remove carbon dioxide from them.

THE EFFECTS OF SMOKING ON THE LUNGS

Tobacco smoke contains many different chemicals that are very dangerous because they cause damage to the
lungs and the body as a whole.
Tobacco smoke damages the lungs in the following ways:
i) Chemicals in tobacco can make the smoker to develop lung cancer.
ii) People who smoke also develop a permanent cough known as the smoker’s cough.
iii) Smoking increases the chances of developing respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and emphysema
iv) Smoking increases the risk of having heart attack and stroke.
v) It combines with haemoglobin and prevents oxygen from combining with haemoglobin.

THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretion is the removal of waste products formed as a result of biochemical reactions inside a living
organism.Excretion refers to the removal of waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions). The substances
may poison the blood if not removed. The system that removes these substances is called the excretory
system. Organs that make the excretory system include the skin, the liver, lungs and kidneys.

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ORGANS RESPONSIBLE FOR EXCRETION

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND ORGANS THAT EXCRETE THEM

ORGAN EXCRETARY PRODUCT

KIDNEYS Urine ( contains unwanted water, minerals and urea)

LUNGS Carbon dioxide

SKIN Sweat (Urea, water, dissolved salts)

The skin
Although the main functions of the skin are to protect the body against germs entering the
body and to cool the body through perspiration (sweating), it also excretes excess water, salts
and urea in the form of sweat from sweat glands. Below is the diagram of the skin:

The kidney
A human being has two kidneys, though they can still live healthily with one. These filter
excess water, salts and urea in the form of urine from the blood. Below is a diagram of a
kidney:

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The kidney and excretory system

COMMON PROBLEMS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

PROBLEM PREVENTION

Urinary tract infection Inserting a tube into the excretory system

Kidney stones Removal by surgery

Kidney failure i) Filter toxins out of blood by machines

ii) Kidney transplant
iii) Removal of affected kidney

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EGESTION AND EXCRETION

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EXCRETION EGESTION

Excretion is the removal of waste products formed as a result of Removal of undigested food materials as solid waste from the
biochemical reactions inside a living organism body

MAGNETISM

Magnetism is a property of matter which produces a field of attractive or repulsive forces.

THE PHENOMENON OF INDUCED MAGNETISM

Magnetic induction is inducing magnetism into magnetic material by aligning its domains ORA process by
which magnetism is produced in something that was not a magnet before.

METHODS OF MAGNETISATION

There are two methods of magnetism. These are

i) Electrically

ii) Stroking an object with a magnet

INDUCING MAGNETISM ELECTRICALLY

A coil of insulated wire is wrapped around a piece of iron or steel and an electric current is passed through it.
The iron and steel only act as a magnet when electric current flows. When electricity is switched off, they lose
their magnetic properties. This kind of magnet is called an electromagnet.

INDUCING A
MAGNET BY STROKING

SINGLE STROKING

A piece of iron or steel is stroked in one direction with one pole of a strong magnet.

84
DOUBLE STROKING

The piece of steel is stroked from the center outwards with two permanent magnets simultaneously. These
must have unlike poles.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAGNETIC

PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND IRON

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF STEEL

Get magnetised quickly Get magnetised slowly
Loses its magnetic properties quickly Loses its magnetic properties slowly
Used to make temporary magnets Used for making permanent magnets

USES OF MAGNETS

i) Magnetic recording media such as audio and video tapes and computer hard drives.

ii) In computer floppy discs and hard discs

iii) In credit cards, debit cards and ATM cards

iv) In some television and computer screens

v) In speakers and microphones

vi) In electric motors and generators

vii) In magnetic compasses

viii) In metal scrap yards for separating ferrous (magnetic) from non-ferrous metals (non-magnetic)

PROPER CARE OF MAGNETS

i)Do not drop or hit a magnet. Most magnets are brittle and can break easily.

ii) Do not place a magnet on a flame.

iii) Storing magnets so that the north of one magnet is facing the south of the other. Never store magnets with
the same poles facing each other.

ELECTRIC CHARGE

Static electricity is the accumulation of electric charge on an object which is a poor conductor of electricity or is
insulated in some way.it is caused by the removal of electrons from atoms by friction.

THE PHENOMENON OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING

An object becomes charged as a result of friction. Friction between two objects causes electrons to move from
one object to another.

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TWO TYPES OF CHARGE

POSITIVE CHARGE: Results when electrons are ‘rubbed off’ from the outermost shells of electrons. For
example, if a Perspex (acetate) rod rubbed with a woolen cloth, some of the electrons on the rod are rubbed off
on to the cloth, and the rod become positively charged.

NEGATIVE CHARGE: Results when electrons are gained by being ‘rubbed off ’on to a material. For example, if
a polythene rod is rubbed with a woolen cloth, some of the electrons on the cloth are rubbed on to the rod, and
the rod becomes negatively charged.

THE SI UNIT OF CHARGE

The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (symbol C)

REPULSION AND ATTRACTION BETWEEN CHARGES

REPULSION

Repulsion is the force that pushes charges apart. Two positive or two negative charges ( like charges) will repel
each other

ATTRACTION

Attraction is a force that pulls two objects together. A positive charge and a negative charge (opposite charges)
will attract each other.

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY

The following are sources of electricity:

i) Dry cells

ii) Car batteries-changes chemical energy into electrical energy

iii) Solar cells-changes light energy into electrical energy

iv) Bicycle dynamos-changes kinetic energy into electrical energy

v) Petrol/ diesel generators

vi) Thermal power station

vii) Hydroelectric power station

viii) Nuclear Power station

ENERGY CHANGES AT POWER STATIONS

1. THERMAL POWER STATION

In order to generate electricity in a power station, a number of energy changes takes place:

-the burning of fossil fuels in a boiler produces heat energy that changes water into steam.

-the steam is used to turn a large turbine .As the turbine turns; it also turns a large dynamo called a generator.

-the generator converts kinetic energy into electrical energy

Chemical energy Heat energy kinetic energy electrical

energy

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2. HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER STATION

At a hydroelectric power station water in a dam is allowed to flow and drive the turbines and a generator which
produces electricity. The energy changes are:

Potential energy kinetic energy electrical energy

(water in dam) (moving water) (turbines turn)

THE GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING A DYNAMO

When a magnet moves in a coil, some kinetic energy is changed to electrical energy. A dynamo contains a
magnet that rotates inside a coil of wire, producing electricity

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Wheel of bicycle turns The magnet also turns

The bicycle lamp is also lit as the magnet turns electricity is produced

EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY

The following are effects of electricity:

i) Heating effect

ii) Magnetic effect

iii) Chemical effect

iv) Light effect

THE HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY

 When an electric current passes through a resistance wire, heat energy is generated.

 The heating effect is used in electric heaters, irons, kettles and toasters, where a current is passed
through long length of resistance wire called an element.

When an electric current passes through resistance, heat energy is produced and lost to the
surrounding. Below is a set up of an experiment to demonstrate this.

Observations

The thread of wire glowed bright red and

burnt.

Conclusion

Electricity has a heating effect.

THE CHEMICAL EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY

Electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy in a process called electrolysis.

88
Electrolysis can be used to cover materials with the thin layer of metal. For example, a solution such as copper
Sulphate can conduct electricity. When electricity passes through the solution a chemical reaction takes place
and copper will plate the negative carbon rode The diagram below shows a set up used to demonstrate this.

Observations

Bubbles of a gas are made at the rods. The carbon rod at the

Conclusion

A chemical reaction took place. The reaction is called electrolysis.

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY

When an electric current flows through a wire it creates a magnetic field around the wire.

This effect can be used to make an iron rod into a magnet.

APPLICATIONS OF THE MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY

i) Lifting iron and steel from other materials

ii) Telephones and microphones

iii) Electric bell

iv) Electromagnetic switches

v) Speakers

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ELECTRICAL POWER CONSUMPTION

The amount of electrical energy used depends on the power of the appliance and the time it was in use. The
amount of electrical energy used is found by multiplying the power of the appliance in kilowatt (kW) by the time
it was used in hours. The unit of electrical energy is the kilowatt hour (kWh). Example; suppose a 3kW electric
heater was used for 2 hours. The amount of energy used = 3kW x 2 hours = 6kWh

Power (W) = Energy (J) ÷ Time (s) or Power (kW) = Energy (kJ) ÷ Time
(h)
Power = voltage x current
P= VI

The units for calculating power is watts (w)

The units for calculating Energy is Joules (J)

Examples:

1. A torch is labelled 25V and 3A.Calculate its power and energy.

The unit for electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (Kwh)

1000w = 1Kwh

Electricity is changed according to the number of units (Kwh) used. When paying for electricity we payfor the
number of Kilowatt -hour consumed

Units = Power (kW) × Time (hrs)

Example

1. An electric heater is rated 3Kw and is used for 6 hours. How many units will it use during that time?

Calculating the cost of electricity

Below is the formula for calculating the cost of electricity:

Cost = Power(kW) × Time (h) × Cost per unit

Example

1. If electricity cost 50thebe per unit, what would be the cost of 15Kwh of energy used?

2. How many Kwh units of electrical energy will be used in a day by a 3Kw electric kettle and what will be the
cost, if the price of a unit is 25 thebe?

MEANS OF REDUCING THE COST OF ELECTRICITY

i) Using energy saving bulbs (fluorescent light bulbs)

ii) Switching off appliances not in use.

iii) Adding insulation to the roof and water geysers to reduce heat loss

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iv) Using ceiling fans instead of air conditioners

v) Using cold water for washing clothes

vi) Turning off lights when not in the room

SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME

1. THE FUSE-is a safety device that contains a thin piece of wire with a low melting point. If there is a sudden
increase (surge) in current, the fuse melts and breaks the circuit, thus protecting the user and the appliance
from damage.

Fuses have different ratings, which refer to the maximum current they can carry without melting. For example;

APPLIANCE CORRECT FUSE RATING

LAMP 3A

TELEVISION SET 3A

HAIR DRYER 5A

TOASTER 13A

KETTLE 13A

Circuit breaker( trip switch )

When there is too much current (in case of a short circuit), they trip and cut current in a circuit. They can be
pushed back once the cause of overloading is corrected or removed.

Earthing metal cases

Incase of a short circuit (wires touching the metal case), the earth wire completes the circuit and conducts
electricity to earth (ground). If it wasn’t there the current would pass through you and electrocute you.

Double Insulation

This is whereby appliances are totally enclosed in an insulating plastic body such that there is no direct
connection between the external metal parts and the internal risk electric components. There is no risk of shock
in the event there is a fault inside the appliance. Common double insulated appliances include hair dryers and
electric shavers. They are common identified by the symbol

THE NEED FOR DOUBLE INSULATION OF ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES

A double insulated electrical appliance has two layers of insulating material surrounding live parts. The double
insulation of the appliance makes the appliance very safe to use.

WIRING THE MAINS ELECTRIC PLUG CORRECTLY

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NAME COLOUR FUNCTION
LIVE Brown Carries current from the mains to the
appliance
NEUTRAL Blue Carries current from the appliance to
the mains
EARTH Green-yellow Conducts current to the ground when
there is a fault
WHY SWITCHES AND FUSES ARE CONNECTED TO LIVE WIRE

A fuse is connected to the live wire so that if there is a sudden increase in current it melts and breaks the
circuit preventing the current from flowing.

The switch is connected to the live wire so that it controls the flow of current.

DIAGNOSTIC STEPS TO FOLLOW WHEN THERE IS AN ELECTRICAL FAULT

With proper care it is possible for someone to identify simple faults in electrical appliances. If an electrical
appliance is not working properly one have to unplug it and check the following

1. Whether the plug is correctly wired.

a) Remove the plug from the wall socket.

b) Open the plug

c) Check whether the brown is securely connected to the live pin

d) Also check whether the blue wire is securely connected to the neutral pin

e) Finally check whether the yellow green wire is securely connected to the earth pin

2. Whether the fuse is damaged

a) Check the rating to make sure that the fuse is the correct rating for the appliance

b) If the rating is correct test the appliance with a new fuse

3. Whether the cable is cut or loose

a) Remove the appliance from the mains inspect the cable to see if it is cut or damaged

b) If it is cut or damaged, cut off the damaged cable and throw it away. Reconnect the plug to the remainder of
the cable attached to appliance

4. If this fails get a qualified electrician

ELECTRIC LIGHTS

If an electric bulb blows, follow these steps to ensure that it is safely replaced

i) Turn the light off at the wall or socket

ii) If the bulb is hot wait for it to cool down before touching it.

iii) Make sure that the replacement bulb intended to fit is the correct mounting type

iv) Make sure that the bulb is rated the same or lower than the one being replaced.

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THE SOLAR SYSTEM

EARTH SPHERES

GEO SCIENCE is the study of the earth and its systems

MAIN SPHERES THAT MAKE UP THE EARTH

There are four main spheres that make up the earth. These are

i) Lithosphere

ii) Atmosphere

iii) Hydrosphere

iv) Biosphere

THE FEATURES OF EACH EARTH’S SPHERES

EARTH’S SPHERE FEATURES

LITHOSPHERE The earth’s crust and the upper layer of the mantle
ATMOSPHERE The layer of air surrounding the earth

HYDROSPHERE The water on the earth or close to the surface earth

BIOSPHERE The zone of the earth where life is found it includes the
outer part of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and the lower
part of the atmosphere.

PROCESSES OF THE SPHERE INTERACTION

i) Water cycle- water moves between the different spheres in a system known as the water cycle

ii) Flow of nutrients- Nutrients such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous also flow between the
different spheres

CAREERS RELATED TO THE STUDY OF GEO SCIENCE

a) Economic and mining geologist

b) Geologist-studies materials, physical nature and history of the earth

c) Climatologist-studies weather processes, climate change and pollution

d) Mineralogist-studies mineral formation, their composition and properties

e) Soil scientist-studies soil and their properties

f) Paleontologist-studies fossil fuels

EARTH SYSTEMS

The earth is almost a perfect sphere, slightly thicker at the tropics and slightly thinner at the poles, with a
diameter of approximately 13 000km.
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STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The earth is divided into three layers. These are

i) The crust

ii) The mantle

iii) The core

1. THE CRUST

The crust is the thin outer layer of the earth which has a thickness of 8 to 40 km. It consist of two parts,
namely the oceanic crust which underlines the oceans, and the continental crust which is the land on which
we live.

1. THE MANTLE

The mantle is approximately 1900km thick and is composed of rock which is rich in iron and magnesium.
The mantle is very hot with the temperature of about 1600 oC. The pressure is also very high and as a result
of high temperature and pressure, much of the rock is molten.

2. THE CORE

The outer core is solid and consists mostly of iron and other metals such as nickel, gold and platinum. It is
about 12 00km thick. The inner core is liquid, convection currents of the molten iron in the outer core gives
rise to the earth’s magnetic field.

EARTH QUAKES AND TSUNAMIS

Earth quakes and tsunamis are natural disasters that can lead to a great deal of loss of life.

EARTH QUAKES

The earth’s crust is not a solid rock but consist of tectonic plates on which the continents and oceans lie.
These plates lie on top of the mantle which is moveable like thick tar. The high temperature in the mantle
makes the material of the mantle called magma to move in convection currents. These convection currents
cause the movements of tectonic plates move towards or away from each other. The movement and
collision of tectonic plates causes huge tensions in the crust of the earth. These tensions can build and
build and then suddenly give way releasing large amount of energy that are felt as vibrations and shaking
of the earth’s crust. These vibrations are known as the earth quake. They can cause a lot of damage to
buildings and other structures.

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TSUNAMIS

Tsunamis are large ocean waves that are caused by earth quakes that happen under the flow of the ocean.
They can be very destructive.

EFFECTS OF EARTH QUAKES, VOLCANOES, FLOODS AND DROUGHT ON PEOPLE’S LIVES

1. EARTH QUAKES

a) Destruction of property

b) Massive death due to collapsing buildings

2. TSUNAMIS

a) Cause damage to property

b) Cause death due to drowning and injury

c) Destroy soil and farm land

d) Lead to loss of food

3. VOLCANOES

a) Larva streams can burn and bury vegetation

b) Volcanic ash and poisonous gases can kill people and other animals

c) Buildings and other structures can be destroyed by larva and ash.

4. DROUGHT

a) Less food is produced than required for the needs of the population

b) Malnutrition due to shortage of food

c) The economies of countries drops

d) Overcrowding in cities and towns happens because people want to go to these places.

5. FLOODS

a) Destruction of submerged crops and less food is produced

b) Higher prices for available food

c) Roads and houses are destroyed by water

d) Deaths occur due to drowning

e) Farmers and property owners lose money

THE EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON NATURAL DISASTERS

i. Global warming-an average increase in the Earth’s temperature. Cutting down trees and burning
fossil fuels leads to an increase in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

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 FORM 2 SYLLABUS

GENE TECHNOLOGY

A gene is the unit of hereditary information, composed of a section of DNA which acts as a chemical
instruction for protein synthesis. Genes are part of a chromosome that carries information for specific
characteristics

DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid

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 GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is a technique that allows scientists to take a specific gene from one organism
and put it into the DNA of another organism. This result in organisms called genetically modified
organisms, or GMOs. Below are the steps followed in manipulating genes:

 Identifying genes with characteristics needed.

 Removing the needed genes from the organism

 Transferring the gene to another organism that grows fast e.g. bacteria or yeast

 The gene is transferred into an organisms whose characteristics are being changed

GENOTYPE- genetic information about a particular organism.

THE IMPORTANCE/ BENEFITS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING TO MEDICINE

Vaccines - are made by replacing some genes of organisms e.g. making measles vaccine.

Hormones – Human insulin genes are, transferred to bacteria, to enable them to produce insulin used
for treating sugar diabetes. Growth hormone can also be produced is a similar way and be used to
treat children who do not grow.

Gene therapy- this entails transferring healthy into the cells of a person with cells containing a
certain disease e.g the treatment of cancer.

GENETIC ENGINEERING IN AGRICULTURE

Genetically modified plants – e.g making some plants produce more in less time

- making plants that prevent insects eating them by

producing their own insecticides

Genetically modified animals –e.g developing the desired type of livestock that can
stand very harsh conditions.

GENETIC ENGINEERING IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

Forensic science is a branch of science that uses scientific methods to solve crimes.

i) The use of DNA to identify a badly damaged or burnt body

ii) The use of DNA to identify a criminal who have committed crime.

GENETIC ENGINEERING IN ENERGY GENERATION

The use of genetic engineering in crops used for making biofuels.

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  A plant that is used to produce biofuel can be genetically modified so that it can produce more raw
material

 The fuel produced by those crops can also be genetically modified so that it does not produce as much
pollution as an ordinary fuel.

THE BENEFITS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

i) It can be used to treat diseases

ii) It can be used to produce food crops that are protected from diseases

iii) It can be used to produce animals and plants that have desirable characteristics

iv) It can be used to make new, replacement organs for people

v) It can be used to give organisms the ability to produce chemicals, medicines and fuels.

vi) It could be used to make identical copies of animals.

vii) It could be used to bring extinct animals to life

LIMITATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

i) People may use genetic engineering to make super humans or super organisms that out compete
normal organisms.

ii) People could use genetic engineering to make biological weapons.

iii) Harmless organism maybe changed into harmful ones.

iv) GM crops may kill organisms they are, not intended to.

v) Genetic engineering is very expensive.

THE MORAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

i) Some things that can be done with genetic engineering are against the beliefs of some religions

ii) People think it is wrong to change the genetic material because this interfering with nature.

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LIVING MATTER

ADAPTATIONS

Adaptation is the way in which organisms are suited to their environment.

ADAPTATION IN ANIMALS

1. Camouflage- when an organism look like its immediate environment eg chameleon

2. Water shortage- animals in deserts can stay for a long time without drinking water eg camel

3. Warning colours- some animals have bright colours which warn others of their presence.

4. Some animals have long necks to reach tree leaves which cannot be reached by others eg giraffes.

5. Hibernation some cold blooded animals such as snakes, lizards and frogs bury themselves in the
ground or under rocks and go into a deep sleep. They can survive for long periods without water and
food.

6. Polar bears have thick fur and thick layer of fat to help them live in very cold temperatures.

ADAPTATION IN PLANTS

Adaptation to dry conditions(xerophytes)

 They develop long tap roots to absorb water deep underground e.g. baobab
 Develop thick fleshy stem to store as much water as possible e.g. cactus
 They have thorny leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration e.g. cactus
 They also shade leaves in dry season (winter) to reduce water loss by transpiration.

Adaptation to wet conditions(hydrohytes)

 They develop small or short roots to absorb small amount of water e.g. water lily

 They have large leaves to increases water loss by transpiration e.g. water lily

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  They have large leaves that float on water

 They have flexible stems that can move in water currents

HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT NEGATIVELY AFFECT PLANT AND ANIMAL ADAPTATION

i) Overgrazing results from excessive grazing of pastures, causing damage to the land and
vegetation.

ii) Deforestation- deforestation removes trees that provide shade and habitat for some animals.

iii) Introduction of alien species

iv) Mining brings infertile soil to the surfaces

v) Burning fossil fuels – this cause global warming

vi) Ploughing kills plants and destroys the habitat of animals

THE POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ADAPTATION

1. The polar ice caps melt and affect animals such as polar bear which are adapted to live and hunt on
the ice

2. Some environments will become drier whereas others become wetter. This affect organisms that are
adapted to live in wet or dry environments

3. Some area have been reserved as game reserves and national parks to protect plant and animal
species

4. Harmful chemicals to the environment have been banned eg DDT.

ECOSYSTEMS

An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living things and the way they interact with each other in
the environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

i) Geographical size- this is how much space an ecosystem takes up. Ecosystem can be small, such
as a pond or very large such as a desert or ocean.

ii) Climate- the climates affects how much rainfall the ecosystem receives, the amount of sunlight
the area receives, the temperature and how windy it is.

iii) Water- Some ecosystems are completely found in water and they are known as aquatic
ecosystems. Others are found on dry lands and they are known as terrestrial ecosystems.

iv) Non- living factors (abiotic)- non- living factors include any other characteristics of ecosystems
that affect organisms e.g soil type, altitude, the minerals in an area.

v) Living factors (biotic) e.g animals, plants– Living things also determine the characteristics of an
ecosystem.

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ORGANISMS IN AN ECOSYSTEM

1. Symbiosis- two or more organisms living very close together and each benefiting from each other.
(bacteria in legume plants)

2. Parasitism- Only one organism benefit from another organism. (tick and cow)

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3. Competition – Organisms compete for food eg plants

4. Habitat –a place where animals live or plants grows.

5. Community- animals and plants living together in the same habitat. For example, a river is a habitat
for fish, crocodiles, frogs, snakes, water plants. All these form a community. Living organisms depend
on each other for food.

6. Competition- Whereby organisms compete with one another for food, water, space and sunlight.

7. Mutualism -This is whereby, organisms of different species live side by side and both benefits from
the relationship e.g. cattle and cattle egret.

8. Commensalisms-This is whereby, organisms live side-by-side and only one benefit but the other is
not hurt or made to suffer by the relationship e.g. cattle and cattle egret.

a) Predators-animals that eat other animals.

b) Prey-those animals that are eaten by other animals.

c) Carnivores- animals that eat meat only e.g lion, tiger, wild dogs.

d) Herbivores-animals that eat plants and plants materials e.g goat, cow, donkey.

e) Omnivores- organisms that eat both plants and animals e.g human beings, pigs.

EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN FOOD SUPPLY ON POPULATION SIZE OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS

When there is a good supply of food in an ecosystem, population sizes increases

FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SUPPLY

FACTOR EFFECT ON POPULATION SIZE

DISEASE This will reduce the population size of the organism
affected by the disease
LACK OF SUNLIGHT This will reduce the number of plants and so reduce
the population of all organisms in the ecosystem
LACK OF PREDATORS This will increase population size of animals that the
predator feed on
CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE This may affect the growth of plants which will affect
the food supply for the whole population

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS OF ORGANISMS

ENERGY FLOW THROUGH FOOD CHAINS

A food chain is a simple way of showing how each organism in an ecosystem gets its energy and nutrients
from food.

Example;

a)Grass Antelope Lion Vulture

In this food chain, the grass is the producer, the antelope is the primary consumer and the lion is the
tertiary consumer.

ENERGY FLOW THROUGH FOOD WEBS

A food web is a feeding relationship among organisms in an ecosystem. It shows a large number of
organisms which depend on each other. A food web is made up of many different food chains linked
together.

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1.Write down
food chains from
the above food
web.

Organisms come in three groups; producers, consumers and decomposers.

Producers- organisms that make their own food. These include green plants and their products e.g.
flowers, fruits, seeds.

Consumers-organisms that eat food produced by green plants. They are three groups of consumers;
primary, secondary and tertiary.

Decomposers- breakdown waste materials and dead organisms which will be available as mineral salts
from the soil. Examples are bacteria and fungi.

ENERGY FLOW THROUGH A FOOD PYRAMID

This shows the amount of energy passed from one feeding level to another. It is also, used to show the
number of organisms eaten at each tropic (feeding) level. A food pyramid can be, referred to as stable or
unstable. Below are examples of the two types of, food pyramids:

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A stable food pyramid An unstable food pyramid

CONCENTRATION OF POLLUTANTS IN FOOD CHAINS

Concentration of pollutants often increases as the pollutant is, moved from, one tropic level to another. Tertiary
consumers are often the most affected. Increase in concentration of pollutants in bodies of organisms as they,
(pollutants) move across food chains are, called, bioaccumulation or bio magnifications.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Flowers are reproductive parts of a flower; they produce the male sex cells and female sex cells.

The female reproductive part of a flower is called the PISTIL or CARPEL and it is made up of the ovary,
stigma and style.

The male reproductive part of a flower is called STAMEN and it is made up of the filament and the anther.

The stalk, calyx (sepal), petal (corolla) and receptacle are non-reproductive parts of a flower. They do not
produce sex cells.

REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF A FLOWER

Functions of parts of the flower

PART OF A FLOWER FUNCTION

ANTHER Produces pollen grains which contain male sex cells
FILAMENT Support the anther
STYLE Support the stigma and produces passage for pollen grains
OVARY Produces ovules (female sex cells)
OVULES Contains the female sex cells.

SEPALS (calyx) Protects the flower while it is in the bud stage

PETALS (corolla) Attracts insects, in some flowers they have sweet scent and also produce
nectar

STIGMA Receives pollen grains during pollination

Pollination

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigmas.

Types of pollination

There are two types of pollination. These are

i) Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.

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 ii) Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains
from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower. (either on the same plant or a
different plant of the same species). Cross pollination is either carried out by wind or insect.

Wind pollination Insect pollination

Produce light, powdery pollen grains Produce heavy sticky pollen grains
Petals are very small, dull in colour, pale green or yellow. Petals are large, brightly coloured and scented

Produces more pollen Produces less pollen

Flowers have no scent Have nectar contained in nectories
Stamens hang outside Stamens are enclosed
Petals are small Petals are large
Filament, anther and stigma are loosely hanging outside the Filament, anther and stigma are contained in the petals
petals
May be unisexual with excess male flowers Mostly bisexual flowers
Fertilisation in flowering plants

During pollination, the ripe pollen has to land on a ripe stigma of the same or another flower. What then follows
will be the fusion of the male and the female sex cells, which is a process called fertilisation.

In flowering plants, the male sex cell or gamete is in pollen grain, while the female gamete, called the egg cell,
is in the ovules. For fertilization to occur the male gamete should reach the egg. When pollen grain lands on the
stigma it absorbs food or nutrients from the stigma and starts to develop along the pollen tube, which grows
along the style until it reaches the ovules in the ovary. As soon as the tip reaches the ovule it opens up to
release the male nucleus into the ovule to meet with the female nucleus. The two nuclei will then fuse to form a
zygote which grows to become an embryo.

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Changes in a flower leading to seed and fruit formation

After fertilisation most parts of the flower no longer have any function, they dry up and fall off. The ovary
develop into a fruit. The ovules inside the ovary develop into seeds.

Fruit and seed formation

The zygote develops into an embryo. The embryo is made up of radicle (future root) and plumule (spoture
root), with two special leaves called cotyledons which stores food for the embryo.

Answer the following

questions
1. After fertilization, which part grows and develop into
a. A seed?
b. An ovum?
2. During germination, which part of a seed develop into;
a. A shoot?
b. A root?
Seed and fruit dispersal

Dispersal means spreading of seeds away from parent plants.

There are four methods of dispersal. These are

1.Self /mechanical dispersal

It involves mechanical force that shoots the seed away from the parent plant. Example; seeds are produced in
pods which pop open, when dry throwing away the seeds e.g beans, poppies.

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2.Animal dispersal

Seeds have hooks or thorns that can stick onto

animal skins e.g black jack. Others are contained in juicy fruits which are edible e.g pumpkins, melons.

•The look fleshy, taste and are edible.

•Usually have hooks

3.Water dispersal

The seeds are light and can easily flow on water e.g coconuts.

4.Wind dispersal

Wind dispersed fruits and seeds have the following features;

-They have wing- like shape

-They have a parachute like-structure.

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-They are very light in weight

-They are fluffy

The importance of seed dispersal to plant life

i) Reduce competition and overcrowding

ii) So that plants grow in different areas

iii) To reduce the spread of diseases amongst closely clumped/grouped plant

NATURE OF MATTER

Dissolution of matter

SOLUTE is a solid which dissolves in a liquid.

SOLVENT is a liquid into which a solute dissolves

SOLUTION is a mixture of solute and solvent.

Universal solvent

This is a solvent into which many solutes dissolve. Water is said to be a universal solvent because
many/most substances dissolves into it.

Types of solutions

Solutions differ from each other depending on the combinations of solutes and solvent present.

Concentrated and dilute solutions

Concentration refers to the measure of how much solute is present in a given amount of a solution.

A dilute solution is a solution where there is only a small amount of solute dissolved in a small amount
solvent. For example a small amount of sugar dissolved in water makes a dilute solution.

Concentrated solution

A concentrated solution is where there is large amount of a solute dissolved in a small amount of solvent.
For example large amount of sugar dissolved in water.
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Concentration = mass of solute/volume of solvent.

C= M/V

Example if 10g of sugar dissolves in 100ml of water then the concentration is

10g/100ml = 0.1g/ml

Concentration = mass of solute/mass of solute + mass of solvent x 100

Saturated, unsaturated and super saturated solutions

Saturated solutionis a solution where no more solute can dissolve in the solvent.

Unsaturated solutionis a solution which can still dissolve more of the solute in the solvent.

Super saturated solutionis a solution where more solute is dissolved in a solvent that can happen under
normal circumstances.

Applications of saturated and super saturated solutions

 Drink concentrates
 Purifying solids
 Carbonated drinks

Homework

1. A student prepared a salt solution of concentration 2.0g/cm³ from a salt solution of concentration
1.0g/cm³ by adding more salt.
a. Describe another method that the student can use to prepare the same solution of
concentration 2.0g/cm³ from a salt solution of concentration 1.0g/cm³.
b. Another student prepared a salt solution using 80cm³ of water and 20g of table salt. Calculate
the

i. Concentration per volume of solvent

ii. Percentage concentration

COMPONENTS OF AIR

Air is a mixture of gases. Dry air is, made up of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases.

Gas Percentage

Nitrogen 78%

Oxygen 21%

Carbon dioxide 0.03%

Other gases 0.97%

PREPARING CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide gas is produced by reacting an acid with a carbonate

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Acid + Carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water

Example:

Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid Calcium Chloride +Water + Carbon dioxide

Testing for carbon dioxide

TEST: Bubble lime water into a test tube containing carbon dioxide.

RESULTS: lime water turns milky in the presence of carbon dioxide.

Properties of carbon dioxide

i) It is colourless, odourless and tasteless

ii) It is more denser than air

iii) It turns lime water milky

iv) It does not support burning

v) It is slightly soluble in water

Uses of carbon dioxide

i) It is used in fire extinguishers to put off fire

ii) Solid carbon dioxide is used to keep things cold

iii) To make carbonated or fizzy drinks

iv) As dry ice to keep things frozen
v) For baking to make dough rise
OXYGEN

Oxygen makes up about 21% of air.

PREPARATION OXYGEN

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Oxygen is prepared using hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide breaks up to give water and
oxygen. The reaction is very slow. In the laboratory manganese (iv) oxide is added to speed up the
reaction. In this case manganese (iv) oxide is a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the
rate of a chemical reaction without itself being used up.

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Chemical reaction

Hydrogen peroxide Manganese(iv) oxide water +oxygen

Testing for oxygen

TEST: Insert a glowing splint into a test tube containing oxygen.

RESULTS: Oxygen relights a glowing splint

Properties of oxygen

 It supports burning

 It is slightly soluble in water

 It is colourless, odourless and tasteless

Uses of oxygen

 For medical purposes to help patients who can’t breathe

 It is, mixed with acetylene to melt or cut steel.

 To support divers and mountain climber’s lives at the altitudes they can’t breathe

 It is used during respiration

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BUILDING MATERIALS

The type of building materials used by people depend on the part of the country where those people are found.

LOCALLY AVAILABLE MATEERIALS

i) Thatching grass

ii) Concrete tiles

iii) Corrugated iron

iv) Clay bricks

v) Wood from trees

vi) Cow dung

vii) Sand, cement, gravel and glass

PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

MATERIAL GOOD PROPERTIES BAD PROPERTIES

Grass Readily available. Does not need anyBurns easily, can be eaten by
skills animals. Need to be replaced from
time to time
Cow dung Readily available Not water resistant
Wood from trees Readily available Rot with time
Corrugated iron Very strong, fire resistant, waterNeed skilled labour, expensive, hot in
resistant summer
Cement Strong, water resistant Need skilled labour, expensive

Glass Allows light into the house Break easily, need skilled labour and
expensive

USES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

MATERIAL USE
GRASS Thatching/roofing
COW DUNG Mixed with clay to make bricks
WOOD Holding thatch
CEMENT Making bricks, plastering, joining bricks
CORREGATED IRON Roofing
GLASS Making windows

INSULATION

Thermal insulators are important building materials because they reduce the amount of heat that can move
into or out of a house. This means that in winter, when the inside of a house is heated to keep it warm,
insulation reduces the rate at which the heat escapes to the outside.

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Insulation in buildings refers to building a house in such a way that it prevents heat loss or gain
within them. In buildings insulation depend on; the type of materials used for roofing, the presence
of ceiling and thickness of walls. The set-up below is of an activity used to investigate the
suitability of building materials for insulation:

Observations

 The house without ceiling recorded higher temperatures than the house with
ceiling.
 The house with a single wall recorded higher temperatures than the house with
double walls.
 Houses roofed with corrugated iron recorded higher temperatures than house with
thatched roof.
Conclusion

Materialthat are, suitable for insulation in a building, include, the use of thatch for roofing, double
walls and the presence of ceiling.

WINDOW POSITIONING

Windows should be fairly placed high up in the walls so that they get shade from the roof. Also windows should
be placed in such a way that they do not face the sun so that more heat does not come into the house.

TYPE OF ROOFING MATERIAL

Thatch is a good insulating material to use for roofing it does not allow heat from outside to enter the building.
It also does not allow heat from inside the house to leave the building. By so doing it makes the house cool in
summer and warm in winter.

Corrugated iron is good conductor of heat. This means that it allows heat from outside to enter the house. It
also allows heat from the house to leave the house. This makes the house hot in summer and cool in winter. In
order to reduce heat loss and gain through the roof, an insulation is placed in the ceiling.

COLOUR OF THE HOUSE

The colour of the roofing material affect how much heat is absorbed into the house this will affect the
temperature of the house. Light coloured paints on walls and the roof helps to keep the house cooler because
they reflect more heat. Dark coloured walls and roofs make the house hot because they absorb more heat.

ROOF OVERHANG

A roof over hanging a wall helps to reduce of the house because it provides the walls with shade. Also sunlight
does not directly enter building keeping the house cooler summer.
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HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

PREGNANCY

Pregnancy is the period from the onset of conception/ fertilisation to birth. A woman is said to be pregnant
when she is carrying a developing foetus. The normal gestation period of pregnancy of a woman is 37 week or
9 months.

FERTILISATION

DIAGRAM LEAVES 8 LINES

During sexual intercourse the male is going to ejaculate into the female’s vagina. The sperms swims towards
the oviduct were one sperm fuses with an ovum. This process is known as fertilisation.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY

i) The woman stop menstruating

ii) Increase in weight

iii) Breasts become tender and swollen

iv) Belly becomes bigger

v) She becomes choosy when it comes to diet

vi) Her nipples become black

vii) More frequent passing out of urine

viii) Morning sickness

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 DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO

Shortly after fertilisation has occurred the zygote begins to divide to form two new cells. Over the next
3 to 4 days each these cells then divides to form two new cells. Soon the single cell of the zygote
becomes a ball of cells. The ball of cells that has developed from the zygote is known as the morula.

From about day 4 after fertilisation the cells that make up morula begins to change and rearrange
themselves to become a hollow ball of cells known as the blastocyst.

All the above mentioned changes take place in the oviduct. The hair cells found in the oviduct move
the zygote towards the uterus. When the zygote reaches the uterus it get implanted on the wall of the
uterus. After implantation the blastocyst continue to divide and change to become an embryo. Slowly
the cells of the embryo grow and arrange themselves into different organs and other structures that
can be recognised as parts of a fully grown human being. Almost all of the organs are completely
formed by the 10th week of pregnancy. At this stage the baby is known as the foetus.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA, THE UMBILICAL CORD AND THE AMNION

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
PLACNTA - Carries oxygen and nutrients from the to the foetus
- Carries waste materials from the foetus to the mother
- Carries antibodies from the mother to the foetus
UMBILICAL CORD - Connects the foetus with the placenta
- Carries blood from the foetus to the placenta
AMNION - Contains amniotic fluid which protect the foetus against shocks
and jerks
- Protects the foetus from infection by bacteria and other organisms

CONDITIONS LEADING TO MULTIPLE BIRTHS

IDENTICAL TWINS- This happens when a one ovum is fertilised by one sperm then it divide into two parts. These
will then develop into two independent babies. The mother will then give birth to identical twins. The babies will
share the placenta, they are of the same gender and they look alike.

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FRATERNAL TWINS- This happens when a woman release two ova at the same time. These will be fertilised by
two different sperms. The woman will give birth to non-identical twins. The babies may not be of the same sex
or alternatively of the same sex. They do not share the placenta and are different in appearance

Identical

twinsFraternal/non-identical twins

ANTE- NATAL OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

Ante-natal care means taking correct steps to look after the health of a baby and the mother during pregnancy.

Immediately after pregnancy a woman have to visit the clinic every month. This is what happens at the clinic.

i) The history of her health would be taken

ii) Her blood would tested

iii) The heartbeat of the embryo will be detected

iv) Her vagina will be examined.

v) She will have to go for urine test

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 vi) The woman would advised to stop smoking and drinking if she used to do that.

vii) She will be advised to have regular exercises

NUTRITIONAL NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

A pregnant woman must eat a diet which is composed of the following:

PROTEINS

The diet of a pregnant woman should have plenty of proteins as they are needed for the growth and formation
of new tissues

CALCIUM

Calcium is needed for formation of strong bones.

IRON

Iron is needed for the formation of blood. Lack of iron can cause anaemia

BIRTH

It takes about 9 months from fertilisation until birth. This is called gestation period or pregnancy.

STAGES OF BIRTH

Birth takes place in stages.

STAGE 1(labour)

The woman feels some labour pains. These begin 10-20 hours before birth.

STAGE 2 (Dilation of the cervix)

The cervix is fully wide and the woman feels she wants to push.

STAGE 3 (delivery of the baby)

The baby is born with head coming out first. Once the head come out the rest of the body comes easily

STAGE 4 (delivery of after birth)

The afterbirth is delivered. This include the placenta and the umbilical cord

CARE OF THE BABY

Immediately after birth the baby start a normal life. The baby begin to breath air. The baby is still young and
cannot eat solid food. The baby feed on the mother’s milk.

BREAST FEEDING AND BOTTLE FEEDING

BREAST MILK BOTTLE MILK

Brings the mother and the child close Allows the mother to be separated from the child
The milk is ready made and does not take time to The milk has to be separated and this takes time
prepare
The milk is free The milk cost money
The chances of contamination are very small The chances of contamination are very high
The milk contains the right combination of nutrients The amount of nutrients vary from batch to batch
The milk contains antibodies from the mother The milk does not contain antibodies
NUTRITIONAL NEEDS OF A LACTATING MOTHER

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The lactating mother must have a balanced diet. The diet must be rich in proteins and protective food to
protect the baby against infections and for development of strong bones and teeth.

The diet of the baby must be rich in proteins for growth and development. It must also be rich in protective food
to help the body fight against infections.

IMMUNISATION

Immunisation is protection against dangerous diseases. It may be given by injection or mouth.

DISEASES BABIES ARE IMMUNISED AGAINST

DISEASE AGE METHOD OF IMMUNISATION

TUBERCULOSIS (TB) From birth to 5 years Injection ( BCG)
DIPTHERIA 3, 4 and 5 months Injection
WHOOPING COUGH 3, 4 and 5 months Injection
TETANUS 3, 4 and 5 months Injection
POLIO 3, 4 and 5 months Drops by mouth
DIPTHERIA TETANUS 5 years Injection
MEASLES 9 months Injection

THE IMPORTANCE OF TESTING FOR HIV WHEN PREGNANT

It is very important for a pregnant woman to know her HIV status in order to prevent transmitting the HIV to
her unborn baby. If and HIV positive pregnant woman is given ARVs the rate of mother to child transmission is
reduced to 2%. Therefore, ARVs prevents the mother to child transmission of HIV in most cases. The
importance of this is that:

i) Many more healthy babies are born that are not infected with HIV and will not get AIDS.

ii) The mother will be healthier for longer because she is receiving ARVs.

THE IMPORTANCE OF (PMTCT)

1. The woman has a much greater of giving birth to healthy, HIV negative baby

2. The mother will be able to live longer and will be able to take care of her children for many years.

PROPER METHODS OF CHILD CARE

i) The child should live in a safe and hygienic environment

ii) The should be kept healthy and treated when they are not well

iii) The child should be played with, talked to and touched

iv) The child should receive good nutrition

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FORCES

A force can be defined as a push or pull action by one object on the other. Where there is a force it is exerted
by one object on the other

CONTACT AND NON CONTACT FORCES

Forces can be divided into two main types. These are contact and act at a distance forces.

Contact forces- are forces resulting when two objects are physically touching each other.
Action at a distance forces- are forces that can have an effect without the two objects involved not touching
each other.

EXAMPLES OF CONTACT AND NON CONTAC FORCES

CONTACT FORCES NON CONTACT FORCES
Frictional force Magnetic force
Impact force Electrostatic force
Strain force Gravitational force

DIRECTION OF FORCE

All forces act in a particular direction. This direction may be away from the object that is exerting the force
or towards the object that is exerting the force. Therefore force is a vector quantity.

RESULTANT FORCE

A resultant force is the overall force that results from the action of two or more forces on an object.

If two forces acting on an object are equal in size and in opposite direction there will be no resultant force.

One can tell the size and the direction of the resultant force acting on an object if one knows how big the
forces are that act on an object.

The magnitude (size) of the resultant force will be the difference between the magnitudes of the forces.
The direction of the resultant force will be towards the bigger force

EFFECTS OF FORCES

i) Forces can change the size of an object

ii) A force can change the shape of an object

iii) A force can stop a moving object

iv) A force can increase the speed of a moving object

v) A force can change the direction of a moving object

vi) A force can slow down a moving object

THE APPLICATIONS OF FORCES IN REAL LIFE

- When eating force is applied on the food with teeth to break it down into small pieces

- When running or walking force is applied on the ground with feet to move forward

- When talking force is applied on the air passing through our larynx with the larynx muscles to form sound
waves.

- The engine of a motor car exerting a force on the wheels to move the car forward.

- A crane lifts heavy objects by exerting an upward force on the object.

THE IMPORTANCE OF FORCE OF GRAVITY TO LIFE ON EARTH

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 Gravitational force is the kind of force that pulls objects towards the center of the earth. As a result, keeps
objects close to the earth without floating in the air. The following are some examples of how useful gravity
is to our environment.

i) It keeps people and objects on earth

ii) It keeps the earth and other planets in their orbits

iii) It keeps the moon and other satellites in their orbits around the earth.

iv) Brings objects thrown upwards to the earth

FORCE OF FRICTION

Force of friction is a force which opposes movement. It always tries to stop moving objects.

EFFECTS OF FRICTION ON MOTION ON OBJECTS

i) Friction acts in opposite direction to the applied force

ii) Friction can stop moving objects

iii) Friction can slow down moving objects

iv) Friction is always between two objects touching each other.

FRICTION IN FLUIDS

A fluid is anything that flows. There are three factors which determine the amount of friction on an object
travelling through a fluid.

- The viscosity of the fluid. Thick liquids have high friction and thin liquids have low friction. (Viscosity is the
resistance of a fluid to flow)

- Surface texture of the object travelling through the fluid. An object with a rough surface will have high friction
than an object with a smooth surface.

- The shape of the object. Sharp pointed objects will find it easier to move through a fluid

WAYS OF REDUCING FRICTION

i) Streamlining

ii) Oiling

iii) Using wheels and rollers

iv) Using ball bearings

v) Using objects with smooth surfaces

vi) Air cushions

APPLICATIONS OF FLUID FRICTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

i) Used in internal parts of car engines

ii) Used in parachutes

iii) Used in ships travelling through water

iv) Used by aeroplanes when landing

MEASURING FORCE

A force meter is used to measure force. The SI unit of force is Newtons (N)
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 MASS AND WEIGHT

Mass and weight are not the same thing. The weight of an object is a way of describing how force of gravity
affects the mass of an object. For example-if a mass of 45 kg is affected by 10 N/kg of the force of gravity
on earth, its weight will be less when it affected by a lower force of gravity. The earth pulls a mass of 1kg
with a force of 10N. ie 1kg= 10N

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEIGHT AND MASS

MASS WEIGHT
Mass is a measure of how much matter an object Weight is the force of an attraction on an object by the
contains earth
Mass of an object is always the same Weight changes according to the pull of gravity

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the air on all of the objects in the atmosphere.

Atmospheric pressure refers to the amount of force applied against a surface by the weight of air above that
surface.

EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

i) It enables us to suck liquids through straws.

ii) It makes rubber suckers to stick on surfaces.
iii) Makes cans with less pressure in them collapse.
iv) It makes it difficult to open containers with less pressure in them.

MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure is measured by using a barometer. The unit of atmospheric pressure is the
millimeters of mercury (mmHg). The standard atmospheric pressure is 760mmHg. The other unit of
atmospheric pressure is kilopascals (kpa).

A barometer is the instrument used to measure pressure. There are two types of them, mercury and
aneroid barometer. The SI-units of atmospheric pressure are the Pascal (Pa). Other units include
millimeters of mercury (mmHg), atmospheres (atm), bars and millibar(mb), which are mostly, used
in weather. Below is the diagram of a mercury barometer:

Pressure in Pascal is, calculated from the formula below:

Pressure (Pa) = Height of mercury (h)× Density of mercury(ρ) × Force of gravity (g)

Where, h= 760mmρ = 13.6 g/cm³ g

= 9.8N/kg

101300Pa = 101.3KPa = 1atm = 760mmHg = 1bar

=1000mb

PREDICTION OF WEATHER PARTTENS USING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

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Weather can be predicted using isobar patterns in a weather chart. Isobars are lines that connect points of
equal atmospheric pressure in an area. When the lines are closer to each other, it indicates strong winds.
When they are far apart, they indicate light or calm winds. Below is a chart showing isobar patterns of a
given area:

Predicting the type of weather from weather charts

A high (H) is an area of high pressure

surrounded by lower pressure. A low (L) is
an area of low pressure surrounded by high pressure. If pressure drops rapidly, there is greater chance
of rain. If the pressure rises rapidly, it is associated with clearing of the skies. Wind blows from an
area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.

A low pressure area indicates a high possibility of rain in that area. Wind will blow from areas with high
pressure to areas with low pressure.

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 LINEAR MOTION

Linear motion is the movement of an object in a straight line between two points or objects.

DESCRIBING LINEAR MOTION

To describe the linear motion of an object, the following can be used

- Use distance to describe the length of the path that object will move between two points.

- Use displacement to describe the length of the path that object will move between two points and the
direction in which the object moves.

- Use the average speed of the object if the speed is known.

- Use the average velocity of the object if the displacement is known

- Describe the acceleration of the object between any two points on the line by measuring the speed of the
object at the two points and the time it took for the object to travel them.

DISTANCE, DISPLACEMENT, SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

DISATANCE is the numerical description of how far apart objects are.

DISPLACEMENT is the distance and direction an object has moved from a fixed reference point.

SPEED is the rate at which object moves or distance travelled in a certain time

VELOCITY is the rate at which an object moves in a particular direction. (Displacement of an object in a
certain time).

ACCELERATION is the rate of change of increasing velocity (an increase of velocity over a period of time)

Deceleration is the rate of change of decreasing velocity velocity.

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance and displacement are different this is because displacement includes the description of the
direction that is travelled.

DISTANCE DISPLACEMNET
Describes the length of the between two points Describes the shortest length of the path between two
points and the direction of one point relative to the
other
Distance is described in units of length Displacement is described in units of length together
with direction
Distance is a scalar quantity Displacement is a vector quantity

SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed and velocity are different from each other, this is because velocity includes a description of the
direction that is travelled.

SPEED VELOCITY
Describes the taken to travel a certain direction eg aDescribes the time taken to travel a certain distance
car travelled at 20m/s and the direction of travel eg a car travelled at 20m/s
east
Is calculated as distance/time Is calculated as displacement/time
Speed is a scalar quantity Velocity is a vector quantity

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 CALCULATING SPEED

SPEED =DISTANCE/ TIME

S=d/t

UNIFORM AND NON- UNIFORM MOTION

NON-UNIFORM MOTION

Non- uniform motion means that the velocity of the object changes as time goes by. The velocity may
increase (accelerate) or decrease (decelerate) as time passes.

For example: Car A

Time in Seconds (S) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Distance Meters (m) 0 5 15 20 30 60 65 75

NB: Car A does not cover equal distances in equal intervals of time.

UNIFORM MOTION

Uniform motion means that the velocity of the object does not change as time goes by.

For example: Car B

Time in Seconds (S) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Distance Meters (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

NB: Car B travels equal distances in equal intervals of time.

UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM GRAPHS

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TERMINAL VELOCITY

Terminal velocity is the constant maximum velocity reached by a body falling through the fluid (gas or a
liquid) when its gravitational force is equal to the frictional forces acting on it.

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PLOTTING GRAPHS SHOWING MOTION

A graph that uses a line to show the relationship between the two variables of distance and time. It helps
us to understand how the motion is changing.

MOTION OF OBJECT FALLING IN A FLUID

When an object falls through a fluid, opposing forces come into action. At the beginning the motion of the
object is accelerated by the force with which the earth pulls it.

LIGHT ENERGY

Light is a form of energy.

Luminous objects- objects that give out their own light e.g sun, torch, candle, fire, light bulb etc.

Non-Luminous objects-objects that do not give out their own light, but rather reflect light from luminous
objects into our eyes e.g stone, book, moonetc

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

-light travels in a straight line

-light can be reflected

-light can be refracted

REFLECTION ON A PLANE MIRROR

Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it hits a shiny surface or object.

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Incident ray-a light ray from the source of light to a mirror

Reflected ray-a light ray that is refleted from the mirror

Normal line-a line drawn 90oC from the mirror at the point where the two rays meet.

Angle of incidence(i)-an angle between the incident ray and the normal line.

Angle of reflection(r)- an angle between the reflected ray and the normal line.

When light falls on a smooth surface such as a plane mirror a regular reflection occurs.

When light falls on a rough or uneven surface a diffuse/irregular reflection occurs.

Laws of reflection

-The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.

-The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal line all lie in the same plane.

PROPERTIES OF IMAGES FORMED BY A PLANE MIRROR

-Image is same size as the object

-The image is the same distance behind the mirror as the object in front of the mirror

-Virtual images or not real

-image formed is laterally inverted

-Image is always upright

Uses of plane mirrors

-used in dressing tables

-used in periscopes

-used in instrumental scales

CURVED MIRRORS

There are two types of curved mirrors. These are convex mirrors and concave mirrors CONCAVE-its surface
bends inwards. CONVEX-its surface bends outwards

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 Convex mirrorconcave mirror

Images formed by concave mirrors

The image is;

-Larger than the object when the object is close to the mirror.

-Upright if the object is close to the mirror.

- Smaller than the object if the object is far from the mirror.

-Upside down/ inverted if the object is far from the mirror.

Uses of concave mirrors

-Used in head lights of cars to produce a strong beam of light.

-Used in make-up mirrors as they give an enlarged image
-Used as shaving mirrors as they give an enlarged image
-used in torches or search lights

Images formed by a convex mirror

-Image is diminished (smaller than the object)

-Image is always upright

-Image is virtual

Uses of convex mirrors

-Used in shops as anti-theft mirrors

-Used as rear view mirrors in vehicles

REFRACTION AND DISPERSION

Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one transparent medium/material to another.

When light passes from a less densemedium to a more dense medium it bends(refracted) towards the
normal. When light passes from amore dense medium to a lessdensemedium it bends (refracted) away from
the normal.

REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS BLOCK

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Incident ray-a ray that passes from air into the glass.

Emergent ray- a ray that passes out from glass into air.

REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS PRISM

REFRACTION THROUGH WATER

The stick appears to be bent at the point where it

enters the water (water to air boundary) because light is bent when it passes from water into air.

REFRACTION BY LENSES

REFRACTION THROUGH A CONVEX LENSE

A convex lens is thick in the middle and narrow at the ends. The top and the bottom rays bend while the middle
ray goes through without bending. The rays converge (come together) towards a common point called focal
point. A convex lens is also called a converging lens.

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 Focal point (F)- point where the rays meet.

Focal length (f) – distance from the centre of the lens to the focal point

FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS

Focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens to the principal focus or focal point.

 A thicker lens has a shorter focal length than a thinner lens.

REFRACTION THROGH A CONCAVE LENSE

A concave lens is thick at the ends and narrow in the middle. The top and the bottom rays diverge (moves
away from each other) and the middle ray passes through without bending. A concave lens is also called a
diverging lens.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT

When light pass through a prism it getsdispersed/splitted. There are seven colours that make up white light and
together they form spectrum. Thesecolours

are as follows; Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet. (ROYGBIV)

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HOW A RAINBOW IS FORMED

A rainbow is formed when there are water droplets in the sky and the sun is shining. As light rays pass through
the water droplets it is refracted to split and produce the colours that are seen in the rainbow. Rain droplets
acts as a prism when light passes through it.

USES OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

INSTRUMENT USE

MICRO SCOPE Used to make extremely small objects appear larger.

CAMERA To focus and enlarge images onto a film

BINOCULARS To enlarge distant objects on earth. Have two eye pieces and a convex lens.

SPECTACLES To correct defects of the optical system of the eye

FILM PROJECTOR For showing motion pictures on the screen

HAND LENS Make things look bigger so that they can be seen clearly

TELESCOPE To enlarge distant objects in the night sky

PERISCOPE Used to view objects that are on top of water such as sailors in submarines. It has
two parallel plane mirrors.

THE EYE

CORNEA- It bends light rays slightly inwards as they enter the eye.

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LENS-Bends the light rays more to focus the image of the object on the retina. The lens becomes long and thin
to focus distant (far away) objects and becomes short and thick to focus nearer objects. The eye lens is a
convex lens.

CILIARY MUSCLES-Changes the shape of the lens making it long and thinner or short and thicker. The ability of
the lens to change shape is called accommodation. When the ciliary muscles contract, the lens becomes
short and thick. When the ciliary muscles relax, the lens becomes long and thin.

PUPIL- Changes in size to control the amount of light entering the eye. If there is too little light, the pupil
becomes larger to allow more light into the eye. If there is too much light, the pupil becomes smaller to reduce
the amount of light entering the eye.

IRIS- Control the amount of light entering the eye.

RETINA- This is where images are formed. The retina contain two types of cells which respond to light and these
are rods and cones. Rods allowa us to see in dim light while cones allows us to see colour and bright.

OPTIC NERVE- Collects impulses from the retina and sends them to the brain for interpretation.

SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS- Holds the lens in shape.

HOW WE SEE

We see an object only if light is reflected from the object and it is focused in the retina. To see an object:

 Light enters the eye through the cornea, which bends it slightly inwards.

 The light then passes through the pupil

 Then it passes through the lens, which bends it more to focus it on the retina.

 When light falls on the retina, an upside down image of the object is formed.

 The optic nerve then takes the messages from the retina to the brain.

 The brain then interprets and makes sense of the upside down image so that you see it upright.

IMAGES FORMED ON THE RETINA

-Image is always smaller than the object.

-Image is inverted.

-Image is real.

EYE DEFECTS

An eye defect is when the eye is not functioning well.

a)LONG SIGHT(hypermetropia)

A person cannot see near object clearly, but can see far objects clearly. When a long sighted person is looking
at a near object, the image is focused behind the retina.

It may be caused by;

-short eyeball

-cornea too flat

-lens not being curved enough

Correction of long sight

It can be corrected by using convex or converging lens spectacles.

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 Images are focused behind the retina
convex spectacles lens

b)SHORT SIGHT (myopia)

Is when a person cannot see far away objects clearly but can see near objects clearly. When a short sighted
person is looking at a distant object, the image is focused in front of the retina.

It may be caused by;

- long eyeball

-cornea too curved

-lens too curved

Correction of short sight

It can be corrected by using concave lens spectacles.

Images focused in front of the retina concave spectacle

lens

c)ASTIGMATISM

A person with astigmatism cannot focus on horizontal and vertical lines at the same time. Astigmatism can be
corrected by cylindrical convex lens.

d)LACK OF ACCOMODATION (presbyopia)

This is a common defect in ageing people. The lens looses its flexibility and the ciliary muscles cannot change
the shape of the lens to focus near or far away objects.

EYE DISEASES

DISEASE CAUSE SIGNS TREATMENT

CATARACTS -Old age Reduced sharpness of vision Surgically removing the lens
-Repeated exposure toEye lens become lens
Ultra-violet light
STYE Bacteria -Redness in the affected area -Hot compress for about 10
-The eye become sensitive to light minutes
-Antibiotics
TRACHOMA Bacteria -Redness of the membrane -Antibiotics
-Watering eyes -Surgery at later stages

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 -Mild itching and irritation of the eyes NB:If left untreated trachoma
-Swelling of the eyelids can lead to blindness

CONJUNCTIVITIES Virus -Watery eyes -Special pink eye drops

(Pink Eye) Bacteria -Redness and swelling of the conjunctiva -Use antibiotics and sulphur drugs
-yellowish discharge at the later stage -Use special eye drops or ointment
Burning sensation in the eyelids

APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT

 Light enables us to see

 Light is used in photosynthesis

 Light is used in camera

 Light is used in traffic lights

 Light is used in decorations

 Light is used is advertisement

THE CAMERA

Parts of

PART FUNCTION

DIAPHRAGM (iris) Controls the amount of light entering through the lens.

APERTURE (pupil) Control the amount of light entering the film.

SHUTTER (eye-lids) Opens and closes quickly to capture one image on the film

FILM (retina) This is where images are formed

LENS Focuses images on the film.

USES OF DIFFERENT COLOURS IN COMMUNICATION

COLOUR USE

RED When indicated cars facing it must stop on the near side of the stop line

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YELLOW When indicated cars facing it may stop on the near side of the stop line. If the car is too close that it
cannot be stopped safely the driver may proceed carefully.

GREEN When indicated cars facing it may proceed and continue with their journey.

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HEAT ENERGY

EXPANSION AND CONTRATION IN SOLDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

Expansion is the increase in size of a substance as a result of an increase in temperature. Contraction is the
decrease in size of a substance as a result of decrease in temperature. All the three states of matter (liquids,
gases and solids) expand when heated and contract when cooled.

-Expansion in liquids can be demonstrated by a thermometer (when the liquid in a thermometer gains heat
energy it expands and rises up the capillary tube, when it cools it contracts and move down the capillary tube)

-Expansion in solids can be demonstrated using a metal ball and ring. When the metal ball is heated it expands
(cannot pass through the ring) and contract when cooled (can now pass through the ring)

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-Expansion in gases can be demonstrated by an empty round bottom flask. When it is heated the bubbles
escape into water showing that air has expanded. When the flask is cooled water will be drawn into the flask to
replace air which escaped.

USES OF EXPANSION IN EVERY DAY LIFE

Used in thermostat

A thermostat is a device used for regulating the temperature of a system so that it is maintained near a desired
set temperature. When the temperature is high, the strip bends, breaks contact and therefore cuts the flow of
current and electricity is switched off as a result. When temperature drops, the strip returns to the initial
position, makes contact and electricity flows again. Thermostats are commonly used in electric irons, kettle and
air conditioners.

Used in bimetallic strip

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A bimetallic strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they are heated-
usually steel and copper, or in some cases brass instead of copper. The different expansion force the flat strip
to bend one way if heated, and in the opposite direction if cooled below it normal temperature. The metal with
the high expansion rate is on the outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on the inner side when
cooled

Used in thermometer.( as
described above)

PROBLEMS OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN EVERY DAY LIFE

1. RAILWAY LINES

Railway lines are made of steel. On hot days the steel expands and could cause the lines to twist. This
problem was rectified with gaps to allow the steel to expand without twisting.

2. ELECTRIC CABLES

These cables are made of metals such as copper, aluminum or steel. When they expand they may
hang too low, exposing people to danger. When electric cables are laid overhead, some sag is allowed.
During cold days the cables contract, if there were no sags then the contraction of the cables would
cause them to snap resulting in serious damage.

3. PLUMBING

Pipes used for plumbing contract during cold weather and expand during hot weather. Loops are put in the
pipe to allow for this expansion and contraction.

METHODS AND APPLICATION OF HEAT TRANSFER

GOOD CONDUCTORS AND BAD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT

Good conductors of heat are all those substances which allow heat to pass through them easily. All metals
are good conductors of heat and all non- metals are bad conductors of heat. This is because non- metals do
not allow heat to pass through them.

GOOD AND BAD EMITTERS/ABSORBERS OF HEAT

Heat emitters are materials that will give off heat when their temperature is high than the temperature of
their surroundings .Heat absorbers are those that will take in heat when their temperature is lower than
the temperature of their surroundings. The rate at which an object emits or absorbs heat depends on its
temperature and the nature of its surface. Hot objects radiate more heat than cool objects. Dull, dark and
rough surfaces are the best radiators and absorbers of heat. Shiny, slivery and smooth surfaces are poor
radiators and absorbers of heat.

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

CONDUCTION

Conduction can occur in solids, liquids and gases. It happens best in solids because the particles are closely
packed and they vibrate in about the same position. Heat energy causes particles to vibrate faster. As they
vibrate, they collide with other particles and therefore pass heat on.

CONVECTION

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 Convection is the way in which heat energy is transferred through liquids and gases by movement of
particles in the liquid or gas. When a fluid is heated it expands and becomes less dense, cooler more dense
fluid then sinks forcing the less dense materials upwards against gravity. This circulating movement of a
heated fluid is called a convection current.

DIAGRAM(leave 8 lines)

RADIATION

The way in which heat energy is transferred from a hotter to a colder place without a medium such as air
or water being present. Thermal radiation can pass through a vacuum. The heat energy from the sun
travels to earth through space as radiant heat.

Conductors and insulators

Insulators are poor conductors of heat e.g rubber, book, wood, water, plastic e.t.c

Conductors are good conductors of heat except mercury which is a metal. Gases are the poorest
conductors of heat.

DIAGRAM (leave 8 lines)

The water at the top of the test tube boils while the ice at the bottom remains unmelted. It will take some
time for the ice to melt. This shows that water is a poor conductor of heat.

Air is the poorest conductor of heat

DIAGRAM (leave 8 lines)

A cork attached to the test tube filled with water falls off first and a cork attached to the test tube filled
with air takes time to fall. This shows that air is the poorest conductor of heat.

Absorption of heat radiation

The cork on the dull/ black surface falls off first. This shows that black/dull surfaces absorbs heat radiation
more quickly/faster than shinny /white surfaces. Heat travels through radiation from the heat source to the
surfaces.

CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION IN EVERY DAY LIFE

i)Solar water heating system

It uses conduction, convection and radiation to heat water. A solar water heater is made up of narrow copper
tubes painted black that are coiled inside a glass box. The copper pipe is coiled to increase the surface area of
the heating surface and to slow down the speed of water so that it can be thoroughly heated. The black pipe
absorbs heat radiation from the sun, because black absorbs heat well. This heat is conducted to the water
inside the pipes because copper is a very good conductor of heat. The water in the pipes then circulates due
convection currents.

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ii)Vacuum/thermos flask

It is used to keep hot liquids hot or cold liquids cold. It is made of a doubled walled glass bottle, slivered on the
inside and with a vacuum between the walls. The vacuum prevents heat loss by conduction or convection. The
slivered walls minimise radiation by reflecting the heat back into the flask.

iii)Ventilation of houses

When the air in a room gets hot, it rises to the top of the room because of convection.to bring in cool air, the
hot air must be let out somewhere near the top and there must be also openings lower down for cooler air to
take the place of hot air.

iv)cooling system in car engine

Moving parts of a car produce a lot of heat. If an engine becomes too hot, it will seize up. Water is used to
remove heat from the engine. The radiator is painted black to emit heat quickly.The fan draws in cool air into
the engine and cylinders allow for convection current to take place.

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 NATURAL PHENOMENA CAUSED BY CONVECTION, CONDUCTION AND RADIATION

1. SEA AND LAND BREEZES

The movement of air over land and sea surfaces is a combination of radiation, conduction and convection.

During the day, the land surface is heated faster than the sea. The air above the land is also heated and
rises. As it rises, it loses heat energy to upper surrounding air particles and cools off. The cool air fall over
the sea and a wind towards the land start blowing. This is called a breeze.

During the night, the land quickly emits the heat from its surface by radiation and cools down faster than
the sea. The air above the sea is warm and rises. As it rises it loses its heat energy to the upper layers and
cools off. The cool air fall over the land and a wind towards the sea starts blowing.

2. THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

A green house is a house used to grow plants that need a warm environment. The glass allows the light
and infrared rays from the sun to pass through into the building and plants inside are warmed. The warm
soil and plants inside also emit heat by radiation but heat cannot easily pass through the glass because of
its reflective surface. The heat is reflected back into the house and temperature inside continues to rise.

TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Animals have to keep warm during cold weather. Mammals and birds need to keep their body temperature
constant. Animals are adapted to regulate their body temperature in many different ways. Some of these
are as follows.

1. LAYER OF FAT

Animals have a thick layer of fat beneath their skin called blubber. This layer of fat is a good insulator. It
keeps heat produced within the body and prevents it from escaping.

2. BODY COVEERED WITH HAIR OF FUR AND FEATHERS

Mammals have their bodies covered with hair and fur which traps tiny pockets of air. The hair or fur and
feathers traps tiny pockets of air there by reducing the amount of heat lost to the environment. In cold
weather, the animals often fluff up their hair (make it stand out) to form an insulating layer on the body.
During hot weather, the hair and feathers lie down to trap only little air.

3. HIBERNATION

Some cold blooded animals such as snakes, lizards and frogs may hibernate. They bury themselves in the
ground or under the rocks and go into a deep sleep to avoid the cold. Some warm-blooded animals
hibernate, when their body temperature falls. Hibernating animals can survive for long periods of time
without food or water

HEALTHY AND SAFETY

There is a saying that most accidents happen in the home. In order to live healthy and safely, our homes
should as clean as possible. This reduces the risk of people contracting diseases from dirty, unhygienic
surroundings.

LIVING SAFELY

It is very easy for us to hurt ourselves or others around us through our actions. Usually these types of
accidents only cause minor injuries and we do not pay attention, but there is always the chance that
serious injury could be caused by our actions.

TYPE OF HAZARD COMMON INJURIES STEPS THAT CAN BE TAKEN TO PREVENT INJURIES
Knives and other sharpCuts * Work slowly and with care
kitchen implements * Do not leave knives lying around that are not being used

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 * Keep knives in a drawer away from children
* Make sure knives are sharp. Blunt knives are more dangerous than sharp
ones because one have to apply more force when using them
House hold tools andCuts and bruises * Read the instructions about how to use a tool properly and follow any
gardening implements safety rules.
* If you do not know how to use a tool, ask someone who does to show you.
* Do not use a tool for an application that it was not designed for.
* Make sure that the tools are well maintained.
* Work slowly and with care
Fires and heaters Burns and breathing* Always make sure that the heater can be seen. This will stop people from
problems tripping over or colliding with the heater by accident.
* Do not use the heater to burn things or set fire on to things
Always switch the heater off if no one is going to be in the room for a long
time
* Do not stand close to a heater.
* Make sure the fire or heater
Is in a properly ventilated room. This prevents the buildup of gases
Electricity and electricalBurns and shocks * Make sure that all appliances are wired properly and earthed
appliances * Do not plug in too many appliances into one socket
*Do not use electrical appliances near water

Obstacles and obstructions Bruises, grazes, sprains and*Keep your environment clean, neat and tidy.
fractures * Do not leave things lying around in passage ways or in places where
people work
Lifting or moving heavyMuscle strains and back* Do not try to lift things are too heavy for you, ask for someone to help
objects injuries * Take your time if an object begins to feel too heavy, then put it down and
take a rest
* Use the correct lifting techniques.
Broken glass Cuts * Clean up broken glass straight away and make sure that you collect
every single piece. Some pieces may be very small but these can still can
cause cuts
* Do not place glass objects close to the edge of surfaces where they can
easily be knocked off.
* Use reinforcements for applications where the glasses may have to carry
weight or cope with shocks from time to time.

SAFETY PHYSICAL MOVEMENT

Safety physical movement means carrying out actions in a safe way to prevent injuries from happening.
When you are performing activities, there are certain techniques that you can use that will reduce the
chances of you injuring yourself. If you are carrying out any new activities, it is worthwhile finding out the
correct way of carrying out the activity

SAFEY WAYS OF CARRYING OUT ACTIVITIES

Carry out your physical actions slowly and carefully and know your physical limits.

CORRECT WAY TO LIFT OBJECTS

When lifting a heavy object, you should lift the objects with your legs bent and your back straight as shown
in the picture below.

CORRECT WAY TO SHARPEN A KNIFE

Physically, the most comfortable way to sharpen a knife is to draw it towards you. However, when you do
this, the move towards your fingers and body if you make a mistake, then you can cut your finger and your
body.

THE USE OF SAFETY RECOMMENDED SAFETY AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES

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 No matter how hard we try to prevent accident from happening, there will always be occasions when
something goes wrong that could cause an injury. For this reason, it is recommended that people always
use appropriate safety and protection devices when carrying out potentially dangerous activities. Some of
these protective devices are as follows

(PROTECTIVE DEVICES)

1. GLOVES

Gloves are safety items that are used to protect the hands from injury.

2. EYE PROTECTION

Eye protection includes things like safety glasses, goggles and welding masks. Eye protection is most
commonly used in activities that produce small pieces of material that fly around and may injure the eyes.

3. FACE MASKS

Face masks cover the mouth and the nose and prevent foreign objects from entering the mouth, lungs and
nose. They are most often worn to protect the user from fine dust and mist that is made by activities such
as sanding and spraying chemicals.

4. STRONG BOOTS

These are worn to protect the feet from damage by falling objects on them or when working in an area where
there may be hazardous objects on the ground that could damage the feet.

5.PROTECTIVE HEADWEAR

The most common type of protective head wear used is hard hat(helmet).This will give some protection to head
in activities where there is a risk of falling objects such as when cutting trees or working on the roof of the
house.

SAFETY DEVICES

Safety devices are things that make equipment safer to use or that help situation if an accident happens.

1. FUSES

Fuses are safety devices that prevents from happening such as fire, electric shock and burns.

2. FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Fire extinguishers are safety devices used to put out fires.

VENTILATION

Ventilation is the movement of air in and out of a building. Ventilation is important because it is the way in
which air in a room is replaced by fresh, cooler air from outside.

MOVEMENT OF AIR WITHIN A BUILDING

To create ventilation air must move around inside a building so that hot moist air can be replaced by cool dry
air. This is called convection current. Hot air rises towards the roof where it can either leave through air vents
or cool down and fall back. Cool air can either enter a building through doors and windows.

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THE NEED FOR GOOD VENTILATION

-Buildings with good ventilation are health places and comfortable to live in.

-Good ventilation keeps a room cool, removes bad smells and tobacco smoke.

Effects of poor ventilation

-A poorly ventilated building can lead to death of its occupants in circumstances

-Easy and quick spread of air-borne diseases

-death due to heat stroke

-easy and quick poisoning by gases such as carbon-monoxide.

SANITATION

Waste material produced by our bodies is called sewage whereas waste material produced during our daily
activities is known as refuse. Sanitation is the safe disposal of sewage waste.

The need for proper disposal of domestic refuse and sewage

i) Sewage and refuse waste can cause an unpleasant smell

ii) Sewage and refuse waste can cause diseases

iii) Untreated sewage can enter the natural water system and pollute the water ways

iv) Refuse can pollute the environment

v) Uncollected waste can attract flies, rats and other unwanted animals. Rats and flies can spread
diseases

vi) Refuse make the environment look bad.

Hygienic ways of disposing domestic sewage

i) Municipal sewage disposal–found in towns and cities. Sewage flows in pipes to where it is
treated. Treated sewage result in clean water that can be recycled water.

ii) Septic tank- found in areas where houses have piped water but no municipal sewage system.
Consists of a large pit in the ground that is dug away from the building that it services.

iii) Pit latrines- used in places where no tap water is available. It consists of a pit of about3 metres
deep and 1 metre wide. A pit latrine should be built on a porus soil for easy drainage of water
and urine.

Methods of disposing domestic refuse

i) Landfills –these are large pits that are dug and filled with refuse that councils collect from
household and businesses.

ii) Burning and incineration-some garden refuse and other types of organic materials can be burnt.
This is hygienic and the ash can be used as a fertilizer, but smoke causes air pollution.

iii) Recycling- is the best and least polluting way to dispose off refuse.

COMMUNICATION IN ANIMALS

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Communication is any activity or process that results in information being transferred from one person to
another or from one place to another.

WAYS OF COMMUNICATING

Communication in humans can be done through speaking, listening, seeing, touching, and smelling. Human
beings can communicate through reading and writing as well.

SENSE ORGANS AND STIMULI THEY RESPOND TO

ORGAN SENSE STIMULI

TOUCH Pressure, heat, cold, pain

TONGUE Chemicals in food and drinks- bitter, sweet, salty, sour

SMELL Chemicals in air

EYES Light and colours

HEARING Sound and balance

Enhancing the sense of sight

Normal sight is sometimes restricted because the eye cannot magnify images. Small objects cannot be seen
with naked eyes. To solve this problem magnifying instruments such as telescope, microscope, periscope,
spectacles have been inverted to enhance the sense of sight.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is made up of the spinal cord, brain and nerves. The nervous system works by sending
electrical impulses along the nerves or neurons. It is divided into two main system, the central nervous
system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)

-CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord

-PNS is made of neurons which carry messages from sense organs to the CNS, called sensory neurons and
those that carry messages from CNS to the effector organs (muscles, glands), called motor neurons.

In the sense organs there are special cells called sensory receptors which receives stimuli.

The neurons, sensory receptors, effector organs and

some sense organs together make up the Peripheral Nervous System. Peripheral Nervous System connects

The CNS receives and interprets all in of messages from the sense organs and send out an appropriate
response. Impulses reaching the CNS differ, and the responses resulting from them can be classified as
voluntary and involuntary actions.

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 VOLUNTARY ACTIONS

Are actions which are controlled by conscious activity of the brain or by your will. Most voluntary actions involve
voluntary muscles as effectors. Information from the brain is carried to such muscles by motor neurons. This
include _________, ______________, _______________

INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS

Are not controlled by conscious activity of the brain or by your will.Such actions are controlled by the
hypothalamus through neurons of the autonomic nervous system and the effectors are involuntary muscles.
They include heartbeat, accommodation of the eye, pupil dilation, ___________, _____________

SIMPLE REFLEX ACTION

This are special types of involuntary actions. They are controlled by the spinal cord. Such actions follow a reflex
arc. This include sneezing, Coughing, blinking of the eye, _________

LEARNED REFLEX ACTION

A learned reflex action is done automatically but we have learn to do it in response to a particular stimulus. It is
called a learned reflex action because the reflex action is learned through experience and being trained to do
things in our lives eg catching a ball, riding a bicycle, swimming.

PATHWAY FROM STIMULUS TO RESPONSE

Sense organ Sensory neurone CNS Motor neurone Effector organ

HORMONES

Hormones are chemical substances that control the activities of one or more specific organs. Hormones are
secreted (passed) by special glands called endocrine into the blood. The blood then carries them around the
body. Hormones are destroyed by the liver.

HORMONE Endocrine gland When it isFUNCTION

secreted
THYROXINE Thyroid gland Throughout life Control metabolic rate especially respiration in the
mitochondria of cells

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ADRENALIN Adrenal gland When frightened Prepares the body for action in threatening situations.

GROWTH HORMONE Pituitary gland Throughout life Stimulates growth

INSULIN Pancreas When blood sugarStimulate the liver to remove glucose by converting it into
above normal glycogen
GLUCAGON Pancreas When blood sugarStimulates the liver to break down glycogen and release
is below level glucose back into the blood.
OESTROGEN Ovary Develops female secondary sexual characteristics

TESTOSTERONE Testes Develops male secondary sexual characteristics

HORMONES AND MEDICAL CONDITIONS

- Diabetes- Caused by an imbalance of the hormone insulin. People with diabetes are not able to control the
amount of sugar in their blood.

Goitre- If iodine is lacking in a diet then thyroxin is not produced. It leads to an enlarged thyroid gland in the
neck.

Growth hormone- under secretion causes dwarfism. Some causes of dwarfism are hereditary. Over secretion
causes gigantism about 2.1 cm or more

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

A circuit is a path way for electrons. A switch is used to open and close gaps in a circuit. Electrons cannot flow
in a circuit with gaps.

ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

In order to draw electrical circuits we have to use electrical symbols. The following are examples of electrical
symbols

Component Symbol

CELL

BULB

RESISTOR

SWITCH

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AMMETER

VOLTMETER

FUSE

Circuit diagrams

SERIES CIRCUIT

Allows current to flow only in one path, and current is the same throughout the circuit. The devices (bulbs,
lamps) receive the same amount of current and will have the same brightness. In a series circuit if one bulb
glows the other bulb will not light as the circuit is open.

If L1 is identical to L2 and L3 they will have the same brightness since the same amount of current flows through
them.

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-DRAW A SERIES CIRCUIT WITH 2 CELLS, 2 BULBS AND A CLOSED SWITCH.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Allows current to flow in more than one path. There is the same voltage from the power supply and across each
device. In a parallel circuit if one bulb glows (goes off) the other will continue lighting.

The relationship between A1, A2 and A3 is that A1= A2 + A3

The advantage of lamps connected in parallel is that when one lamp fails, it does not affect the other lamps.
Lights and sockets at home are connected in parallel so that they can be switched on and off separately.

DRAW THE FOLLOWING PARALLEL CIRCUITS.

-2 CELLS, 1 SWITCH AND 2 BULBS

-3 CELLS, 3 SWITCHES AND 4 BULBS CONNECTED IN SERIES.

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ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current is the flow of electrons. It can also be defined as the amount of charge that flows past a fixed
point in a conductor every second.

Formular is I= R

The SI unit of electric current is Amperes (A). An ammeter is used to measure current.

NB: An ammeter is always connected in series to the circuit; NEVER connect an ammeter across source of
electricity because it will be damaged. Always include a resistor in the circuit to protect the ammeter.

Current in a series circuit

Bulb in circuit B light brighter than bulb in circuit A because there is more current flowing though circuit B.

If more bulbs are included in circuit, less current passes through a circuit. Bulb in circuit A will shine brighter
than two bulbs in circuit B.

DRAW A SERIES CIRCUIT WITH 2 CELLS, 1 SWTCH, 2 BULBS AND AN AMMETER

NB: Current in a series circuit is always the same throughout the circuit.

Current in a parallel circuit.

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When a circuit is connected in parallel, the electric current splits and flows through each branch of the circuit,
so current is not the same everywhere in the circuit.

DRAW A PARALLEL CIRCUIT WITH 2 CELLS, 2 BULBS, 3 AMMETERS AND 1 SWITCH

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (P.D) / VOLTAGE

Potential difference is a measure of the difference in electrical potential energy between two points in a circuit.

The SI unit of p.d is Volts (V). The instrument used to measure p.d is a voltmeter. When measuring potential
difference, the voltmeter is always connected across a component / device in circuit.

FORMULAR IS V= IR

Example

1.A current of 2.5A flows through a resistor of 3 ohms. Calculate the voltage across the resistor.

Voltage in series circuit

The sum of p.d across components in a series circuit is equal to the terminal p.d (voltage of the power supply)
across the circuit.

V = V2 + V2

= 4.5V + 4.5V

= 9V

Voltage in parallel circuit

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The p.d across components in a parallel circuit is the same as the terminal p.d across of the power supply.
Relationship between V1,V2 and V3 is V1 =V2 + V3

DRAW A SERIES CIRCUIT WITH 3 CELLS, 1 SWITCH, 2 BULBS AND 2 VOLT METERS.

Unit 8 ELECTRICAL ENERGY

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE

Electrical resistance is the opposition to electric current. The SI unit for resistance is Ohms which has the
symbol Ω.

To determine the resistance of a circuit, you have to measure current and voltage. Connect one 1.5V cell in
series with the ammeter, the switch, and the resistor. Connect the voltmeter acrossthe ends of the
V
resistor. Then use the formula R=
I

6V
For example, if current (I) =2A when voltage(V) =6V, then R=
2A
= 3Ω

6V
But if current (I) =1A when voltage(V) =6V, then R=
1A
= 6Ω

That is, Ris greater in the second example becauseIis smaller. The greater the resistance, the smaller the
current and the smaller the resistance, the greater the current.

The electrical resistance can be influenced by the following;

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  The type of material- some conductors are more resistant than others e.g tungsten and nichrome
are more resistant to current.
 The length of the wire- the longer the wire, the greater the resistance and the shorter the wire, the
smaller the resistance.
 The thickness of the wire- the thinner the wire, the greater the resistance and the thicker the wire,
the smaller the resistance

RESISTORS IN SERIES

The total resistance of resistors arranged in series is equal to the sum of the individual resistors.

Example

a. The total resistance is: RT = R1 + R2 + R3

= 3Ω +7 Ω +12 Ω

= 22 Ω

b. What will be the reading on the ammeter?

c. What is the potential difference across each resistor?

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

The total resistance (R T) of three resistors arranged in

parallel can be calculated as follows:

1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R 1 R 2 R 3
a. Example,if R1= 5Ω, R2 =3Ω, R3 =15Ω. Total resistance is:

1 1 1 1
= + +
RT 5 3 15
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 1 3+5+1 9
= =
RT 15 15
RT = 1.67Ω

b. Calculate the reading on the ammeter.

THE FUNCTIONS OF A RESISTOR IN CIRCUITS

 Resistors are used to limit the flow of current in each branch of a circuit. This prevents overheating
and damage to other components in the circuit.
 Variable resistors (e.g volume control on a radio) can be used to change current.
 Variable resistors are also used to control voltage
 They are used in automatic security lights
 The filament in an electric light bulb is a long thin wire with high resistance
 The heating element in some electrical appliances such as heater, kettle, iron e.t.c is a length of
resistance wire

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