Image Sensors
Learners’ Space Astronomy
Contents
1 Image Sensors 2
2 CCD 4
3 CMOS 7
4 CCD VS CMOS 9
5 Flux Units in Optical Astronomy 10
1
Image Sensors
As we know that many objects in the sky are not visible to the naked eye, but we still want
to be able to capture these objects and study them.
For this, we use image sensors.There are multiple different types of image sensors like digital
image sensors, electronic image sensors and analog image sensors.
The two main types of electronic image sensors are the charge-coupled device (CCD) and the
active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor). Both CCD and CMOS sensors are based on metal–oxide–semiconductor
(MOS) technology, with CCDs based on MOS capacitors and CMOS sensors based on MOSFET
(MOS field-effect transistor) amplifiers. Analog sensors for invisible radiation tend to involve vac-
uum tubes of various kinds, while digital sensors include flat-panel detectors.
(a) A ccd sensor (b) vidicon(analog image sensor)
There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of an image sensor,
including dynamic range (a camera’s dynamic range refers to how many increments the image
sensor can detect between pure black and pure white – plus the tones in between.), signal-to-noise
ratio, and low-light sensitivity. For sensors of comparable types, the signal-to-noise ratio and dy-
namic range improve as the size increases. It is because in a given integration (exposure) time,
more photons hit the pixel with larger area.
The amount of time the sensor is shown to the source is called as the exposure time, and is
controlled by a shutter which is usually electronic. This shuttering can be
• Global : which means that the entire image area’s accumulation of photoelectrons is read
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Image Sensors
at once. Aka, the whole image is read in one go.
• Rolling : which means that the accumulation of photoelectrons are read pixel line by line
To see the effect in action check this and more on how the rolling shutter works.
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CCD
What is a CCD Sensor?
A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a light-sensitive integrated circuit that captures images by
converting photons to electrons. A CCD sensor breaks the image elements into pixels. Each pixel
is converted into an electrical charge whose intensity is related to the intensity of light captured
by that pixel.
They are semiconductor devices invented by Williard Boyle and George Smith at the AT&T
Bell Laboratories in 1970.
Structure and Working principle of CCD
A CCD imager consists of a large number of light-sensing elements arranged in a two-dimensional
array on a thin silicon substrate. The semiconductor properties of silicon allow the CCD chip to
trap and hold photon-induced charge carriers under appropriate electrical bias conditions. Indi-
vidual picture elements, or pixels, are defined in the silicon matrix by an orthogonal grid of narrow
transparent current-carrying electrode strips, or gates, deposited on the chip. The fundamental
light-sensing unit of the CCD is a metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) capacitor operated as a pho-
todiode and storage device. A single MOS device of this type is illustrated in figure below, with
reverse bias operation causing negatively charged electrons to migrate to an area underneath the
positively charged gate electrode.
Figure 2.1: a single MOS unit
4
CCD
Electrons liberated by photon interaction are stored in the depletion region up to the full well
reservoir capacity. When multiple detector structures are assembled into a complete CCD, individ-
ual sensing elements in the array are segregated in one dimension by voltages applied to the surface
electrodes and are electrically isolated from their neighbors in the other direction by insulating
barriers, or channel stops, within the silicon substrate.
Image generation with a CCD camera can be divided into four primary stages or functions: charge
generation through photon interaction with the device’s photosensitive region, collection and stor-
age of the liberated charge, charge transfer, and charge measurement.
During the first stage, electrons and holes are generated in response to incident photons in the
depletion region of the MOS capacitor structure, and liberated electrons migrate into a potential
well formed beneath an adjacent positively-biased gate electrode.
During readout, the collected charge is subsequently shifted along the transfer channels under the
influence of voltages applied to the gate structure.
In general, the stored charge is linearly proportional to the light flux incident on a sensor pixel up
to the capacity of the well; consequently this full-well capacity (FWC) determines the maximum
signal that can be sensed in the pixel, and is a primary factor affecting the CCD’s dynamic range.
The stored charge accumulated within each CCD photodiode during a specified time interval, re-
ferred to as the integration time or exposure time, must be measured to determine the photon
flux on that diode.
The electrode network, or gate structure, built onto the CCD in a layer adjoining the sensor
elements, constitutes the shift register for charge transfer. The basic charge transfer concept that
enables serial readout from a two-dimensional diode array initially requires the entire array of
individual charge packets from the imager surface, constituting the parallel register, to be simul-
taneously transferred by a single-row incremental shift. The charge-coupled shift of the entire
parallel register moves the row of pixel charges nearest the register edge into a specialized single
row of pixels along one edge of the chip referred to as the serial register. It is from this row that
the charge packets are moved in sequence to an on-chip amplifier for measurement. After the
serial register is emptied, it is refilled by another row-shift of the parallel register, and the cycle of
parallel and serial shifts is repeated until the entire parallel register is emptied.
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CCD
Figure 2.2: Bucket analogy
A widely used analogy to aid in visualizing the concept of serial readout of a CCD is the bucket
brigade for rainfall measurement, in which rain intensity falling on an array of buckets may vary
from place to place in similarity to incident photons on an imaging sensor (see Figure 5 (a)).
The parallel register is represented by an array of buckets, which have collected various amounts
of signal (water) during an integration period. The buckets are transported on a conveyor belt
in stepwise fashion toward a row of empty buckets that represent the serial register, and which
move on a second conveyor oriented perpendicularly to the first. In Figure 5(b), an entire row of
buckets is being shifted in parallel into the reservoirs of the serial register. The serial shift and
readout operations are illustrated in Figure 5(c), which depicts the accumulated rainwater in each
bucket being transferred sequentially into a calibrated measuring container, analogous to the CCD
output amplifier. When the contents of all containers on the serial conveyor have been measured
in sequence, another parallel shift transfers contents of the next row of collecting buckets into the
serial register containers, and the process repeats until the contents of every bucket (pixel) have
been measured.
To understand a bit more on how it works , Check this out.
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CMOS
What are CMOS Sensors?
CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) sensors are semiconductor devices used
to convert light into electronic signals.Because CMOS image sensors are constructed with standard
semiconductor manufacturing technology, the chips usually include signal processing, analog-to-
digital converter, and digital logic on-chip. This results in a full camera on a chip. This technology
has enabled many imaging applications, including tiny digital cameras on smartphones, high-
definition, high-speed professional video cameras, and Earth observation sensors on satellites.
Types of CMOS Sensors:
• Active Pixel Sensors (APS): The most common type of CMOS sensor. Each pixel has its
own photodiode and active amplifier, allowing for the direct conversion of light to voltage.
This enables faster readout and processing.
• Passive Pixel Sensors (PPS): An older technology where the charge collected by each
pixel is transferred to a common output amplifier. This type has largely been replaced by
APS due to its lower performance and slower speed.
(a) Active Pixel Sensor (b) Passive Pixel Sensor
How Does a CMOS Sensor Work?
CMOS sensors operate by converting light into electrical signals through a series of processes:
7
CMOS
Figure 3.2: CMOS Sensor Design (Block Diagram)
• Photon Detection: When light enters the camera, it passes through the lens and strikes
the sensor. Each pixel on the sensor contains a photodiode, which absorbs photons and
converts them into electron-hole pairs, generating an electrical charge proportional to the
light intensity.
• Charge Conversion: In Active Pixel Sensors (APS), each pixel’s photodiode is connected
to an amplifier. The accumulated charge is converted into a voltage by this amplifier. This
voltage signal represents the intensity of the light that hit the pixel.
• Signal Readout: The voltages from each pixel are read out by row and column addressing
circuitry. This readout process can happen very quickly, allowing for high frame rates and
fast image capture.
• Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC): The analog voltage signals are then converted
into digital signals by an ADC. This digital data represents the image and can be processed,
stored, or displayed.
• Image Processing: Additional on-chip processing functions, such as noise reduction, color
correction, and compression, can be integrated into CMOS sensors. This integration simpli-
fies the overall system design and enhances performance.
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CCD VS CMOS
CMOS Sensor CCD Sensor
CMOS sensor is a metal oxide semiconductor
It is a charge-coupled device, used to trans-
chip, used to change light into an electrical
mit electrically charged signals.
signal.
CCD sensors are available in three types like
CMOS sensors are available in two types ac-
Full-Frame, Frame-Transfer and Interline-
tive pixel and passive pixel.
Transfer.
Low power consumption Moderate to high power consumption
Low uniformity High uniformity
These sensors are not expensive to design be-
cause these sensors are designed on most typ- These are expensive to generate.
ical Si production lines.
more noisy images, lesser quality images less noisy and higher quality images
CMOS sensors are used from automation CCD sensors are used in hand-held, surveil-
in industries to traffic control-based applica- lance, video cameras of desktop computers,
tions. etc.
In the last decade or so, CMOS has been evolving much faster than CCD as a result of investments
in the cell phone camera market/consumer market.
The change over in the industrial camera market from CCD to CMOS is now.
There are global shutter CMOS image sensors available with image quality that is now com-
parable to CCD. The latest CMOS image sensors even perform better than CCD on key image
quality parameters, such as sensitivity in low light.
9
Flux Units in Optical Astronomy
Light is the main signal we get from space. It is therefore important to be able to measure
the brightness of stars and galaxies. If we can quantify how bright an object is, we can compare
it with other objects. It also lets us work out whether the brightness of an object changes over time.
The Magnitude Scale
When you hear the word magnitude in astronomy, you’re usually hearing a number describing
how bright a star – or other space object – looks.At optical wavelengths, it the most common unit
used.The magnitude scale was invented by an Ancient Greek astronomer named Hipparchus. He
gave the brightest stars a value of 1 and the dimmest stars he could see a value of 6.
Thus,Large number = faint source !!!
So, a 2nd-magnitude star is modestly bright. But it’s fainter than a 1st-magnitude star.
And a 5th-magnitude star is still pretty faint. But it’s brighter than a 6th-magnitude star.
Since the invention of better and better telescopes, the magnitude scale has had to be extended.
We now know of objects much fainter than the naked eye limit of 6. We also include bright objects
that have magnitudes less than 1. For example, the star Vega is given the value of zero.
Also, the scale is logarithmic, not linear. For example, a magnitude 1 star is not 2 times as bright
as a magnitude 2 star. The difference in brightness between each magnitude is actually almost
2.512 times. This means that a star with a magnitude of 1 is 100 times brighter than a star with
a magnitude of 6 (2.512 x 2.512 x 2.512 x 2.512 x 2.512 =100).
The maths of magnitude can be summed up in the equation:
m1 − m2 = −2.5log(f 1/f 2)
m1 and m2 represent the magnitude of two stars and f 1 and f 2 represent their relative fluxes.
Flux is the brightness divided by the area used to collect the light (usually the telescope aperture).
For example, imagine 2 stars visible in the night sky. One star is 100 times brighter than the
other. This value of 100 represents the ratio of the fluxes (f 1/f 2). Since the log of 100 is 2, we
can say that m1 − m2 = −2.5 × 2 = −5. This tells us that star 1 is 5 magnitudes brighter than
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Flux Units in Optical Astronomy
Figure 5.1: The Magnitude Scale Visualization
star 2 (remember that the magnitude scale is inverse).
Types of Magnitude
There are 2 types of stellar magnitude: absolute and apparent.
• The absolute magnitude (M ) is how bright the object would be if it was a set distance from
the Earth. A distance of 10 parsecs is used. A parsec is a distance unit used in astronomy.
It is the same as 3.26 light years, or 31,000 billion kilometres (19,000 billion miles)! Absolute
magnitudes let us compare the brightness of different objects.
• The apparent magnitude (m) is how bright the object appears to be from Earth. When
objects get further away from Earth they appear fainter. A star more than 10 parsecs away
from Earth will look fainter than its absolute magnitude. A star which is closer will be
brighter than its absolute magnitude.
Astronomers use the difference between apparent and absolute magnitude, the distance modulus,
as a way of determining the distance to a star.
• Distance Modulus = m − M .
• Distance modulus is negative for stars closer than 10 parsecs.
• Distance modulus is positive for stars further away than 10 parsecs.
The distance modulus can be used to determine the distance to a star using the equation:
m − M = 5log(d/10)
where d is in parsecs. Note that if d = 10 pc then m and M are the same. (For those interested,
a formal derivation of this equation is given on this page).
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Flux Units in Optical Astronomy
Figure 5.2: Some Examples of Magnitude Scale
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