What is Relay?

A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for a single or
multiple control signals, and a set of operating contact terminals. The switch may have any
number of contacts in multiple contact forms, such as make contacts, break contacts, or
combinations thereof.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by an independent low-power signal, or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
Construction and Working Principle of Relay

An electromechanical relay is basically designed using few mechanical parts like Electromagnet, a
movable armature, contacts, yoke, and a spring/frame/stand, these parts are showing in
figure below. All these are arranged logically to form into a relay.

Figure 1: An Electromechanical Relay

 Electromagnet: An Electromagnet plays a major role in the working of a relay. It is a metal

which doesn’t have magnetic property but it can be converted into a magnet with the help of
an electrical signal. We know that when current passes through the conductor it acquires the
properties of a magnet. So, when a metal winded with a copper wire and driven by the
sufficient power supply, that metal can act as a magnet and can attract the metals within its
range.
 Movable Armature: A movable armature is a simple metal piece which is balanced on a pivot
or a stand. It helps in making or breaking the connection with the contacts connected to it.
 Contacts: These are the conductors that exist within the device and are connected to the
terminals.
 Yoke: It is a small metal piece fixed on a core in order to attract and hold the armature when
the coil is energized.
 Spring (optional): Few relays don’t need any spring but if it is used, it is connected to one
end of the armature to ensure its easy and free movement. Instead of a spring, a metal stand
like structure can be used.

Working Principle of Relay

The above figure-1 depicts the relay's interior part. It has an iron core around which a control coil
has been coiled. Through the connections of the load and the control switch, the coil receives
power. The magnetic field that surrounds the coil is created as current travels through it.

It works on the principle of electromagnetism. The electromagnetic field that creates the
temporary magnetic field is energized when the relay's circuit detects the fault current. This
magnetic field moves the relay armature to open or close connections. The high-power relay has
two contacts for opening the switch, compared to the small-power relay's single contact. The lower
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arm of the magnet is drawn to the upper arm by the magnetic field. Therefore, complete the
circuit, causing current to flow through the load. When contact is already closed, it moves in the
opposite direction to open the contacts.

Describe the term i. Normally Open (NO) or ii. Normally Close (NC) of a
Relay.

Normally Open Relays

Most relays are normally open; that is, the second, larger circuit is in the off position by default.

In a normally open relay, power flows through an input circuit, activating an electromagnet. This
generates a magnetic field that attracts a contact to join with the second, larger circuit, allowing
current to flow through. When the source of power is removed, a spring draws the contact away
from the second circuit, stopping the flow of electricity and turning off the end device.

Normally Closed Relays

The fundamentals of an NC relay are the same as an NO relay: there are two circuits, with the
second being larger, and an electromagnet moves a physical contact between two positions. But
in the case of an NC relay, the default states are reversed. When the first circuit is activated, the
electromagnet draws the contact away from the second circuit. As such, NC relays keep the larger
circuit in the on position by default.

Types of Relay Based On Operation Principles

These following types of relays are classified based on their different operation principles.

EMR (Electromechanical Relay): This type of relay has an electromagnetic coil and
a mechanical movable contact. When the coil is energized it produces a magnetic field. This
magnetic field attracts the armature (movable contact). When the coil is de-energized the coil
loose magnetic field and a spring retract the armature to its normal position. The EMR relay is
designed for AC or DC source depending on the application it is used for. The structure of AC and
DC EMR relay differs from each other by having a slight difference in its coil construction. The
DC coil has a freewheeling diode for protection against back EMF and de-energizing the coil. The
main disadvantage of EMR relay is that its contacts produce arc during breaking which leads to
increasing its resistance over time and
decreasing the lifespan of the relay.

SSR (Solid State Relay): SSR relay is made up of

semiconductors instead of mechanical parts and it
works on isolating the low voltage circuit from high
voltage circuit using an optocoupler. When the control
input is applied to a solid state relay, an LED lights up

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which produce infrared light. This light is received by a photosensitive semiconductor device which
converts the light signal into an electrical signal and switches the circuit. SSR operates on
relatively high speed and has very low power consumption as compared to EMR relay. It has
a longer lifespan because there are no physical contacts to burn out. The
main disadvantage of SSR relay is its nominal voltage drop across the semiconductor which
wastes power in the form of heat.

Hybrid Relay: Hybrid relays are made using both SSR and EMR relays. As the SSR wastes
power in form of heat and EMR has contact arcing problem. The hybrid relay uses both SSR and
EMR to overcome their disadvantages.

In Hybrid relay, SSR and EMR are used in parallel. A relay control circuit is used for switching
the SSR first. The SSR takes the load current. So it eliminates the arching problem. Then the
control circuit energizes the EMR coil and its contact closes but there is no arching since the SSR is
taking the load in parallel. After some time, when the EMR contact settles down, the control input
of SSR is removed. The EMR conducts the entire load current without any loss. Since there is no
current flow throw SSR and the EMR takes the entire
load, there is no power loss in form of heat. Thus, it
eliminates the heat problem too.

Reed Relay: Reed relay is made up of a reed switch

and an electromagnetic coil with a diode for back
EMF. A reed switch is made up of two metal blades
made up of ferromagnetic material hermetically
sealed in a glass tube which also supports the metal blades. The glass is filled with inert gas.When
the coil is energized, the ferromagnetic metal blades attract each other and form a closed path. As
there is no moving armature so there is no contact wear-out problem. The glass tube is also filled
with inert gas which also prolongs its life.

Electrothermal Relay (Thermal Relay): An

electrothermal relay is made up of bimetallic (made
up of two metals having different thermal expansion
coefficients) strip.

When the current flow through the conductor, it

produces heat. Due to which the temperature of the
bimetallic strip rises and expands. The metal having
high thermal expansion coefficient expands more than
the other metal. Due which the strip bends and closes
the contacts to usually activate the trip circuitry.
Thermal relays are usually used for electric motor
protection.

Polarized and Non-polarized Relay

The polarized relay uses a permanent magnet with an electromagnet. The permanent magnet
provides a fixed position for the armature. The electromagnetic coil changes the position of the
armature about a fixed pivot. The armature position depends on the polarity of the control input.

The non-polarized relay does not use permanent magnets and their coil can be energized in both
ways without affecting its operation. Some relay having back EMF diodes does have polarity since
the diode will bypass the coil if the connection is reversed.

Application Of Relay

 Relays are used for isolating a low voltage circuit from high voltage circuit.
 They are used for controlling multiple circuits.
 They are also used as automatic change over.
 Microprocessors use relays to control a heavy electrical load.
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 Overload relays are used for protection of motor from overload and electrical failure.

Reactance Relay
The reactance relay is a high-speed relay. This relay
consists of two elements an overcurrent element and a current-voltage directional element. The
current element developed positive torque and a current-voltage developed directional element
which opposes the current element depending on the phase angle between current and voltage.
Reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional limitation. The directional element is
arranged to develop maximum negative torque when its current lag behinds its voltage by 90°.
The induction cup or double induction loop structures are best suited for actuating reactance type
distance relays.

Construction of Reactance Relay

A typical reactance relay using the induction cup structure is shown in the figure below. It has a
four-pole structure carrying operating, polarizing, and restraining coils, as shown in the figure
below. The operating torque is developed by the interaction of fluxes due to current carrying coils,
i.e., the interaction of fluxes of 2, 3 and 4 and the restraining torque is produced by the interaction
of fluxes due to poles 1, 2 and 4.
The operating torque will be proportional to the square of the current while the restraining torque
will be proportional to VI cos (Θ – 90°). The desired maximum torque angle is obtained with the
help of resistance-capacitance circuits, as illustrated in the figure. If the control effect is indicated
by –k3, the torque equation becomes

where Θ, is defined as positive when I lag behind V. At the balance point net torque is zero, and
hence

the spring control effect is neglected in the above equation, i.e., K 3 = 0.

Operating Characteristic of Reactance Relay
The operating characteristic of a reactance relay is shown in the figure below. X is the reactance of
the protected line between the relay location and the fault point, and R is the resistance
component of the impedance. The characteristic shows that the resistance component of the
impedance has no consequence on the working of the relay, the relay reacts solely to the
reactance component. The point below the operating characteristic is called the positive torque
region.

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If the value of τ, in the general torque equation, expressed below is made any other 90º, a straight
line characteristic will still be obtained, but it will not be parallel to R-axis. Such a relay is called an
angle impedance relay.

This type of relay is not capable of selecting whether the fault has taken place in the section
where the relay is located, or it has taken place in the adjoining section when used on the
transmission line. The directional unit used with the reactance relay will not be same as used with
the impedance type relay because the restraining reactive volt-ampere, in that case, will be nearly
equal to zero.

Therefore the reactance type distance relay needs a directional unit that is inoperative under load
conditions. Reactance type relay is very suitable as a ground relay for ground fault because its
reach is not affected by fault impedance.

Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay:

The directional power relay is unsuitable for use as a directional protective relay under short-
circuit conditions. When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage falls to a low value and there
may be insufficient torque developed in the relay to cause its operation. This difficulty is overcome
in the Induction Type Directional Overcurrent
Relay which is designed to be almost
independent of system voltage and power
factor
Constructional details: Fig. 21.19 shows the
constructional details of a typical Induction
Type Directional Overcurrent Relay. It consists
of two relay elements mounted on a common
case viz.
1. Directional element and
2. Non-directional element.
1. Directional element: It is essentially a
directional power relay which operates when
power flows in a specific direction. The
potential coil of this element is connected
through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the
system voltage. The current coil of the element
is energised through a C.T. by the circuit
current. This winding is carried over the upper
magnet of the non-directional element. The trip
contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element
are connected in series with the secondary circuit of the overcurrent element. Therefore, the latter
element cannot start to operate until its secondary circuit is completed. In other words, the
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directional element must operate first (i.e. contacts I and 2 should close) in order to operate the
overcurrent element.
2. Non-directional element: It is an overcurrent element similar in all respects to a non-direc-
tional overcurrent relay described in Art. 21.11. The spindle of the disc of this element carries a
moving contact which closes the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of direc -
tional element.
It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting but has
been omitted in the figure for clarity and simplicity. The tappings are provided on the upper
magnet of overcurrent element and are connected to the bridge.
Operation: Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the circuit
protected by the relay. Therefore, Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay (upper element)
does not operate, thereby keeping the overcurrent element (lower element) unenergised.
However, when a short-circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the
reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the fixed
contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit for overcurrent element.
The disc of this element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit. This
operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements are so
arranged that final tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the following
conditions are satisfied :
1. current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
2. current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
3. excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of
overcurrent element.
Directional Relay Characteristics:

The directional relays identify the zone of operation with the help of polarising
voltage and characteristic angle.

Directional Relay Operating Characteristics

Polarising Voltage: Directional relays needed reference voltage to identify the direction of
currents. This is the voltage taken from Potential Transformers. The reference voltage is called
polarising voltage. The relay operates for the defined direction when the fault current is in the
same direction and exceeds the over current setting value.
Relay Characteristic Angle: RCA -The characteristic angle is the phase angle by which
reference or polarising voltage is adjusted such that the directional relay operates with maximum
sensitivity.
Characteristic Angle is also called
Directional angle as it decides the
direction of operation of the relay.
Maximum Torque Angle: MTA -
Maximum torque angle is the
angle made by fault current with
respect to its phase voltage. This
is expected fault angle, and
completely predictable. This angle
is different for phase faults and
earth faults.
Center of Zone or Maximum
Torque Line: Center of zone is
the line formed by Char Angle

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where relay exhibits maximum sensitivity. At this line relay current is in phase with the reference
or polarising voltage.
Zero Torque Line: It is the boundary line which separates the plane into Operate and Inhibit
regions.
Forward Zone: Forward zone is+/- 85° either side of the Maximum Torque line or Centre of
forward zone line.
Reverse Zone: Reverse operate zone is the mirror image of the forward zone.
Changes Occur during Fault condition: Whenever, fault occurs on transmission line or busbars
the voltage reduces proportional to the severity of fault and current increases larger than the
normal currents. The fault current is lagging in nature. Healthy phase magnitudes and angles not
changed.

Distance Relays or Impedance Relays:

The operation of the relays discussed so far depended upon the magnitude of current or power in
the protected circuit. However, there is another group of relays in which the operation is governed
by the ratio of applied voltage to current in the protected circuit. Such relays are called Distance
Relays or Impedance Relays. In an impedance relay, the torque produced by a current element is
opposed by the torque produced by a voltage element. The relay will operate when the ratio V/I is
less than a predetermined value.

Fig. 21.20 illustrates the basic principle of operation of an impedance relay. The voltage element
of the relay is excited through a potential transformer (P.T.) from the line to be protected. The
current element of the relay is excited from a current transformer (C.T.) in series with the line. The
portion AB of the line is the protected zone.. Under normal operating conditions, the impedance of
the protected zone is Z L. The relay is so designed that it closes its contacts whenever impedance
of the protected section falls below the pre-determined value i.e.Z L in this case.
Now suppose a fault occurs at point F 1 in the protected zone. The impedance Z (=*V/I) between
the point where the relay is installed and the point of fault will be less than Z L and hence the relay
operates. Should the fault occur beyond the protected zone (say point F 2), the impedance Z will be
greater than ZL and the relay does not operate.
Types of Distance Relays or Impedance Relays:
A distance or impedance relay is essentially an ohmmeter and operates whenever the impedance
of the protected zone falls below a pre-determined value. There are two types of distance relays in
use for the protection of power supply, namely ;
1. Definite-Distance relay which operates instantaneously for fault up to a pre-determined
distance from the relay.
2. Time-Distance relay in which the time of operation is proportional to the distance of fault
from the relay point. A fault nearer to the relay will operate it earlier than a fault farther
away from the relay.
It may be added here that the distance relays are produced by modifying either of two types of
basic relays; the balance beam or the induction disc.

Definite Distance Type Impedance Relay:

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Fig. 21.21 shows the schematic arrangement of a Definite Distance Type Impedance Relay. It
consists of a pivoted beam F and two electromagnets energized respectively by a current and
voltage transformer in the protected circuit. The armatures of the two electromagnets are
mechanically coupled to the beam on the opposite sides of the fulcrum. The beam is provided with
a bridging piece for the trip contacts. The relay is so designed that the torques produced by the
two electromagnets are in the opposite direction.

Operation: Under normal operating conditions of this Definite Distance Type Impedance Relay,
the pull due to the voltage element is greater than that of the current element. Therefore, the
relay contacts remain open. However, when a fault occurs in the protected zone, the applied
voltage to the relay decreases whereas the current increases. The ratio of voltage to current (i.e.
impedance) falls below the pre-determined value. Therefore, the pull of the current element will
exceed that due to the voltage element and this causes the beam to tilt in a direction to close the
trip contacts.

The pull of the current element is proportional to I 2 and that of voltage element to V2.
Consequently, the relay will operate when

The value of the constants k1 and k2 depends upon the ampere-turns of the two electromagnets.
By providing tappings on the coils, the setting value of the relay can be changed.

Time Distance Impedance Relay:

A time-distance impedance relay is one which automatically adjusts its operating time according
to the distance of the relay from the fault point i.e.

Construction: Fig. 21.22 shows the schematic arrangement of a typical induction type time-
distance impedance relay. It consists of a current driven induction element similar to the double-
winding type induction overcurrent relay (refer back to Fig. 21.8). The spindle carrying the disc of

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this element is connected by means of a spiral spring coupling to a second spindle which carries
the bridging piece of the relay trip contacts. The bridge is normally held in the open position by an
armature held against the pole face of an electromagnet excited by the voltage of the circuit to be
protected.

Operation: Under normal load conditions, the pull of the armature is more than that of the
induction element and hence the trip circuit contacts remain open. However, on the occurrence of
a short-circuit, the disc of the induction current element starts to rotate at a speed depending
upon the operating current. As the rotation of the disc proceeds, the spiral spring coupling is
wound up till the tension of the spring is sufficient to pull the armature away from the pole face of
the voltage-excited magnet. Immediately this occurs, the spindle carrying the armature and
bridging piece moves rapidly in response to the tension of the spring and trip contacts are closed.
This opens the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.

The speed of rotation of the disc is approximately proportional to the operating current, neglecting
the effect of control spring. Also the time of operation of the relay is directly proportional to the
pull of the voltage-excited magnet and hence to the line voltage V at the point where the relay is
connected. Therefore, the time of operation of relay would vary as V/I i.e. as Z or distance.

What is a Ground Fault?

A ground fault is an inadvertent contact between an energized conductor and ground or

equipment frame. The return path of the fault current is through the grounding system and any
personnel or equipment that becomes part of that system. Ground faults are frequently the result
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of insulation breakdown. It’s important to note that damp, wet, and dusty environments require
extra diligence in design and maintenance. Since water is conductive it exposes degradation of
insulation and increases the potential for hazards to develop.

What are some issues that cause a ground-fault relay to trip accidentally?

Harmonics and higher-frequency noise, especially at the third harmonic, appear as fault current.
Electrical noise is a growing problem as more users utilize variable frequency drives, inverters,
battery storage/UPS, and even LED lighting. To avoid nuisance trips, select a high-quality ground-
fault relay that removes harmonic frequencies and other noise from its measurements.

What do ground-fault relays do?

In electrical circuits, current returns to its source. A current-based ground-fault relay may look for
ground-fault current in one of two ways: 1.) Zero sequence. Here, the relay looks at the phase
conductors to ensure that all current coming from the source returns on those same conductors. If
some of the current is returning to the source through a different path (usually ground), the
ground-fault relay will detect this difference and, if it exceeds a pre-determined amount for a pre-
determined amount of time, the ground-fault relay will operate. 2.) Direct measurement. A ground-
fault relay can also read the current in the connection between the transformer neutral and
ground (even with a neutral grounding resistor). A ground fault anywhere in the system will return
current through this path.

Balance current Relaying

A three phase current balance protection relay continuously monitors a three phase AC current
through current transformers, tripping upon an unbalanced load condition. The output relay trips
when the monitored current is outside of the user adjustable limit and the LED ceases to illuminate
indicating a fault condition.

What are pilot or slave relays?

Pilot or Slave relays : Many of the valves and solenoids the speed switch operates have high
currents and it may become necessary to “buffer” the control against harmful currents. The Pilot
or Slave relay simply “relays” the signal to the high current load. The input to the Slave relay can
be small but it can control currents up to 100’s of amps. A diode is shown in the above illustration.
This is a low cost preventative that adds years of useful life. The diode channels the surges of the
slave relay into a harmless dissipation as opposed to causing arcing in the control contacts of the
engine control. By placing the pilot relays close to the loads other electrical benefits occur when
the system is in an environment where electrical interference should be minimized.

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What Is A Buchholz Relay?

Buchholz relay is a safety device which is generally used in

large oil immersed transformers (rated more than 500 kVA).
It is a type of oil and gas actuated protection relay. It is used
for the protection of a transformer from the faults occurring
inside the transformer, such as impulse breakdown of the
insulating oil, insulation failure of turns etc.

Working Principle Of Buchholz Relay

Whenever a fault occurs inside the transformer, such as

insulation failure of turns, breakdown of core or excess core
heating, the fault is accompanied by production of excess
heat. This excess heat decomposes the transformer
insulating oil which results in production of gas. The
generation of gases depend on intensity the of fault. Gas bubbles tend to flow in upward direction
towards conservator and hence they are collected in the buchholz relay which is placed on the
pipe connecting the transformer tank and conservator.

Construction

Buchholz relay consists of an oil filled chamber.

There are two hinged floats, one at the top and
other at the bottom in the chamber. Each float is
accompanied by a mercury switch. The mercury
switch on the upper float is connected to an alarm
circuit and that on the lower float is connected to
an external trip breaker. The construction of a
buchholz relay is shown in the figure.

How Does A Buchholz Relay Work?

Whenever a minor fault occurs inside the

transformer, heat is produced by the fault
currents. The produced heat causes
decomposition of transformer oil and gas bubbles
are produced. These gas bubbles flow in upward
direction and get collected in the buchholz relay.
The collected gas displaces the oil in buchholz relay and the displacement is equivalent to the
volume of gas collected. The displacement of oil causes the upper float to close the upper mercury
switch which is connected to an alarm circuit. Hence, when minor fault occurs, the connected
alarm gets activated. The collected amount of gas indicates the severity of the fault occurred.
During minor faults the production of gas is not enough to move the lower float. Hence, during
minor faults, the lower float is unaffected.

During major faults, like phase to earth short circuit, the heat generated is high and a large
amount of gas is produced. This large amount of gas will similarly flow upwards, but its motion is
high enough to tilt the lower float in the buccholz relay. In this case, the lower float will cause the
lower mercury switch which will trip the transformer from the supply, i.e. transformer is isolated
from the supply.

Advantages Of Buchholz Relay

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 Buchholz relay indicates the internal faults due to heating and it helps in avoiding the major
faults.
 Severity of the fault can be determined without even dismantling the transformer.
 If a major fault occurs, the transformer can be isolated with the help of buchholz relay to
prevent accidents.

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