Space Mission Engineering:

The New SMAD

Edited By

James R. Wertz
Microcosm
University of Southern California

David F. Everett
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Jeffery J. Puschell
Raytheon

Space Technology Library

Published by

Microcosm Press
Hawthorne, CA
 V

Table of Contents

List of Authors and Reviewers ix 5. Mission Analysis and Mission Utility 83

5.1 Introduction to Mission Analysis 84
Preface xiv
5.2 Studies with Limited Scope 85
5.3 System Trade Studies and
Performance Assessments (Step 8) 87
Part I—Space Mission Engineering
5.4 Mission Utility and Figures of
Merit—Is the Mission
Worthwhile? (Step 9) 91
1. Introduction 1
5.5 Defining the Baseline Mission
1.1 What is Space Mission Engineering? 1 Concepts, Revising Requirements
1.2 The History of Spaceflight 4 and Evaluating Alternatives
(Steps 10-12) 97
1.3 Spaceflight Technology 10
5.6 Examples: FireSat II and SCS 99
1.4 Spaceflight Economics 16
5.7 Deciding Whether a Mission
1.5 The Wide Range of Space Should Proceed 101
Mission Applications 23
1.6 Sources of More Information 24 6. Formal Requirements Definition 105
6.1 The Requirements Definition Process ..106
2. Space Mission Communities 29
6.2 Budgeting, Allocation, and
2.1 Multiple Space Communities 29 Flow-Down 110
2.2 Differences and Similarities 6.3 Introduction to Error Analysis 112
Between Communities 41 6.4 Specifications and
2.3 Changing Missions 42 Requirements Documentation 116
6.5 System Engineering Tools 117
3. Space Mission Engineering 45 6.6 The Role of Standards in Space
3.1 The Space Mission Engineering Systems Development 119
Process 45 6.7 Are Requirements Needed?—
3.2 FireSat II and the Supplemental Capability-Based vs.
Communications System (SCS) 50 Requirements-Based Systems 123
3.3 Mission Objectives and
Constraints (Step 1) 51 7. The Space Environment 127

3.4 Principal Players and Program 7.1 The Space Environment and
Timescales (Steps 2 and 3) 52 Space Weather 127
3.5 Preliminary Estimate of Mission 7.2 The Earth's Magnetic Field 131
Needs, Requirements and 7.3 Radiation Belts 134
Constraints (Step 4) 55 7.4 Microgravity 137
7.5 Orbital Debris 139
4. Mission Concept Definition
and Exploration 61
8. Space Mission Geometry 149
4.1 Defining Alternative Mission
8.1 Introduction to Space
Architectures (Step 5)—Choosing
Mission Geometry 150
the Pieces 61
8.2 Applications 162
4.2 Defining Alternative Mission
Concepts (Step 6)—How the 8.3 Looking at the Earth from Space 171
Pieces Work Together 66 8.4 Computing Parameters for a Single
4.3 Introduction to Concept Exploration 75 Target or Ground Station Pass 180
4.4 Defining System Drivers and 8.5 Satellite Relative Motion 185
Critical Requirements (Step 7) 80 8.6 Mapping and Pointing Budgets 191
vi Table of Contents

9. Orbits and Astrodynamics 197 Part II—Spacecraft and Payload Design

9.1 Keplerian Orbits 198
9.2 Orbits of the Moon and Planets 205 14. Overview of Spacecraft Design 397
9.3 Spacecraft Orbit Terminology 208 14.1 The Spacecraft Design Process 397
9.4 Orbit Perturbations, Geopotential 14.2 Spacecraft System Design Drivers 398
Models, and Satellite Decay 209 14.3 Spacecraft Configuration Alternatives. 401
9.5 Specialized Orbits 217 14.4 Partitioning Spacecraft
9.6 Orbit Maneuvers 226 into Subsystems 411
9.7 Summary—The Rules of Practical 14.5 Creating Preliminary
Astrodynamics 233 Spacecraft Budgets 421
14.6 Design Evolution 426
10. Orbit and Constellation Design—Selecting the
14.7 Examples 432
Right Orbit 235
14.8 Future of Spacecraft Design 437
10.1 The Orbit Selection and
Design Process 235 15. Overview of Payload Design 439
10.2 Orbit Performance—Evaluating Earth 15.1 Types of Space Payloads 439
Coverage and Payload Performance 239
15.2 Mission System Concept or Subject
10.3 Orbit Cost—Delta V Budget and Trades—What is the System
the Orbit Cost Function 251 Measuring or Working With? 441
10.4 Selecting Earth-Referenced Orbits 258 15.3 Payload Design 445
10.5 Selecting Transfer, Parking, and 15.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 448
Space-Referenced Orbits 265
15.5 Examples 450
10.6 Summary of Constellation Design 269
10.7 Design of Interplanetary Orbits 277 16. Communications Payloads 455
16.1 Space Mission
11. Cost Estimating 289 Communications Architectures 455
11.1 Introduction to Cost Estimating 290 16.2 Communication Link Analysis 466
11.2 Estimating Tools 294 16.3 Communications Payload Design 481
11.3 Other Considerations in 16.4 Sample Missions 491
the Cost Estimate 315
11.4 Example Space Mission Estimates 318 17. Observation Payloads 493
17.1 Observation Payload Design 494
12. Space System Financing and Space Law 325
17.2 Observation Payload Sizing 508
12.1 Sources of Space Financing 325
17.3 Sample Mission—VIIRS 523
12.2 GAAP, Amortization and
Return on Investment (ROI) 328 17.4 The Evolution of Observation
Payloads 525
12.3 Law and Policy Considerations 337
18. Spacecraft Subsystems I—Propulsion 527
13. Reducing Space Mission
Cost and Schedule 355 18.1 Basic Rocket Equations 529
13.1 The Need to Reinvent Space 356 18.2 Staging 532
13.2 It's Possible, but It Isn't Easy 362 18.3 Chemical Propulsion Systems 533
13.3 Counterproductive Approaches 18.4 Plume Considerations 540
to Reducing Cost 365
18.5 System Design Elements 541
13.4 Cost vs. Reliability: Focusing on
Mission Objectives 366 18.6 Electric Propulsion 546
13.5 Principal Methods for Reducing 18.7 Alternative Propulsion Systems for
Cost and Schedule 375 In-Space Use 553
13.6 Avoiding Cost and Schedule Overruns 390 18.8 Examples 560
 Table of Contents vii

19. Spacecraft Subsystems II— Part III—Launch and Operations

Control Systems 565
19.1 Spacecraft Attitude Determination
and Control Systems 565 26. Launch Vehicles 829
19.2 Spacecraft Trajectory Navigation 26.1 Launch Vehicle Selection 830
and Control Systems 591
26.2 History Prior to 2010 841

20. Spacecraft Subsystems III—On-Board 26.3 Basic Mechanics of Launch 843

Processing 601 26.4 Launch Environments 847
20.1 Computer System Baseline 602 26.5 Available Vehicles 858
20.2 Preliminary Design 611
27. Launch Operations 861
20.3 FireSat II Example 613
20.4 Modular Approaches to Processing 622 27.1 Worldwide Launch Sites and
Launch Restrictions 861
21. Spacecraft Subsytems IV— 27.2 Launch Site Preparations 863
Communications and Power 627
27.3 Readiness Reviews and Mission
21.1 Telemetry, Tracking, and Dress Rehearsals 870
Command (TT&C) 627
27.4 Launch Site Access 871
21.2 Power 641
27.5 Launch Site Training 871
22. Spacecraft Subsystems V-— 27.6 Transporting the Spacecraft to the
Structures and Thermal 663 Launch Site 872
22.1 Spacecraft Structures and Mechanisms 663 27.7 Launch Site Processing 872
22.2 Spacecraft Thermal Control 641 27.8 Launch Day 874
27.9 Post Launch and Early
23. Space Logistics and Manufacturing 701 Orbit Operations 875
23.1 LEO Communications Constellations ..701 27.10 Modernizing Launch Operations 876
23.2 LEO Monolithic vs. 27.11 Common Mistakes to Avoid 877
Distributed Architectures 704
23.3 Spacecraft Manufacturing 28. Ground System Design 879
Integration and Test 711
23.4 System Mission Verification 28.1 Antenna Services 880
and Validation 718 28.2 Data Accounting and
23.5 Multi-Spacecraft Manufacturing 726 Distribution Services 892
23.6 Alternative Approaches to 28.3 Ground System Driving
Space Manufacturing 737 Requirements and Sizing 896
23.7 Intangible Factors in Manufacturing.... 743 28.4 Mission Examples 898
28.5 Technology Trends 899
24. Risk and Reliability 753 28.6 Summary 902
24.1 Reliability 753
24.2 Space System Risk Analysis 768 29. Mission Operations 903
29.1 Mission Planning and
25. Alternative Spacecraft Designs 781 Operations Development 909
25.1 Space Tethers 781 29.2 Mission Execution 923
25.2 Inflatable Structures 786 29.3 Mission Termination and
25.3 SmallSats 791 Post-Mission Activities 931
25.4 CubeSats 803 29.4 Mission Operations Process
25.5 Differences Between International Improvement and Best Practices 932
Approaches to Space 821 29.5 The Future of Mission Operations 934
viii Table of Contents

30. End of Mission Considerations 937 Appendices

30.1 Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination
A Mass and Power Distribution
Committee (LADC) End of
for Spacecraft 947
Mission Guidelines 938
B Physical and Orbit Properties of
30.2 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) the Sun, Earth, Moon, and Planets 955
Disposal Options 939
C Summary of Keplerian Orbit and
30.3 Non-LEO Disposal Options 941 Coverage Equations 963
30.4 Passivation 942 D Mission Geometry Formulas 973
30.5 Disposal Planning 944 E Time and Date Systems 979
30.6 FireSat II and SCS Examples 945 F Coordinate Transformations;
Vector, Matrix, and Quaternion
Algebra 983
G Statistical Error Analysis Web only
H Units and Conversion Factors 985
I Earth Satellite Parameters 1025