HES 095 (General Human Physiology and

Pathophysiology with Family Planning

Lecture)
DENT and PHARMA / Second Year
STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET
Session # 4

Materials:
Laptop, internet, books, pen and notebook
LESSON TITLE: Nervous System
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this lesson, the student can: References:

1. Expound in molecular level, the physiological Hall, J. E. 1. (2016). Guyton and Hall textbook of
processes of the structures found in specific organ medical physiology (13th edition.).
system Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
Herrmann T, Leavitt L, Sharma S. Physiology,
2. Create a schematic diagram of how functions of
Membrane. [Updated 2021 Apr 30]. In:
each structure of the organ system found on one
StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL):
region related to the other regions
StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-. Available
3. Determine how each organ system works to from:
maintain homeostasis https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538211
/
4. Conceptualize the pathological processes that
occur throughout the course of the disease
progression Book: Anatomy and Physiology I (Lumen).
(2021, March 1). Retrieved October 6, 2021,
5. Identify signs and symptoms associated with the from
disease and determine its complications https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/34371

Subject Orientation (10 minutes)

The instructor will start the lecture with a prayer and will do a recap of the previous
discussion. A pre-test will also be given to know if the students have read ahead the next
topic.

Main Lesson (50 minutes)

The students will study and read the topics ahead of time
The Central Nervous System
⮚ The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which
are the nervous system's major organs. The adult brain is divided into
four major regions: the cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem, and
cerebellum. The spinal cord is a single structure, but the adult brain is
divided into four major regions: cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem,
and cerebellum. The conscious experiences of a person are based on
brain activity. A particular area of the brain is in charge of maintaining
homeostasis. The integration of sensory and motor channels in the
spinal cord is necessary for reflex coordination.
⮚ The Cerebrum
o The cerebrum is the gray covering of the human brain that appears to
make up the majority of the brain's mass (Figure 1). The wrinkled part
of the brain is the cerebral cortex, and the rest of the structure is
hidden beneath it. The longitudinal fissure is a wide divide between
the two sides of the cerebrum. It divides the brain into two halves, the
right and left cerebral hemispheres. The white matter of the corpus
callosum, located deep within the cerebrum, is the primary
communication conduit connecting the two hemispheres of the
cerebral cortex.

o Many of the higher neurological functions, such as memory, emotion, and

consciousness, are the result of cerebral function. The complexity of the
cerebrum is different across vertebrate species. The cerebrum of the
most primitive vertebrates is not much more than the connection for the
sense of smell. In mammals, the cerebrum comprises the outer gray
 matter that is the cortex (from the Latin word meaning “bark of a tree”)
and several deep nuclei that belong to three important functional groups.
The basal nuclei are responsible for cognitive processing, the most
important function being that associated with planning movements. The
basal forebrain contains nuclei that are important in learning and
memory. The limbic cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex that is part
of the limbic system, a collection of structures involved in emotion,
memory, and behavior.
⮚ Cerebral Cortex
o The cerebrum is covered by a continuous layer of gray matter that wraps
around either side of the forebrain—the cerebral cortex. This thin,
extensive region of wrinkled gray matter is responsible for the higher
functions of the nervous system. A gyrus (plural = gyri) is the ridge of one
of those wrinkles, and a sulcus (plural = sulci) is the groove between two
gyri. The pattern of these folds of tissue indicates specific regions of the
cerebral cortex. The head is limited by the size of the birth canal, and the
brain must fit inside the cranial cavity of the skull. Extensive folding in the
cerebral cortex enables more gray matter to fit into this limited space. If
the gray matter of the cortex were peeled off of the cerebrum and laid
out flat, its surface area would be roughly equal to one square meter. The
folding of the cortex maximizes the amount of gray matter in the cranial
cavity. During embryonic development, as the telencephalon expands
within the skull, the brain goes through a regular course of growth that
results in everyone’s brain having a similar pattern of folds. The surface of
the brain can be mapped on the basis of the locations of large gyri and
sulci. Using these landmarks, the cortex can be separated into four major
regions, or lobes (Figure 2).
o One such landmark is the lateral sulcus, which separates the temporal lobe from
the rest of the brain. The parietal lobe and frontal lobe are separated from each
other by the central sulcus, which is superior to the lateral sulcus.
o The occipital lobe is located in the posterior part of the cortex and shares no
physical borders with the parietal or temporal lobes on the lateral surface of the
brain. The parieto-occipital sulcus is a prominent marker on the medial surface
that separates the parietal and occipital lobes. The fact that there is no visible
anatomical barrier between these lobes supports the idea that their functions
are intertwined.
o Localization of function is the concept of associating different parts of the
cerebral cortex with specific functions. Korbinian Brodmann, a German
neurologist, studied the microscopic anatomy—the cytoarchitecture—of the
cerebral cortex in the early 1900s and classified the cortex into 52 different areas
based on the histology of the cortex. Brodmann's regions, a classification system
based on his research, is still used today to define physical divisions within the
cortex (Figure 3). Brodmann's findings on anatomy are very consistent with
functional variations within the brain. Primary visual perception is controlled by
areas 17 and 18 in the occipital brain. Because that visual data is complicated, it
is also processed in the temporal and parietal lobes. Brodmann's regions 41 and
42 in the superior temporal lobe are related with primary auditory sensation in
the temporal lobe.
 o Memory is an important function related with the temporal lobe because it is a
part of the limbic system. Memories are recalled experiences such as the scent
of Mom's bread or the sound of a barking puppy; memory is primarily a sensory
function. Even memories of movement, such as stretching muscles or the
movement of the skin around a joint, are really memories of sensory feedback
from those movements. Long-term memory is established by structures in the
temporal lobe, although the ultimate location of those memories is usually in the
region where the sensory perception was processed. The main sensation
associated with the parietal lobe is somatosensation, meaning the general
sensations associated with the body.
o The postcentral gyrus, also known as Brodmann's areas 1, 2, and 3, is located
posterior to the central sulcus and is the primary somatosensory cortex. Touch,
pressure, tickle, pain, itch, and vibration are all processed in this area, as are
more general senses of the body such as proprioception and kinesthesia, which
are the perceptions of body position and movement, respectively.
o The frontal lobe is located anterior to the central sulcus and is primarily
responsible for motor tasks. The primary motor cortex is the precentral gyrus.
Upper motor neurons are cells from this region of the cerebral cortex that
instruct cells in the spinal cord to move skeletal muscles.
o A few areas adjacent to this region are related with planned movements. The
premotor area is in charge of conceiving of a movement to be performed. Eye
movements and attention to visual inputs are both elicited by the frontal eye
fields. Broca's region is responsible for language production or directing motions
that lead to speech; it is only found on the left side of the brain in the great
majority of humans.
o The prefrontal lobe is located anterior to these areas and is responsible for
cognitive activities such as personality, short-term memory, and consciousness.
The prefrontal lobotomy is an out-of-date treatment for personality disorders
(psychiatric diseases) that has a significant impact on the patient's personality.

⮚ Subcortical Structures
o Subcortical nuclei are a group of nuclei beneath the cerebral cortex that
help cortical functions. Acetylcholine is produced mostly in the nuclei of the
basal forebrain, which regulates the general activity of the cortex and may
lead to increased attention to sensory stimuli. The loss of neurons in the
basal forebrain is linked to Alzheimer's disease.
o The hippocampus and amygdala are medial-lobe structures involved in
long-term memory formation and emotional reactions, together with the
neighboring cortex. The basal nuclei are a group of nuclei in the cerebrum
that compare cortical processing to the general state of nervous system
activity in order to impact the possibility of movement. For example, if a
student is sitting in a classroom listening to a lecture, the basal nuclei will
suppress the temptation to leap up and yell. (The basal nuclei are also
 referred to as the basal ganglia, although that is potentially confusing
because the term ganglia is typically used for peripheral structures.)

o The caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus, which lie deep in the cerebrum, are
the primary structures of the basal nuclei that control movement. The caudate
nucleus is a long nucleus that follows the basic C-shape of the cerebrum from the
frontal lobe to the temporal lobe, passing via the parietal and occipital lobes. The
putamen is typically found in the frontal and parietal lobes' front areas. The
striatum is made up of the caudate and putamen.
o The globus pallidus is a layered nucleus located just medial to the putamen; it is
known as the lenticular nucleus because it resembles curved sections that fit
together like lenses. The external and internal segments of the globus pallidus,
which are lateral and medial, respectively, have two subdivisions. Figure 4 shows
these nuclei in a frontal portion of the brain.
o The cerebrum's basal nuclei are linked to a few additional nuclei in the brain stem,
forming a functional group that forms a motor route. In the basal nuclei, two
streams of information processing take place. The striatum receives all input from
the cortex to the basal nuclei (Figure 5).
o The projection of axons from the striatum to the globus pallidus internal segment
(GPi) and the substantia nigra pars reticulata forms the direct pathway (SNr). The
GPi/SNr then sends a signal to the thalamus, which in turn sends a signal to the
cortex. The indirect pathway is the projection of axons from the striatum to the
globus pallidus external segment (GPe), then to the subthalamic nucleus (STN), and
finally to GPi/SNr. Both streams aim for the GPi/SNr, however one has a direct
projection while the other passes through a few nuclei. The thalamus is disinhibited
via the direct channel. (inhibition of one cell on a target cell that then inhibits the
first cell) The indirect channel, on the other hand, induces or enhances the
thalamus' typical inhibition. The thalamus can then either stimulate the cortex (as a
consequence of the direct pathway) or not excite the cortex (as a result of the
indirect pathway) (as a result of the indirect pathway).
o The substantia nigra pars compacta, which projects to the striatum and releases
the neurotransmitter dopamine, acts as a switch between the two routes. D1-type
 dopamine receptors are excitatory, while D2-type receptors are inhibitory (D2-type
receptors). Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that activates the direct pathway and
inhibits the indirect pathway.
o When the substantia nigra pars compacta fires, it tells the basal nuclei that the body
is active and that movement will be easier. The body is in a passive condition when
the substantia nigra pars compacta is mute, and movement is inhibited. For
example, while a student is sitting in class listening to a lecture, the substantia nigra
pars compacta remains silent, making the student less likely to get up and go
around. Similarly, the professor's substantia nigra pars compacta would be active
while teaching and walking around at the front of the classroom, in accordance with
his or her level of activity.

⮚ The Diencephalon
o The diencephalon is the only part of the adult brain that has retained its
embryologic designation. The word diencephalon comes from the Greek
word diencephalon, which means "through brain." With one exception, it is
the link between the cerebrum and the remainder of the nervous system.
o The diencephalon relays information from the remainder of the brain, the
spinal cord, and the PNS to the cerebrum. The diencephalon receives output
from the cerebrum. The system linked with olfaction, or the sense of smell, is
the sole exception, as it connects directly to the cerebrum.
o The cerebrum was little more than olfactory bulbs in the first vertebrate
species, receiving only peripheral information about the chemical
environment (to call it smell in these organisms is imprecise because they
lived in the ocean). The third ventricle's walls are made up of the
diencephalon, which is located deep beneath the cerebrum.
o The diencephalon is any part of the brain that has the word "thalamus" in its
name. The thalamus and the hypothalamus are the two primary areas of the
diencephalon (Figure 6). Other structures include the epithalamus, which
houses the pineal gland, and the subthalamus, which houses the
subthalamic nucleus, which belongs to the basal nuclei.
⮚ Midbrain
o The midbrain is a small region between the thalamus and the pons that was
one of the first sections of the embryonic brain. The tectum and
tegmentum, which come from the Latin terms for roof and floor,
respectively, divide it. The cerebral aqueduct runs across the middle of the
midbrain, making these regions the canal's roof and floor. The tectum is
made up of four bumps called colliculi (singular = colliculus), which in Latin
means "small hill."
o The inferior colliculus, which is part of the auditory brain stem route, is the
lower pair of these enlargements. The inferior colliculus provides auditory
information to the thalamus, which subsequently transfers it to the
cerebrum for conscious awareness of sound. The superior colliculus is the
superior pair, and it integrates sensory input from the visual, auditory, and
somatosensory spaces. Orienting the eyes to a sound or touch stimuli is
linked to activity in the superior colliculus. When you hear chirping while
walking down the campus walkway, the superior colliculus combines that
information with your knowledge of the visual location of the tree just above
you. The aural and visual mappings are linked in this way. When you feel
something wet fall on your head, your superior colliculus combines it with
the auditory and visual maps, and you realize the chirping bird has just
discharged itself on you. You want to glance up to see who is to blame, but
 you don't. The gray matter of the rest of the brain stem is connected to the
tegmentum. The tegmentum is found throughout the midbrain, pons, and
medulla, and contains nuclei that receive and send information via cranial
nerves, as well as regions that regulate vital functions such as circulatory and
respiratory systems.
⮚ Pons
o The word pons is derived from the Latin word pons, which means bridge. The
thick bundle of white matter linked to the cerebellum can be seen on the
anterior surface of the brain stem. The principal connection between the
cerebellum and the brain stem is the pons. The gray matter beneath the
bridge-like white matter is a continuation of the tegmentum from the
midbrain; the white matter is only the anterior surface of the pons. The gray
matter of the pons tegmentum comprises neurons that receive descending
information from the forebrain and send it to the cerebellum.
⮚ Medulla
o In the embryonic brain, the medulla is the region known as the
myelencephalon. The word "myel" comes from the enormous amount of
white matter seen in this area, particularly on the exterior, which is
connected to the white matter of the spinal cord. Because this gray matter is
responsible for processing cranial nerve signals, the tegmentum of the
midbrain and pons continues into the medulla. The reticular formation, a
diffuse patch of gray matter throughout the brain stem, is linked to sleep and
wakefulness, as well as general brain activity and attention.

Check for Understanding (45 minutes)

Student will answer these questions and will rationalize this. Teacher will then confirm if
answers are correct and synchronously rationalize with the students. Students will be given
45 minutes to answer the activity sheet.

Multiple Choice.

1. Which lobe:

a. Frontal
 b. Parietal
c. Temporal
d. Occipital

2. Which Lobe

a. Frontal
b. Parietal
c. Temporal
d. Occipital
3. Makes decisions, plans for the future, reasons, and carries out behaviors
a. Frontal Lobe
b. Parietal Lobe
c. Occipital Lobe
d. Temporal Lobe
4. The corpus callosum
a. Manages our understanding of speech and language
b. cannot process messages sent from the left hand
c. is a deep fissure in the cerebral cortex
d. is a thick band of nerve fibres linking the two hemispheres of the brain
5. Lobe of cerebrum that processes vision
a. Occipital
b. Frontal
c. Temporal
d. Parietal