UNIT-IV

Software defined Networking(SDN)

SDN stands for Software Defined Network which is a networking architecture
approach. It enables the control and management of the network using software
applications. Through Software Defined Network (SDN) networking behavior of the
entire network and its devices are programmed in a centrally controlled manner
through software applications using open APIs.

To understand software-defined networks, we need to understand the various planes

involved in networking.
Data Plane
Control Plane
Data plane: All the activities involving as well as resulting from data packets sent by
the end-user belong to this plane.
This includes:Forwarding of packets.
Segmentation and reassembly of data.
Replication of packets for multicasting.
Control plane: All activities necessary to perform data plane activities but do not
involve end-user data packets belong to this plane. In other words, this is the brain of
the network. The activities of the control plane include:
Making routing tables.
Setting packet handling policies.
Why SDN is Important?
Better Network Connectivity: SDN provides very better network connectivity for
sales, services, and internal communications. SDN also helps in faster data sharing.
Better Deployment of Applications: Deployment of new applications, services, and
many business models can be speed up using Software Defined Networking.
Better Security: Software-defined network provides better visibility throughout the
network. Operators can create separate zones for devices that require different levels
of security. SDN networks give more freedom to operators.
Better Control with High Speed: Software-defined networking provides better speed
than other networking types by applying an open standard software-based controller.
In short, it can be said that- SDN acts as a “Bigger Umbrella or a HUB” where the
rest of other networking technologies come and sit under that umbrella and get
merged with another platform to bring out the best of the best outcome by decreasing
the traffic rate and by increasing the efficiency of data flow.

Where is SDN Used?

Enterprises use SDN, the most widely used method for application deployment, to
deploy applications faster while lowering overall deployment and operating costs.
SDN allows IT administrators to manage and provision network services from a
single location.
Cloud networking software-defined uses white-box systems. Cloud providers often
use generic hardware so that the Cloud data center can be changed and the cost of
CAPEX and OPEX saved.

Components of Software Defining Networking (SDN)

The three main components that make the SDN are:
SDN Applications: SDN Applications relay requests or networks through SDN
Controller using API.
SDN controller: SDN Controller collects network information from hardware and
sends this information to applications.
SDN networking devices: SDN Network devices help in forwarding and data
processing tasks.
SDN Architecture
In a traditional network, each switch has its own data plane as well as the control
plane. The control plane of various switches exchange topology information and
hence construct a forwarding table that decides where an incoming data packet has to
be forwarded via the data plane. Software-defined networking (SDN) is an approach
via which we take the control plane away from the switch and assign it to a
centralized unit called the SDN controller. Hence, a network administrator can shape
traffic via a centralized console without having to touch the individual switches. The
data plane still resides in the switch and when a packet enters a switch, its forwarding
activity is decided based on the entries of flow tables, which are pre-assigned by the
controller. A flow table consists of match fields (like input port number and packet
header) and instructions. The packet is first matched against the match fields of the
flow table entries. Then the instructions of the corresponding flow entry are executed.
The instructions can be forwarding the packet via one or multiple ports, dropping the
packet, or adding headers to the packet. If a packet doesn’t find a corresponding
match in the flow table, the switch queries the controller which sends a new flow
entry to the switch. The switch forwards or drops the packet based on this flow entry.

A typical SDN architecture consists of three layers.

Application layer: It contains the typical network applications like intrusion

detection, firewall, and load balancing
Control layer: It consists of the SDN controller which acts as the brain of the
network. It also allows hardware abstraction to the applications written on top of it.
Infrastructure layer: This consists of physical switches which form the data plane
and carries out the actual movement of data packets.
The layers communicate via a set of interfaces called the north-bound APIs(between
the application and control layer) and southbound APIs(between the control and
infrastructure layer).
Different Models of SDN
There are several models, which are used in SDN:
Open SDN
SDN via APIs
SDN via Hypervisor-based Overlay Network
Hybrid SDN
1. Open SDN: Open SDN is implemented using the OpenFlow switch. It is a
straightforward implementation of SDN. In Open SDN, the controller communicates
with the switches using south-bound API with the help of OpenFlow protocol.
2. SDN via APIs: In SDN via API, the functions in remote devices like switches are
invoked using conventional methods like SNMP or CLI or through newer methods
like Rest API. Here, the devices are provided with control points enabling the
controller to manipulate the remote devices using APIs.

3. SDN via Hypervisor-based Overlay Network: In SDN via the hypervisor, the
configuration of physical devices is unchanged. Instead, Hypervisor based overlay
networks are created over the physical network. Only the devices at the edge of the
physical network are connected to the virtualized networks, thereby concealing the
information of other devices in the physical network.

4. Hybrid SDN: Hybrid Networking is a combination of Traditional Networking with

software-defined networking in one network to support different types of functions on
a network.
Difference between SDN and Traditional Networking

Software Defined Networking Traditional Networking

Software Defined Network is a virtual A traditional network is the old

networking approach. conventional networking approach.

Software Defined Network is Traditional Network is distributed

centralized control. control.

This network is programmable. This network is nonprogrammable.

Software Defined Network is the open A traditional network is a closed

interface. interface.

In Software Defined Network data In a traditional network data plane and

plane and control, the plane is control plane are mounted on the same
decoupled by software. plane.

Advantages of SDN
The network is programmable and hence can easily be modified via the controller
rather than individual switches.
Switch hardware becomes cheaper since each switch only needs a data plane.
Hardware is abstracted, hence applications can be written on top of the controller
independent of the switch vendor.

Provides better security since the controller can monitor traffic and deploy security
policies. For example, if the controller detects suspicious activity in network traffic, it
can reroute or drop the packets.

Disadvantages of SDN
The central dependency of the network means a single point of failure, i.e. if the
controller gets corrupted, the entire network will be affected.
The use of SDN on large scale is not properly defined and explored.
Introduction to software difined network
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is a revolutionary approach to network
management that allows network administrators to control and manage network
resources through software, rather than relying on traditional hardware-based methods.
This innovative technology separates the network's control plane (the brains of the
network, responsible for making decisions about where data should go) from the data
plane (the actual traffic forwarding).

A basic introduction to the key concepts of Software-Defined Networking:

Traditional Networking vs. SDN

In traditional networks, the control plane and data plane are tightly integrated within
each networking device, such as routers and switches. This integration often leads to
limitations in network flexibility, scalability, and management complexity. Changes
or updates to the network configuration typically involve manual configurations on
individual devices, making the process time-consuming and error-prone.

In SDN, these two planes are decoupled, leading to a more flexible and dynamic
network architecture. The control plane is moved to a centralized controller, often
implemented as software, which has a global view of the network. The data plane,
which handles the actual forwarding of packets, remains in the networking devices
but now takes instructions from the central controller.

Components of SDN
SDN Controller: This is the central brain of the SDN architecture. It acts as the
control plane and communicates with the network devices using standardized
protocols like OpenFlow. The controller provides a centralized view of the entire
network and makes decisions on how data should flow.

Southbound APIs: These are interfaces that connect the SDN controller to the
network devices, allowing the controller to communicate instructions to switches,
routers, and other devices. OpenFlow is a common southbound API used in SDN.

Northbound APIs: These interfaces allow applications and services to communicate

with the SDN controller. Developers can use these APIs to create applications that
control the network behavior based on their requirements.

Network Devices: These are the switches, routers, and other hardware that make up
the data plane. In SDN, these devices forward packets based on the instructions
received from the SDN controller.

Benefits of SDN
Centralized Control: Network administrators can manage and configure the entire
network from a single centralized controller, reducing complexity.
Programmability: SDN allows for network programmability, where network
behavior can be controlled through software applications.
Dynamic Traffic Management: Administrators can dynamically adjust network
traffic flow based on real-time demands and conditions.
Cost Savings: By using commodity hardware and centralized control, SDN can
potentially lower hardware costs and operational expenses.

Use Cases
Data Center Networks: SDN can optimize data center traffic, improve resource
utilization, and enable automated provisioning of network services.
Enterprise Networks: In large corporate networks, SDN simplifies network
management, enhances security, and improves scalability.
Service Provider Networks: SDN enables service providers to offer more flexible
and customizable services to their customers.
SDN represents a shift in how we think about and manage networks, offering
increased agility, efficiency, and innovation in network design and operation.

Introduction to software defined network in IOT

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT)

presents a powerful solution to the unique challenges posed by the vast number of
connected devices and the diverse range of applications in IoT environments. IoT
devices generate massive amounts of data and require reliable, efficient, and secure
communication. SDN offers a flexible and scalable way to manage and optimize these
IoT networks. Here's an introduction to SDN in IoT:

Challenges in IoT Networking

Scalability: IoT networks can scale to thousands or millions of devices, each with
unique requirements.
Heterogeneity: Devices in IoT span a wide range, from sensors and actuators to
smartphones and industrial machines, each with different communication protocols
and capabilities.
Resource Constraints: Many IoT devices have limited processing power, memory,
and energy, requiring efficient communication protocols.
Security: With numerous devices collecting sensitive data, ensuring secure
communication and data integrity is crucial.

How SDN Addresses IoT Challenges

Centralized Control: SDN's central controller provides a single point of

management for the entire IoT network. This centralized view enables efficient
resource allocation, routing decisions, and policy enforcement.
Dynamic Resource Allocation: IoT environments often have fluctuating demands.
SDN can dynamically allocate network resources based on real-time data traffic
patterns. For example, it can prioritize critical data from healthcare sensors over less
time-sensitive data from environmental sensors.

Traffic Optimization: SDN can optimize traffic patterns in IoT networks, reducing
congestion and latency. This is essential for applications like autonomous vehicles,
where split-second decisions are critical.

Security Policies: With SDN, security policies can be centrally managed and
enforced across the IoT network. The controller can detect anomalies, isolate
compromised devices, and apply security updates uniformly.

Device Management: SDN simplifies device onboarding and management. When a

new IoT device connects to the network, the controller can automatically configure it
based on predefined policies.

Use Cases of SDN in IoT

Smart Cities: SDN can manage traffic lights, surveillance cameras, and
environmental sensors in a city's IoT infrastructure. It can dynamically adjust traffic
flow based on real-time data and ensure efficient energy use in streetlights.

Healthcare: In a hospital IoT network, SDN can prioritize critical patient monitoring
data, ensure secure communication between medical devices, and manage inventory
through RFID sensors.

Industrial IoT (IIoT): Factories and manufacturing facilities benefit from SDN's
ability to optimize production processes, manage robotic systems, and ensure reliable
communication between machines.

Smart Homes: SDN can enhance home automation by coordinating smart devices
like thermostats, lights, and security systems. It can adjust settings based on
occupancy, time of day, or energy usage.
Benefits of SDN in IoT

Efficiency: SDN optimizes network resources and improves overall efficiency.

Scalability: It can easily scale to accommodate a growing number of IoT devices.
Security: Centralized security policies enhance IoT network security.
Flexibility: SDN allows for flexible network configurations and adaptability to
changing IoT requirements.

Note:SDN in IoT brings intelligence, efficiency, and security to the complex and
diverse world of connected devices. By centralizing control and optimizing traffic, it
enables IoT networks to meet the demands of scalability, heterogeneity, and security
that are essential for the success of IoT applications across various industries.

Data handling AND Analytics

Data handling and analytics are two interconnected processes crucial for businesses
and organizations to derive insights, make informed decisions, and gain a competitive
edge.
Data Handling:
Data handling refers to the process of managing and manipulating data throughout its
lifecycle. This includes collecting, storing, cleaning, transforming, and preparing data
for analysis.
Data Collection: Gathering data from various sources such as databases, IoT devices,
social media, sensors, and more.

Data Storage: Storing data in appropriate databases or data warehouses. This could
be relational databases (SQL), NoSQL databases, data lakes, or cloud storage
solutions like AWS S3 or Azure Blob Storage.

Data Cleaning: Preprocessing data to ensure accuracy and consistency. This involves
removing duplicates, handling missing values, standardizing formats, and correcting
errors.
Data Transformation: Converting raw data into a usable format for analysis. This
might involve aggregating, summarizing, or restructuring data sets.

Data Integration: Combining data from different sources into a single, coherent data
set. This is crucial for holistic analysis.

Analytics:
Analytics involves the process of examining data sets to draw conclusions about the
information they contain. It aims to uncover meaningful patterns, trends, correlations,
and insights. There are various types of analytics:

Descriptive Analytics: Describing what has happened in the past or what is

happening now. This includes basic reporting, dashboards, and data visualization.

Diagnostic Analytics: Answering why something happened. It involves deeper

exploration to understand the causes behind trends or patterns.

Predictive Analytics: Forecasting future outcomes based on historical data and

statistical algorithms. This helps in anticipating trends and making proactive decisions.

Prescriptive Analytics: Providing recommendations on what actions to take to

achieve desired outcomes. It involves optimization and simulation techniques.

Data Handling and Analytics Workflow:

Data Ingestion: Bringing data into the system from various sources.
Data Preparation: Cleaning, transforming, and integrating data.
Analysis: Applying analytics techniques to uncover insights.
Visualization: Presenting insights through charts, graphs, and reports.
Decision-Making: Using insights to make informed decisions.

Importance:
Business Intelligence: Helps businesses understand market trends, customer behavior,
and operational efficiency.
Optimized Operations: Improves efficiency, reduces costs, and identifies areas for
improvement.
Informed Decision-Making: Allows for data-driven decisions rather than relying on
intuition.
Competitive Advantage: Enables businesses to stay ahead by predicting trends and
adapting strategies.
Tools:
Data Handling: Tools like SQL databases (MySQL, PostgreSQL), NoSQL databases
(MongoDB, Cassandra), ETL tools (Talend, Informatica), and cloud storage (AWS S3,
Google Cloud Storage).
Analytics: Tools such as Python (with libraries like Pandas, NumPy), R, Tableau,
Power BI, Google Analytics, and machine learning frameworks (TensorFlow, scikit-
learn).

Use Cases:
Marketing: Customer segmentation, campaign optimization.
Finance: Risk analysis, fraud detection.
Healthcare: Patient outcome prediction, disease analysis.
Retail: Inventory management, demand forecasting.
Manufacturing: Predictive maintenance, quality control.
In summary, effective data handling and analytics are essential for organizations to
turn raw data into actionable insights, driving better decision-making, efficiency, and
competitiveness.

From BYjus:

In Statistics, “Data Handling” is an important concept that ensures the integrity of the
research data, as it addresses some important concerns such as security,
confidentiality, and the preservation of the research data. In every field, we have
information in the form of a numerical figure. Every figure of this kind is known as an
observation. Generally, the collection of all the observation is called data. To handle
the data, Statisticians use different data management methods.
What is Data Handling?

Data handling means collecting the set of data and presenting in a different form.
Data is a collection of numerical figures that represents a particular kind of
information. The collection of observations which are gathered initially is called the
raw data. Data can be in any form. It may be words, numbers, measurements,
descriptions or observations. Data handling is the process of securing the research
data is gathered, archived or disposed of in a protected and safe way during and after
the completion of the analysis process.

Types of data

Data handling methods can be performed based on the types of data. The data is
classified into two types, such as:

 Qualitative Data

 Quantitative Data

Qualitative data gives descriptive information of something whereas quantitative data

gives numerical information about something. Here, the quantitative data is further
divided into two. They are discrete data and continuous data. The discrete data can
take only certain values such as whole numbers. The continuous data can take a value
within the provided range.

Data Handling Steps

The steps involved in the data handling process are as follows:

Step 1: Problem Identification

In the data handing process, the purpose or problem statement has to be identified and
well defined.

Step 2: Data Collection

The data relevant to the problem statement is collected.

Step 3: Data Presentation

The collected data should be presented in a meaningful manner and it should be easily
understood. It can be done by arranging the collected data in the tally marks, table
forms, and so on.

Step 4: Graphical Representation

Since the visual or graphical representation of the data makes the analysis and
understanding easier, the presented data can be plotted in graphs, charts such as bar
graphs, pie charts and so on.

Step 5: Data Analysis

The data should undergo data analysis so that the necessary information can be
concluded from the data, which helps in taking further actions.

Step 6: Conclusion

From the analysis of the data, we can derive the solution to our problem statement.

How to Represent Data?

The data can be usually represented in any one of the following ways. They are:

 Bar Graph

 Line Graphs

 Pictographs

 Histograms

 Stem and Leaf Plot

 Dot Plots

 Frequency Distribution

 Cumulative Tables and Graphs

Representation of Data Using Bar Graph

Data can be represented in various forms through numbers, pictures, tables, graphics,
etc. The most common type of graphical representation of data is through bar graphs.
A bar graph or bar chart portrays a visual interpretation of data with the help of
vertical or horizontal rectangular bars of equal width which are uniformly spaced with
respect to each other, where the lengths of the bars are proportional to the data to be
represented.

In a school of 406 students, the percentage of attendance of students is represented by

the following table. We’ll represent it through a bar graph.

Each bar in the above example is of uniform width and the data which varies is
represented on one of the axes. Another axis represents the measure of the variable
data through the height of the bars. The heights or the lengths of the bars denote the
value of the variable. These graphs are also used to compare certain quantities.

In this example, the attendance of the students is represented by the X-axis and the
number of students on the Y-axis. The bars are of uniform width and the length of the
bar is equal to the number of students. By observing the bar graph it can be concluded
that the number of students with 60% attendance is 105, the number of students with
70% attendance is 199, the number of students with 80% attendance is 29 and the
number of students with 90% attendance is 73. Thus, close observation of the bar
chart makes the data representation simple and easy and therefore bar graph makes
data organized, its analysis and interpretation simple.

Data-Analytics
Data Analytics is a systematic approach that transforms raw data into valuable
insights. This process encompasses a suite of technologies and tools that facilitate
data collection, cleaning, transformation, and modelling, ultimately yielding
actionable information. This information serves as a robust support system for
decision-making. Data analysis plays a pivotal role in business growth and
performance optimization. It aids in enhancing decision-making processes, bolstering
risk management strategies, and enriching customer experiences. By presenting
statistical summaries, data analytics provides a concise overview of quantitative data.

While data analytics finds extensive application in the finance industry, its utility is
not confined to this sector alone. It is also leveraged in diverse fields such as
agriculture, banking, retail, and government, among others, underscoring its universal
relevance and impact. Thus, data analytics serves as a powerful tool for driving
informed decisions and fostering growth across various industries.

Dive into the world of data analytics with the insightful “100 Days of Data Analytics”
article. A must-read for all data enthusiasts!

Process of Data Analytics

Data analysts, data scientists, and data engineers together create data pipelines which
helps to set up the model and do further analysis. Data Analytics can be done in the
following steps which are mentioned below:

Data Collection : It is the first step where raw data needs to be collected for analysis
purposes. It consists of two steps in which data collection can be done. If the data are
from different source systems then using data integration routines the data analysts
have to combine the different data whereas sometimes the data are the subset of the
data set. In this case, the data analyst would perform some steps to extract the useful
subset and transfer it to the other compartment in the system.
Data Cleansing : After collecting the data the next step is to clean the quality of the
data as the collected data consists of a lot of quality problems such as errors, duplicate
entries and white spaces which need to be corrected before moving to the next step.
By running data profiling and data cleansing tasks these errors can be corrected.
These data are organised according to the needs of the analytical model by the
analysts.
Data Analysis and Data Interpretation: Analytical models are created using
software and other tools which interpret the data and understand it. The tools include
Python, Excel, R, Scala and SQL. Lastly this model is tested again and again until the
model works as it needs to be then in production mode the data set is run against the
model.
Data Visualization: Data visualization is the process of creating visual representation
of data using the plots, charts and graphs which helps to analyse the patterns, trends
and get the valuable insights of the data. By comparing the datasets and analysing it
data analysts find the useful data from the raw data.
Types of Data Analytics
There are different types of data analysis in which raw data is converted into valuable
insights. Some of the types of data analysis are mentioned below:

Descriptive Data Analytics : Descriptive data Analytics is a type of data analysis

which summarises the data set and it is used to compare the past results, differentiate
between the weakness and strength, and identify the anomalies. Descriptive data
analysis is used by the companies to identify the problems in the data set as it helps in
identifying the patterns.
Real-time Data Analytics: Real time data Analytics doesn’t use data from past
events. It is a type of data analysis which involves using the data when the data is
immediately entered in the database. This type of analysis is used by the companies to
identify the trends and track the competitors’ operations.
Diagnostic Data Analytics: Diagnostic Data Analytics uses past data sets to analyse
the cause of an anomaly. Some of the techniques used in diagnostic analysis are
correlation analysis, regression analysis and analysis of variance.The results which are
provided by diagnostic analysis help the companies to give accurate solutions to the
problems.
Predictive Data Analytics: This type of Analytics is done in the current data to
predict future outcomes. To build the predictive models it uses machine learning
algorithms, statistical model techniques to identify the trends and patterns. Predictive
data analysis is also used in sales forecasting, to estimate the risk and to predict
customer behaviour.
Prescriptive Data Analytics: Prescriptive data Analytics is an analysis of selecting
best solutions to problems. This type of data analysis is used in loan approval, pricing
models, machine repair scheduling, analysing the decisions and so on. To automate
decision making companies use prescriptive data analysis.

Methods of Data Analytics:

There are two types of methods in data analysis which are mentioned below:

1. Qualitative Data Analytics

Qualitative data analysis doesn’t use statistics and derives data from the words,
pictures and symbols. Some common qualitative methods are:

Narrative Analytics is used for working with data acquired from diaries, interviews
and so on.
Content Analytics is used for Analytics of verbal data and behaviour.
Grounded theory is used to explain some given event by studying.

2. Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitative data Analytics is used to collect data and then process it into the
numerical data. Some of the quantitative methods are mentioned below:
Hypothesis testing assesses the given hypothesis of the data set.