CHAPTER 7: SPECIALIZED IC APPLICATIONS

The 555 Timer:-

- 7.1.1 :- Introduction to 555 timer IC, 555 timer pin connection diagram and block diagram

- 555 timer as a monostable multivibrator :- Operation and circuit diagram

- Monostable multivibrator applications :- 1) Frequency divider, 2) Pulse stretcher

- 555 timer as an astable multivibrator :- Operation and circuit diagram Astable multivibrator
applications :- 1) Square wave oscillator, 2) Ramp generator

The 555 Timer:-

Introduction to 555 timer IC

555 Timer is a digital monolithic integrated circuit (IC) which may be used as a clock
generator.

In other words, 555 Timer is a circuit which may be connected as a stable or

monostable multivibrator.

In more simple words, 555 Timer is a monolithic timing circuit, which can produce
accurate timing pulses with 50% or 100% duty cycle.

It was developed in the year 1970 by Signetic Corporation and designed by Hans
Camenzind in 1971.

555 Timer is a versatile and most usable device in the electronics circuits and designs
which work for both stable and monostable states. It may provide time delay from
microseconds up to many hours.

555 timer is a very cheap IC which works for wide range of potential difference (typically,
from 4.5 to 15V DC) and the different provided input voltages do not affect the timer
output.

555 Timer is a linear device and it can be directly connected to the CMOS or TTL
(Transistor – Transistor Logic) digital circuits due to its compatibility but, interfacing is
must to use 555 timer with other digital circuits.

Being an integral part of electronics project, 555 Timer IC is very often used in simple to
complex electronics projects. The standard 555 timer IC is made of 2 diodes, 25
transistors, 15 resistors installed in an 8 pin dual in-line package.
.

555 timer pin connection diagram and block diagram

1. Ground (GND)

It’s the common ground point of the circuit. The ground terminal of external circuit as
well as power supply (VCC) ground terminal is connected to the GND (Ground) terminal
of 555 timer.

This pin is either grounded or connected to the negative rail. Connection using a resistor
is not recommended to avoid heating up of the IC because of the stray voltage
accumulated inside it.

2. Trigger

When Trigger terminal gets one –third (1/3) of the supply voltage i.e. VCC/3 equal
amplitude’s negative trigger pulse, then the circuit output changes form Low to High.

This pin is the input trigger pin to the IC and activates the timing cycle. A low signal at
this pin triggers the Timer. Required current at this pin is 0.5 uA for a period of 0.1 uS. To
avoid false triggering due to noise, the pin requires a pull up connection. Voltage at this
pin is 1.67 Volts for a supply voltage of 5 Volts and 5 Volts for a supply voltage of 15
Volts.

3. Output

This terminal is used for getting output and connected with load. At any instant, its
value is low or high. i.e. This is the output pin of the Timer. Output of the Timer depends
on the duration of timing cycle of the input pulse. The output can either sink or source
current, at maximum 200mA.For LOW output, it sinks current, voltage being slightly
greater than zero and for HIGH output, it sources current, voltage being less than VCC.

4. Reset

Without taking into account the previous state of output, by providing a trigger pulse to
this terminal resets the device. I.e. Its output becomes low.

The reset pin is either not connected or connected to the positive rail. A logic LOW
signal at this pin resets the Timer regardless of its input. The required reset voltage is 0.7
Volts, at current of 0.1mA

5. Control Voltage

There are two third positive voltages of the total Supply voltages (VCC) at control voltage
terminal. Thus, it becomes a part of the comparator circuit. Generally, a capacitor is
connected between ground and voltage control terminals.

This is also a generally non-connected pin or connected to ground through a 0.01uF

capacitor. For some applications, this pin is required to control the threshold voltage at
the upper comparator and is connected to an external DC signal, to change the duty
cycle.

6. Threshold Voltage

Threshold voltage and control voltage is the two inputs of comparator circuit. The circuit
compares the available voltage at threshold voltage terminal to the available reference
voltage at control terminal.

If the available voltage at threshold terminal (Pin 6) is greater than the control voltage
i.e. two-third of VCC, then the output would be low, otherwise, it would be high.

This pin provides threshold voltage to the upper comparator. When voltage at this pin is
greater than 2/3 VCC, the duty cycle is changed. It is connected to non-inverting
terminal of the upper comparator. Required current is 0.1 mA, with pulse duration of 0.1
uS.

7. Discharge

When output is low, then Discharge terminal provides a low resistance discharge path
to the externally connected capacitor. However, it acts an open circuit, when output is
high.

This pin provides a discharge path for the timing capacitor through the NPN transistor. A
discharge current less than 50 mA is required to avoid damage. It can also be used as
open collector output.

8. +VCC (Supply Voltage Terminal)

Supply voltage is provided at this terminal for timer operation. This pin is connected to
positive rail of the Power supply and is also known as VCC. The supply voltage can vary
from +5 Volts to +18 Volts.
555 timer as a monostable multivibrator

A monostable multivibrator is often called a one shot multivibrator.

It is a pulse generating circuit in which the duration of the pulse is determined by the RC
network connected externally to the 555 timer.

In a stable or standby state the output of the circuit is approximately zero or at a low
logic level.

When an external trigger pulse is applied, the output is forced to go high.

The time the output remains high is determined by the external RC network connected
to the timer.

At the end of timing interval, the output automatically reverts back to its logic low stable
state.

The output stays low until the trigger pulse is again applied.

Then the cycle repeats.

The monostable ckt has only one stable state(output low), hence the name monostable.
- Instrumentation amplifier using three op-amp for resistive transducer and bridge
- Instrumentation amplifier for high gain and high input impedance (Text Book 3-page 161)
- Instrumentation amplifier using RTD. Circuit design for converting the change in resistance of RTD into 0
to 5 V output with compensation of offset voltages, CMRR, temperature compensation for the range of 30 ˚C
to 200 ˚C.

Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier | Block Diagram | Advantages | Applications:

The commonly used Instrumentation Amplifier circuit is one using three op amps. This
Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier circuit provides high input resistance for
accurate measurement of signals from transducers. In this circuit, a noninverting
amplifier is added to each of the basic difference amplifier inputs. The circuit is shown
in the Fig.

The op-amps A1 and A2 are the noninverting amplifiers forming the input or first stage of
the instrumentation amplifier. The op-amp A3 is the normal difference amplifier forming
an output stage of the amplifier.

Analysis of Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier:

The block diagram representation of the Three Op Amp Instrumentation Amplifier is

shown in the Fig.
Advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier using 3 Op Amp:

1. With the help of variable resistance RG, the gain can be easily varied, without
disturbing the symmetry of the circuit.

2. Gain depends on external resistances and hence can be adjusted accurately and
made stable by selecting high quality resistances.

3. The input impedance depends on the input impedance of noninverting amplifiers

which is extremely high.

4. The output impedance is the output impedance of the op-amp A3 which is very
very low. This is as required by any instrumentation amplifier.

5. The CMRR of the op-amp A3 is very high and most of the common mode signal
will be rejected.

6. By trimming one of the resistances of the output stage, CMRR can be made
extremely high, as required by a good instrumentation amplifier.

Thus the circuit satisfies all the requirements of a good instrumentation amplifier and
hence very commonly used in most of the practical applications.

Note : The resistance RG is generally implemented as the series combination of the

base resistance and the pot. This is shown in the Fig. 2.53.

Application of Instrumentation Amplifier using 3 Op Amp:

In many industrial applications it is necessary to measure various physical quantities

such as temperature, humidity, water flow etc. These are measured by transducers. The
 output of transducer is required to be amplified for which instrumentation amplifier is
used. The Fig. 2.54 shows a practical instrumentation amplifier with a transducer
bridge.

Now a days single chip instrumentation amplifiers such as AD521, AD524, LH0036,
LH0037 are available.

Special Purpose amplifiers

- Logarithmic amplifier, Isolation amplifier, Chopped stability amplifier, Programmable gain amplifier,
Matching sensor to circuit

Logarithmic Amplifiers

Logarithmic amplifiers (log amps) produce an output voltage that is proportional to the
logarithm of the input voltage. They're especially useful for:

• Processing signals with wide dynamic ranges

• Signal compression

• Implementing multiplication/division operations through logarithmic conversion

• Audio processing applications where logarithmic response matches human

hearing perception

The basic relationship is: Vout = K × log(Vin), where K is a scaling constant.

Isolation Amplifiers

Isolation amplifiers provide electrical isolation between input and output circuits while
accurately amplifying signals. Key features include:
 • Galvanic isolation (no direct electrical connection)

• Protection from common-mode voltages

• Elimination of ground loops

• High common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

Applications include:

• Medical equipment (patient safety)

• Industrial measurement in high-voltage environments

• Data acquisition systems requiring signal isolation

Chopper-Stabilized Amplifiers

Chopper-stabilized (or chopped stability) amplifiers reduce DC offset and low-

frequency noise. They work by:

1. "Chopping" (modulating) the input signal to a higher frequency

2. Amplifying this modulated signal

3. Demodulating it back to the original frequency range

Benefits include:

• Minimal DC offset drift

• Reduced 1/f (flicker) noise

• Excellent long-term stability

• High precision for low-level signal measurement

Programmable Gain Amplifiers (PGAs)

PGAs allow electronic control of amplifier gain, typically through digital inputs. Features
include:

• Dynamically adjustable gain settings

• Digital interface (SPI, I²C, parallel)

• Ability to adapt to varying signal conditions

• Often integrated with ADCs in data acquisition systems

Applications include:

• Automated test equipment

• Software-controlled instrumentation
 • Adaptive signal processing systems

Matching Sensors to Circuits

This involves optimizing the interface between sensors and signal processing circuits:

• Impedance matching to maximize power transfer

• Selecting appropriate amplifier types based on sensor characteristics

• Noise optimization for specific sensor types

• Calibration and linearization techniques

• Signal conditioning appropriate to the sensor type (charge amplifiers for

piezoelectric, current-to-voltage converters for photodiodes, etc.)