Relative and Absolute Dating in Archaeology

Archaeologists use both relative and absolute dating methods to organize the past into a chronological framework,
allowing us to study the sequence and timing of historical developments. While relative dating establishes a
sequence without specifying exact years, absolute dating provides an actual date or range of years for events or
artifacts. Both methods are essential for constructing an accurate picture of human history.

Relative Dating: Establishing a Sequence

1. Definition: Relative dating determines the order of events or artifacts, indicating whether something is older
or younger relative to something else.

2. Purpose: This method helps us build sequences of cultural and technological developments without
requiring precise dates, which is especially useful when absolute dating techniques are unavailable.

3. Example: Archaeologists might order a series of artifacts based on their stratigraphic layers, with lower
layers being older according to the law of superposition.

Absolute Dating: Assigning Specific Dates

1. Definition: Absolute dating methods provide a date or range of years, allowing archaeologists to determine
how many years ago events or artifacts were from the present.

2. Significance: Absolute dates offer insight into how rapidly changes occurred and help identify whether they
happened simultaneously across different regions.

3. Historical Context: Until about 60 years ago, archaeologists relied mostly on historical records, such as those
from ancient Egypt, for absolute dates. Today, advanced scientific techniques have broadened the scope for
dating artifacts directly.

Measuring Time in Archaeology

1. Traditional Observations: Historically, time was marked by the alternation of night and day, seasonal cycles,
and human lifespan.

2. Modern Techniques: Modern dating methods often depend on physical processes not observable to the
human eye, such as radioactive decay. The most impactful of these is the radioactive clock, which has
transformed dating accuracy.

3. Error Margins: All dating methods have a margin of error. Errors usually arise from sample contamination,
poor selection, or misinterpretation. Scientists continue to refine these methods to reduce such errors.

Common Timescale Conventions

 BC/AD vs. BCE/CE: BC (Before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini, “In the Year of Our Lord”) are traditional
Western time markers. Alternatively, BCE (Before Common Era) and CE (Common Era) are used to avoid
religious connotations.

 BP (Before Present): Scientists use BP to denote years before 1950, the approximate establishment of the
first radioactive dating technique, radiocarbon dating. BP provides a standardized reference but can be
confusing for recent events, which is why conversion to BC/AD is often preferable for historical clarity.
Relative Dating in Archaeology

Relative dating is a fundamental technique used by archaeologists to order artifacts, deposits, and environmental
changes in a chronological sequence without assigning specific dates. By establishing these sequences,
archaeologists can gain insights into the development and evolution of past human societies.

1. Stratigraphy

 Definition: Stratigraphy is the study of layered deposits (strata) and relies on the principle that lower layers
are older than those above them, creating a relative chronological sequence.

 Importance: Archaeologists can construct sequences by analyzing undisturbed layers and understanding the
formation processes, such as whether any disturbances—natural or human—have affected the sequence.

 Association: When artifacts or materials are found together in a sealed layer, they are presumed to have
been deposited at the same time. If one item can be absolutely dated, it provides a reference date for the
whole layer, making stratigraphy crucial in establishing relative chronologies.

 Challenges: Determining the original use or discard date of artifacts can be complex; items might have been
used long before being discarded, so archaeologists must be clear on whether they are dating an artifact’s
use or its final deposition.

Principles and Associated Stratigraphic Branches

1. Principle of Superposition

2. Principle of Original Horizontality

3. Principle of Lateral Continuity

1. Principle of Superposition

Explanation

The Principle of Superposition, introduced by Danish geologist Nicolas Steno in 1669, states that in any undeformed
sequence of sedimentary rocks, the oldest layers are at the bottom, and the layers become progressively younger
toward the top. This principle is fundamental for determining the relative ages of rock layers.

 Grand Canyon Stratigraphy:

o The Grand Canyon in Arizona, USA, showcases a well-exposed sequence of sedimentary rock layers.

o Geologists have identified formations like the Kaibab Limestone (youngest at the top) and the
Vishnu Schist (oldest at the bottom).

o By studying the lithology of these layers—such as rock type, grain size, and color—geologists
construct a lithostratigraphic column to interpret the geological history of the area.

2. Principle of Original Horizontality

Explanation

Proposed by Nicolas Steno, the Principle of Original Horizontality states that layers of sediments are originally
deposited horizontally under the action of gravity. If rock layers are found tilted or folded, it indicates that they have
been disturbed by subsequent geological events after their deposition.

Example:

 Sea-Floor Spreading at Mid-Ocean Ridges:

o Basaltic rocks formed at mid-ocean ridges record the Earth's magnetic field.

o Symmetrical patterns of magnetic anomalies on either side of the ridge reflect periods of normal and
reversed polarity.

o These patterns help date the age of oceanic crust and confirm the theory of plate tectonics.

3. Principle of Lateral Continuity

Explanation

Also introduced by Steno, the Principle of Lateral Continuity states that layers of sediment initially extend laterally in
all directions until they thin out or encounter a physical barrier. This means that even if layers are now separated by
valleys or erosional features, they were once continuous.

Example:

 Milankovitch Cycles Recorded in Sediments:

o In the Mediterranean region, cyclic layers of sapropels (organic-rich sediments) and carbonates are
found.

o These cycles correspond to changes in Earth's orbital parameters affecting climate and
sedimentation rates.
 o Cyclostratigraphers correlate these layers across the basin to reconstruct climatic patterns.

2. Typological Sequences

 Definition: Typology is the classification of artifacts into types based on their attributes—material, shape,
and decoration. Archaeologists use these types to construct a sequence, showing the gradual evolution of
styles over time.

 Principles:

o Style and Period Identification: Artifacts of a certain style are often representative of a specific time
and place.

o Evolutionary Change: Styles evolve gradually, so similar artifacts are likely from the same period,
while noticeable differences suggest chronological distance.

Historical Development of Typological Dating

The Three Age System

 Developed in the 19th century by Danish archaeologist Christian Jürgensen Thomsen.

 Divided prehistory into three successive technological periods:

1. Stone Age

2. Bronze Age

3. Iron Age
  Based on the predominant use of stone, bronze, or iron tools.

 Despite its limitations, it was a groundbreaking framework for understanding human cultural development.

Application of Typological Dating

Cross-Dating

 Typologies established in well-dated contexts can be used to date artifacts from other sites.

 By comparing artifact types across different locations, archaeologists can infer contemporaneity or cultural
connections.

Example:

 If a particular style of pottery is dated to the 2nd millennium BCE in one region, finding similar pottery
elsewhere suggests a similar time period.

Seriation Techniques

 Developed to refine typological dating by statistically analyzing artifact frequencies.

 Two main types:

o Frequency Seriation: Orders assemblages based on the proportional abundance of artifact types.

o Contextual Seriation: Arranges artifacts based on the presence or absence of types in specific
contexts.

Example:

 Flinders Petrie used seriation to establish the chronological sequence of Egyptian graves by analyzing
pottery styles.

Modern Developments in Typological Classification

Advanced Analytical Methods

 Use of statistical software and algorithms to analyze complex datasets.

 Multivariate analysis helps identify subtle patterns in artifact attributes.

Integration with Absolute Dating

 Typological dating is often combined with methods like radiocarbon dating to provide more precise
chronological frameworks.

 Absolute dates help calibrate typological sequences.

Artifact Curation Studies

 Examining wear patterns, repairs, and reuses of artifacts to understand their lifecycle.

 Provides insights into cultural practices and technological persistence.

Examples of Typological Sequences

Stone Tool Typology

 Stone tools exhibit changes in manufacturing techniques over time.

 Typological sequences track the evolution from simple flake tools to more complex blade technologies.

Example:

 The progression from Oldowan pebble tools to Acheulean hand axes in early human prehistory.

Limitations of the Typological Method

 Cultural Variability: Similar artifact styles may emerge independently in different cultures (convergent
evolution).

 Stylistic Overlap: Styles may persist for long periods or reappear, complicating chronological assignments.

 Subjectivity: Classification can be influenced by the researcher's biases; standardized criteria are essential.

 Incomplete Assemblages: Archaeological contexts may not preserve complete sequences, leading to gaps.

Conclusion

The typological method of dating is a cornerstone of archaeological practice, enabling researchers to construct
relative chronologies and understand cultural developments. By meticulously classifying artifacts and recognizing
patterns of change, archaeologists can trace technological innovations, cultural interactions, and societal shifts over
time. Modern techniques and interdisciplinary approaches continue to enhance the accuracy and depth of
typological studies, making it an invaluable tool for interpreting the human past.

Seriation in Archaeology

Seriation is a method used in archaeology to establish the relative chronology of artifacts and assemblages, allowing
researchers to trace changes in styles and cultural trends over time. This method involves organizing artifacts in a
sequence based on their characteristics and frequency.

Key Aspects of Seriation

1. Principle of Similarity:

o The concept “like goes with like” extends to arranging entire groups of artifacts, or assemblages,
rather than focusing on single items. Assemblages that share similar features are placed in a
sequence, helping to determine a timeline for cultural or stylistic changes.

2. Battleship Curves:

o Seriation often involves studying the frequency of a specific artifact style over time. Typically, a style
starts with low frequency, rises in popularity, and then declines. This trend forms a distinctive
"battleship curve" when graphed, where the style’s popularity grows, peaks, and then diminishes.

o Example: Sir William Flinders Petrie’s work in Egyptian cemeteries arranged pottery by style and
form to place graves in relative order. Later, American archaeologists applied battleship curves to
 study pottery frequencies, creating chronological sequences for various sites by comparing these
peaks and declines.

3. Applications of Seriation:

o Artifact Dating: By identifying the sequence of popular styles, researchers can align assemblages in a
relative timeline.

o Case Studies:

 Connecticut Cemeteries: Changes in tombstone designs were studied, revealing popularity

trends for Death’s head, Cherub, and Urn and willow motifs.

 Deh Luran Plain, Iran: Archaeologist Frank Hole used seriation of pottery types to confirm
chronological sequences, validated by stratigraphic excavation.

Linguistic Dating

While primarily associated with the study of language rather than artifacts, linguistic dating uses lexicostatistics and
glottochronology to examine the divergence of languages, offering insights into relative chronology.

1. Lexicostatistics:

o By comparing vocabulary between languages, researchers estimate how much two languages have
diverged, indicating the relative time of separation.
 2. Glottochronology (Controversial):

o Proposes that related languages retain a common vocabulary at predictable rates (e.g., 86%
retention after 1,000 years). While largely discredited due to its assumption of a constant rate of
change, modern techniques are refining this approach.

Sapir's Contributions

Edward Sapir proposed methods to infer the relative antiquity of cultural items using linguistic evidence:

1. Morphological Complexity:

o Terms like "bow," "arrow," and "spear" cannot be broken down into smaller morphemes, indicating
their ancient origin.

o In contrast, words like "railroad" or "capitalist" are morphologically transparent and represent
recent additions to the language.

2. Archaic Morphological Processes:

o The use of old plural forms like "-en" in "oxen" suggests the term's ancient usage.

o Such archaic forms imply that the cultural elements they denote have been part of the culture for a
long time.

3. Structural Similarities in Dissimilar Languages:

o Marked similarities in the basic morphological structures of otherwise different languages may
indicate a remote common origin.

o Borrowing seldom affects the core structure of a language, so deep structural similarities point to
ancient connections.

Limitations of Sapir's Methods:

 They provide only relative chronology, not absolute dates.

 They can't specify when linguistic changes occurred or when languages began diverging.

 Statements like "This element was probably part of the culture before such and such sound changes took
place" are as precise as these methods allow.

3. Phylogenetic Analysis:

o Recent advances involve tree diagrams to explore language families, such as Indo-European,
allowing researchers to approximate divergence times based on historical linguistic changes.
Pollen Analysis (Palynology) in Archaeological Dating

Introduction

Pollen analysis, also known as palynology, is a scientific method used in archaeology and paleoecology to
reconstruct past environments and climate conditions by studying preserved pollen grains from sediment samples.
Since pollen grains are highly resistant to decay and have unique morphological characteristics for different plant
species, they serve as valuable proxies for understanding vegetation patterns and, by extension, climatic changes
over time. This method allows archaeologists to date archaeological sites and artifacts indirectly by correlating them
with established climatic and vegetational sequences.

Principles of Pollen Analysis

Preservation of Pollen Grains

 Durability: Pollen grains are composed of sporopollenin, a highly resistant organic material that preserves
well in anaerobic and acidic conditions, such as those found in peat bogs, lake sediments, and waterlogged
soils.

 Sedimentation: Pollen is dispersed by wind, water, or animals and eventually settles in sediments, creating a
stratified record of plant life over time.

 Stratigraphy: Layers of sediment accumulate over millennia, with older layers at the bottom and younger
layers at the top, following the principle of superposition.

Microscopic Identification

 Morphological Features: Each plant species produces pollen with distinctive shapes, sizes, and surface
ornamentations, which can be identified under a microscope.

 Pollen Diagram: By counting and identifying pollen grains from different sediment layers, scientists construct
a pollen diagram that shows the relative abundance of various plant species over time.
Methodology

1. Sample Collection

o Core Sampling: Sediment cores are extracted from depositional environments like peat bogs, lakes,
or alluvial plains.

o Stratigraphic Control: Precise recording of the depth and stratigraphic context of each sample is
essential for accurate dating.

2. Laboratory Processing

o Chemical Treatment: Samples undergo chemical processes to remove unwanted materials (e.g.,
acids to dissolve carbonates, bases to remove organic matter) while preserving pollen grains.

o Sieving and Mounting: The residue is sieved to concentrate pollen grains, which are then mounted
on microscope slides.

3. Identification and Counting

o Microscopic Examination: Pollen grains are identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level using
reference collections and identification keys.

o Quantification: A standard number of pollen grains (usually at least 300 per sample) are counted to
ensure statistical reliability.

4. Data Analysis

o Pollen Diagrams: The percentages of different pollen types are plotted against depth or age to
visualize changes in vegetation over time.

o Zonation: The diagram is divided into zones representing different vegetational periods or climatic
phases.

Absolute Dating in Archaeology

Although relative dating methods can be extremely useful, archaeologists ultimately want to know how old
sequences, sites, and artifacts are in calendar years.

To achieve this they need to use the methods of absolute dating described in the following sections. The three most
commonly used and most important to the archaeologist are calendars and historical chronologies, tree-ring dating,
and radiocarbon dating.

For the Paleolithic period, potassium-argon dating and uranium series dating are vital. Genetic dating is also now
beginning to be used to date population events.

Material Dating Method Minimum Sample Size Precision Range

Wood (with Tree-ring - 1 year Up to 5300 BC
visible tree (Ireland); 8500 BC
rings) (Germany); 6700
BC (US)

Organic Radiocarbon (AMS or 5–10 mg (AMS); 10–20 g Many complicating Up to 50,000 BP

materials conventional) wood/charcoal or 100– factors, but often (AMS)
(containing 200 g bone within c. 50–100
carbon) (conventional) years

Volcanic rocks Potassium-argon / - ±10% Older than 80,000

Argon-argon BP

Rocks rich in Uranium-series 200 mg / 30 mm ±1–10% 10,000–500,000 BP

calcium diameter / 5 mm thick
carbonate;
teeth

Fired ceramics, Thermoluminescence - ±5–10% on site; 25% Up to 100,000 BP

clay, stone, or otherwise
soil
Tree-Ring Dating (Dendrochronology)

Tree-ring dating, or dendrochronology, offers an accurate way to establish dates for many archaeological contexts.
Developed by American astronomer A.E. Douglass in the early 20th century, dendrochronology initially provided
dates for Southwestern U.S. sites such as Mesa Verde and Pueblo Bonito. By the 1960s, tree-ring dating spread to
Europe, aided by statistical techniques and computing, enabling the creation of extensive chronologies.
Dendrochronology now plays a critical role in two areas: calibrating radiocarbon dates and providing an independent
absolute dating method.

Basis of the Method

Trees produce one growth ring annually, visible in a cross-section. Ring thickness varies depending on tree age and
environmental conditions, such as rainfall or temperature fluctuations. This variability creates a unique growth
pattern, which can be measured and plotted to create a chronology for a region. By cross-matching sequences from
different trees of the same species, dendrochronologists can establish a "master sequence," often extending back
thousands of years. An ancient timber’s ring sequence can be matched with the master sequence, precisely dating
the tree's felling.

Applications of Tree-Ring Dating

1. Long Master Sequences and Radiocarbon Calibration

Tree-ring chronologies, like those of the Californian bristlecone pine (up to 4900 years) and oak trees in
Northern Ireland and Germany (extending back to around 8500 BC), provide critical references for
calibrating radiocarbon dates. By comparing radiocarbon-dated samples against known tree-ring dates,
scientists can refine radiocarbon results.

2. Direct Tree-Ring Dating

Dendrochronology serves as a direct dating tool when ancient peoples used tree species with established
dendrochronological records. In the American Southwest, tree-ring dating provides absolute dates for
Pueblo structures, accurately documenting building events and expansions. For example, at the site of
Betatakin in Arizona, tree-ring studies reveal the site's construction sequence from AD 1267 to its peak in the
1280s.
In Europe, dendrochronology has yielded significant insights, such as precise dates for Neolithic and Bronze Age lake
villages in Switzerland and the well frames near Kückhoven, Germany, providing absolute dates for early European
agriculture. Additional projects have established tree-ring chronologies in the Aegean and Anatolia, expanding the
temporal reach of dendrochronology.

Limitations of Dendrochronology

Although highly precise, dendrochronology has specific limitations:

1. Geographic and Species Constraints

The method applies only to regions outside the tropics, where distinct seasons produce visible growth rings.
Furthermore, dating requires species with an established master sequence that was also used historically.

2. Interpretive Challenges
Tree-ring dates reflect the year of tree felling, not necessarily the time the timber was used in a structure.
Missing outer rings (sapwood) can obscure exact felling dates, and timbers may be reused or added to a
structure later than its original construction. To mitigate these issues, archaeologists take multiple samples
and analyze the context carefully.

Despite these challenges, dendrochronology has become a fundamental dating tool for the last 8000 years in many
temperate and arid regions, standing alongside radiocarbon dating as a major technique for establishing
chronological frameworks.

RADIOACTIVE CLOCKS

Many of the most important developments in absolute dating since World War II have come from the use of what
one might call “radioactive clocks,” based on that widespread and regular feature in the natural world, radioactive
decay (see box opposite). The best known of these methods is radiocarbon, today the main dating tool for the last
50,000 years or so. The main radioactive methods for periods before the timespan of radiocarbon are potassium-
argon, uranium-series, and fission-track dating.

Thermoluminescence (TL) overlaps with radiocarbon in the time period for which it is useful, but also has potential
for dating earlier epochs – as do optical dating and electron spin resonance – all trapped electron dating methods
that rely indirectly on radioactive decay. In the following sections we will discuss each method in turn.

Radiocarbon Dating

Radiocarbon dating remains one of archaeology's most essential methods for dating organic material, despite certain
limitations in accuracy and time range, as well as errors introduced by sampling and interpretation. Developed in
1949 by Willard Libby, radiocarbon dating has since become foundational in establishing reliable chronologies of
ancient cultures.

History and Basis of the Method

Radiocarbon, or carbon-14 (^14C), forms when cosmic radiation interacts with nitrogen atoms in the atmosphere,
converting them into radioactive carbon. This carbon is absorbed by living organisms through carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis, making it present in plants, herbivores, and carnivores alike. Once an organism dies, it no longer
absorbs ^14C, which then begins to decay at a known rate, with a half-life of approximately 5730 years. By
measuring the remaining ^14C in an archaeological sample, scientists can estimate the time of the organism's death.
Libby's breakthrough was developing a means of detecting the minuscule emissions of ^14C as it decays. Initial
methods used Geiger counters, but later developments included gas counters and, more significantly, accelerator
mass spectrometry (AMS), which allows for the direct counting of ^14C atoms. This advance enabled the dating of
much smaller samples, increasing the versatility and applications of radiocarbon dating.

Calibration of Radiocarbon Dates

Initially, it was assumed that the concentration of ^14C in the atmosphere was constant over time. However,
research using tree-ring dating (dendrochronology) has shown that ^14C levels have fluctuated due to changes in the
Earth's magnetic field and solar activity. This discovery led to the development of calibration curves, which adjust
radiocarbon dates to align with calendar years. Long tree-ring sequences, including those from bristlecone pine and
oak, provide a basis for these calibration efforts, extending as far back as 12,600 years. For dates beyond the reach
of tree rings, other materials, such as coral and lake sediments, contribute to extending the calibration curve up to
around 50,000 years BP.

The calibration process corrects radiocarbon dates, especially for periods where atmospheric ^14C levels were
different from today. For instance, before 1000 BC, uncalibrated radiocarbon dates may appear "too young." The
development of the calibrated timescale is sometimes referred to as the "Second Radiocarbon Revolution."

How to Calibrate Radiocarbon Dates

Radiocarbon dates require calibration because the atmospheric levels of ^14C have varied over time. Although many
radiocarbon laboratories provide calibrated dates for their samples, archaeologists and researchers may sometimes
need to perform their own calibration.

The Calibration Curve

The calibration curve illustrates the relationship between raw radiocarbon years (BP) and actual calendar years (Cal
BP or BC/AD). Due to fluctuations in atmospheric ^14C, radiocarbon years do not always correspond directly to
calendar years. The curve itself has two lines, indicating the error margin at one standard deviation.
Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) and Argon-Argon (Ar-Ar) Dating

The potassium-argon (K-Ar) method is an invaluable tool for dating volcanic rock and is especially useful for early
human (hominin) sites, some of which date back to around 5 million years ago. It is ideal for dating rocks that are
hundreds of millions of years old and for archaeological sites in geologically active regions, such as Africa's Rift
Valley. This method is generally limited to volcanic rocks older than approximately 100,000 years.

Basis of the Method

Potassium-argon dating, like other radiometric methods, is based on the principle of radioactive decay. Potassium-40
(40K), a naturally occurring radioactive isotope, decays into argon-40 (40Ar), an inert gas, over a very long period
with a half-life of approximately 1.3 billion years. By measuring the amount of 40Ar trapped in a volcanic rock
sample, scientists can estimate the rock's formation date.

A refined version of this technique, known as argon-argon dating (40Ar/39Ar), allows for smaller samples. This
method requires converting a stable potassium isotope, 39K, into 39Ar through neutron bombardment. Scientists
then measure the 40Ar/39Ar ratio in the sample using a mass spectrometer. This ratio provides an age estimate, as
the 40K/39K ratio is constant in nature. In both K-Ar and Ar-Ar methods, the “clock” starts at the time of volcanic
eruption, which expels any preexisting argon and resets the dating process.

Applications in Archaeology

Potassium-argon and argon-argon dating are particularly significant for dating archaeological sites associated with
early human evolution. For instance, Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, a key location for studying hominin evolution, has a
well-established chronology of around 2 million years, thanks to K-Ar and Ar-Ar dating of volcanic layers. The
presence of volcanic ash layers or tuffs above and below archaeological deposits creates a “chronological sandwich”
that helps constrain the age of hominin fossils and artifacts found between these layers.

Another example is the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. Argon-argon analysis of pumice from this eruption has
demonstrated the method's high precision, confirming an age estimate close to the historical record (AD 72 ±94
years). This result showcases the accuracy of Ar-Ar dating even for more recent volcanic events.

Limitations and Precision

The potassium-argon technique typically provides error estimates, such as 1.79 ±0.03 million years for Tuff IB at
Olduvai. While an error margin of 30,000 years may appear large, it represents only around 2% of the total age.
However, this error estimate primarily accounts for laboratory counting uncertainties and does not cover potential
inaccuracies arising from chemical variations or archaeological interpretation.

One limitation is that K-Ar dating is applicable only to volcanic rock. Additionally, achieving an accuracy better than
±10% can be challenging due to geological factors. Despite these limitations, K-Ar and Ar-Ar dating remain essential
methods for establishing timelines at early human sites where volcanic materials are present.

In sum, potassium-argon and argon-argon dating have proven indispensable for studying early human evolution,
particularly in volcanic regions like East Africa. These techniques allow archaeologists to create reliable chronologies
for ancient hominin sites, providing a foundation for understanding early human history.

Uranium-Series (U-Series) Dating

Uranium-series dating is a radiometric method primarily used to date calcium carbonate formations, such as
stalagmites, stalactites, and other cave deposits, within a range of 500,000 to 50,000 years. This makes it ideal for
periods that fall outside the effective range of radiocarbon dating. U-series dating has become a preferred method in
Europe, particularly in areas lacking volcanic rocks suitable for potassium-argon dating.

Basis of the Method

U-series dating is based on the radioactive decay of two isotopes of uranium, 238U and 235U, which transform
through a series of steps into daughter isotopes like thorium-230 (230Th) and protactinium-231 (231Pa). While
uranium isotopes are water-soluble and can be incorporated into calcium carbonate deposits, their decay products,
such as 230Th and 231Pa, are insoluble. As a result, calcium carbonate deposits formed from water seepage contain
only uranium at the time of formation. Over time, as uranium decays, the quantities of thorium and protactinium
increase. By measuring the ratio of these daughter isotopes to the parent uranium (often the 230Th/238U ratio),
researchers can calculate the age of the deposit.

The uranium isotopes are measured by detecting their alpha emissions, each with a distinct frequency. The
introduction of thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) has significantly increased the precision of U-series
dating, reducing the error margin for a sample with an age of 100,000 years to less than ±1,000 years.

Applications and Limiting Factors

U-series dating is especially effective for dating calcium carbonate deposits around lime-rich springs and within
limestone caves, where early humans often sought shelter. Artifacts and bones found within or between these
deposits can provide insight into early human activity.
However, U-series dating can present challenges. The complex layering within caves can make it difficult to
determine the exact sequence of deposition, and thus multiple samples from various layers should be taken to
obtain reliable results. This method has proven valuable in significant sites such as Pontnewydd Cave in North Wales,
where U-series dating established that the lower breccia containing archaeological artifacts was at least 220,000
years old. At Spain’s Atapuerca site, U-series dating has been successfully used alongside potassium-argon dating to
construct a timeline for early human occupation.

Teeth can also be dated using U-series, as uranium diffuses into dentine after burial. Although estimating the rate of
uranium uptake in teeth is complex, TIMS U-series has provided reliable dates for hominin-associated teeth from
Israeli caves, such as Tabun, Qafzeh, and Skhul, with results ranging from 105,000 to 66,000 years ago.

Increasingly, U-series dating is used alongside electron spin resonance (ESR) to cross-verify dates. For example, both
methods were applied to Neanderthal tooth enamel from Krapina, Croatia, yielding consistent dates of
approximately 130,000 years, underscoring the utility of combining these approaches to enhance dating accuracy in
paleoanthropological contexts.

Thermoluminescence (TL) Dating

Thermoluminescence (TL) dating is a radiometric technique used for dating crystalline materials that have been
heated in the past, including pottery, baked clay, burnt stone, and sometimes burnt soil. Though not as precise as
other dating methods, such as radiocarbon dating, TL is particularly useful when organic materials for radiocarbon
dating are absent.

Basis of the Method

The method relies on measuring the amount of energy stored within mineral crystals over time due to exposure to
natural radiation from the surrounding environment. As radioactive elements in the soil decay, they emit radiation
that accumulates as energy “trapped” within the structure of a mineral. This energy continues to build up over time
as long as the mineral remains buried.

When heated to a high temperature (around 500 °C or more), the trapped energy is released as light
(thermoluminescence), resetting the “radioactive clock” to zero. This means that pottery or other fired artifacts will
have had their clocks reset when they were originally fired. By reheating samples from these objects in a controlled
laboratory setting, researchers can measure the thermoluminescence released and calculate the time elapsed since
the object was last heated.
Limitations and Complications

One of the main challenges in TL dating is that the background radiation levels in the soil vary depending on the
location. Therefore, the radiation exposure of each sample must be measured precisely by either burying a
radiation-sensitive material at the sample’s findspot or using a radiation counter. This requirement complicates the
method, and even with accurate measurements, TL dates typically have a precision margin of around ±10% of the
sample’s age.

Applications and Example

Thermoluminescence dating has been instrumental in dating certain archaeological artifacts when other methods
were not feasible. For example, TL dating was used to date the terracotta Jemaa head, a significant artifact of the
Nok culture from Nigeria, found in the alluvial deposits of a tin mine near the Jos Plateau. Due to the lack of organic
material at the site, radiocarbon dating was not possible. However, TL analysis on the Jemaa head provided an age of
1520 ±260 BC, giving a reliable chronological context to this and other sculptures from the Nok culture for the first
time.

Thermoluminescence, though limited in precision, remains valuable for providing chronological insight, especially in
cases where no organic materials are present.
Optical Dating (Optically Stimulated Luminescence - OSL)

Optical dating, also known as Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL), is a radiometric dating method similar in
principle to thermoluminescence (TL). However, while TL dating is used for materials that have been heated, OSL is
used to date minerals that have been exposed to sunlight.

Basis of the Method

In natural environments, minerals accumulate trapped electrons within their crystal structures due to radiation
exposure from the surrounding soil. When these minerals are exposed to light, as during a brief exposure to sunlight,
the accumulated energy is released, effectively resetting the “clock” to zero. This exposure to light serves as the
starting point. Once buried and shielded from light, the minerals begin accumulating electrons again due to ongoing
radiation from the surrounding soil.

In the laboratory, OSL is produced by exposing the sample to visible light, which releases the trapped electrons as
luminescence. By measuring this luminescence, scientists can calculate the time elapsed since the sample was last
exposed to sunlight.

Limitations and Considerations

As with TL, the method requires careful measurement of background radiation at the burial site, as radiation levels
can vary with location. This requirement adds complexity and can affect the precision of the dates obtained. OSL,
however, is particularly useful in dating geological sediments and can often be used in conjunction with TL and
radiocarbon dating to verify dates across different contexts.

Applications and Example

OSL dating has been applied successfully to date ancient sites lacking organic material. For instance, OSL was used
alongside TL and radiocarbon dating to determine the age of the early site of Nauwalabila in Australia, providing key
chronological insight into the region's prehistoric occupation.

Optical dating, while complex, is valuable for dating sites where sunlight exposure serves as a definitive reset event,
making it especially relevant for archaeological and geological applications in dating sediments.

Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Dating

Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) dating is a radiometric technique similar to thermoluminescence (TL), but it has some
distinct advantages. Unlike TL, which requires heating the sample, ESR can be used on materials that decompose or
undergo changes when heated, making it particularly useful for dating materials such as tooth enamel.

Basis of the Method

ESR dating relies on measuring trapped electrons within a sample. When tooth enamel or other suitable materials
are buried, they begin to accumulate trapped electrons due to exposure to natural background radiation from the
surrounding environment. This radiation creates "free radicals" within the crystal structure, which remain trapped
over time. By applying a magnetic field and measuring the energy released, the number of trapped electrons can be
counted, which indicates the amount of time that has passed since burial.

Precision and Limitations

The precision of ESR dating on tooth enamel is generally within the range of 10–20 percent of the sample’s age,
which is suitable for establishing broad chronological frameworks in archaeology and paleoanthropology. ESR is
particularly valuable for dating the remains of early humans, as it allows for the dating of teeth and bones that have
been buried for hundreds of thousands of years.

Applications and Example

ESR dating has been used in paleoanthropology to date early hominin sites, providing valuable age estimates for
fossilized teeth in particular. It serves as a useful cross-check for other dating methods, such as uranium-series
dating, to confirm or refine dates. In sites such as Atapuerca in Spain, ESR has contributed to a more comprehensive
dating framework when used alongside other techniques.

Overall, ESR dating is a powerful tool for dating ancient fossils and early human sites, especially when materials are
unsuitable for other dating methods due to their heat sensitivity.

Genetic Dating

Genetic dating is a unique method within archaeology and anthropology, focusing on population events rather than
on individual artifacts or ancient DNA samples. Unlike conventional dating methods, genetic dating does not date
physical objects; instead, it provides estimated timescales for events in human population history, such as
migrations, population splits, and the emergence of distinct groups.

Basis of the Method

Genetic dating is based on studying mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the Y chromosome. When groups
diverge and become isolated (for example, due to migration or geographic barriers), their genetic material begins to
accumulate unique mutations over time. By counting these mutations and applying a known mutation rate,
scientists can estimate the time since these populations split. This technique is analogous to a “molecular clock,”
similar in concept to the radioactive clocks used in radiocarbon dating, though it is based on genetic mutations
rather than radioactive decay.

Key Applications and Examples

One of the most significant applications of genetic dating has been to trace the migration of Homo sapiens out of
Africa. By analyzing mitochondrial DNA, geneticists have estimated that early humans left Africa around 60,000 years
ago. This estimation is consistent with radiocarbon dating evidence of the earliest human presence in places like
Australia. Genetic dating has also challenged earlier findings; for instance, human remains at Qafzeh in Israel, dated
to 90,000 years ago by uranium-series and thermoluminescence, are now thought to represent an earlier, non-
modern hominin population, rather than anatomically modern humans.

Genetic dating also helps reconstruct ancient population movements, identifying when particular haplogroups
(unique genetic lineages) split, expanded, or migrated. By mapping these splits and migrations over time, genetic
dating provides insight into significant events in human evolution, such as the spread of humans across Asia,
Oceania, and into the Americas.

Limitations and Challenges

While genetic dating has made substantial contributions to understanding human evolution, it still faces challenges.
Assumptions about isolated gene flow and constant mutation rates are necessary, yet sometimes difficult to verify.
Additionally, results from mtDNA can differ from those derived from the Y chromosome, complicating population
timelines.

Despite these limitations, genetic dating is now an essential tool in human population studies, offering unique
insights into migration patterns, population interactions, and the evolutionary history of our species. As molecular
techniques improve, genetic dating continues to refine and expand our understanding of ancient human events.

CALIBRATED RELATIVE METHODS

Radioactive decay is the only completely regular time dependent process known, uninfluenced by tem perature or
other environmental conditions. There are, however, other natural processes that, while not completely regular, are
sufficiently steady over the course of time to be of use to the archaeologist. We have already seen how natural
annual cycles produce varves and tree-rings, which of course are immensely useful because they give dates
calibrated in years.

Other processes that form the basis of the first two techniques described below are not naturally calibrated in years,
but in principle they can be made to yield absolute dates if the rate of change inherent in the process can be
independently calibrated by one of the absolute methods already discussed. In practice, as we shall see, the
calibration for each technique often has to be done afresh for each site or area because of environmental factors
that influence the rate of change. This makes these techniques difficult to use as reliable absolute dating methods.

They can, however, still prove enormously helpful simply as a means of ordering samples in a relative sequence, in
which older is distinguished from younger.

Amino-Acid Racemization Dating

Amino-acid racemization (AAR) dating is a technique used to estimate the age of bone and other organic remains,
particularly useful for material up to about 100,000 years old, a range beyond the limits of radiocarbon dating.
Developed in the early 1970s, this method relies on changes in the structure of amino acids in proteins over time,
providing a way to date materials that contain biological remnants.

Basis of the Method

Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, exist in two mirror-image forms called enantiomers:

 L-enantiomers (Laevo): Rotate polarized light to the left.

 D-enantiomers (Dextro): Rotate polarized light to the right.

In living organisms, proteins exclusively contain L-enantiomers. After death, however, these L-amino acids begin to
convert, or racemize, into D-enantiomers at a steady rate. This transformation results in a mix of both forms over
time, with the rate of racemization dependent on environmental factors, particularly temperature.

Application and Calibration

The extent of racemization can provide an estimate of the time that has elapsed since death. By measuring the ratio
of L- to D-enantiomers, researchers can estimate the age of a sample. However, because racemization rates are
temperature-sensitive and may vary from site to site, precise calibration is crucial. This is typically achieved by:
 1. Radiocarbon Dating Calibration: For samples within the radiocarbon dateable range, the L- and D-ratio can
be compared with radiocarbon dates. This provides a racemization rate specific to the local environment.

2. Applying the Local Rate: Once the rate is established, it can be used to date other bones at the same site,
even those beyond the range of radiocarbon dating.

Limitations and Considerations

The effectiveness of amino-acid racemization as a dating method depends largely on the stability of environmental
conditions, particularly temperature, at the site over time. Fluctuations in temperature can impact racemization
rates, introducing potential inaccuracies if not properly accounted for. Consequently, AAR dating is considered most
reliable when combined with other dating methods, helping to cross-validate age estimates and provide a more
complete chronological framework.

This method has become particularly valuable in paleoanthropology and archaeology for dating early human remains
and other ancient bones where radiocarbon dating is no longer applicable.