MALAWI JUNIOR SECONDARY

PHYSICS

FORM 2

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 1

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Conducting a scientific investigation……………………………………..4 - 6

2. Thermal expansion of matter ………………………………………..……7 - 10

3. Understanding density…………………..………………….11 - 13

4. Specific heat capacity……………………………..………...14 - 15

5. Heat transfer…………………………………………………16 - 18

6. Power and machines ……………………………………….19 - 23

7. Electrostatics ……………………………………………….24 - 30

8. Light I: Rectilinear propagation of light and image formation ...31 - 34

9. Light II: Reflection of light and plane mirrors……………35 - 37

10. Light III: Refraction ………………………………………..38 - 40

11. Introduction to nuclear physics…………...………………...41 - 44

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 2

 CHAPTER 1

CONDUCTING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
It is an empirical (measurable) study of a question using the scientific method. It is a series o steps used to
help solve a problem.

STEPS IN CARRYING OUT SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Six main steps involved in carrying out scientific investigation include:
a. Make an observation
b. Asking a question
c. Formulating a hypothesis
d. Listing the materials
e. Deciding on the method to test a hypothesis
f. Recording the results
g. Drawing a conclusion.
a. MAKE AN OBSERVATION
Make an observation of the natural world
b. ASKING A QUESTION
A good scientific investigation begins with a question e.g. what is the effect of……; what if…..or
how? The question should be the one that can lead to an experiment which will yield quantitative or
qualitative data. The question often identifies the independent variables in the experiment. E.g. does a
cork float on water?
c. FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is a statement of the expected outcome (prediction) of any investigation that is based on
knowledge and research. It is a simple statement that defines what one thinks the outcome of the
experiment will be. Experiment is carried out to find out if the prediction is correct or not.

CARRYING OUT A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Involves deciding on the materials and methods to be used in the experiment, collecting and presenting
data (results), analyzing and interpreting data and drawing a conclusion.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 3

d. LISTING THE MATERIALS
The materials to be used in the experiment need to be listed in specific amounts and sizes. This allows
other scientists to repeat the experiment to verify the results of the experiment.
e. DECIDING ON THE METHOD TO TEST A HYPOTHESIS
A method is an instruction of working procedure. It includes the instructions on how to use the
apparatus. It helps physicists to organize their thoughts and procedures to have confidence in the
answers found.
Procedures must be written in clear and sequential manner to allow someone else to follow the same
steps to replicate the experiment.
Variables must be indentified and controlled

TYPES OF VARIABLES
There are three types of variables
i. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – it is the factor that is intentionally changed during the
experimental procedure in order to find out what effect it has on something.
ii. DEPENDENT VARIABLE – the factor that is observed and measured to see if it is affected
by the change made in the independent variable. Therefore these variable are also called
responding variables.
iii. CONTROLLED VARIABLES – are the factors in the experiment that must be kept exactly
the same to make sure that they are not having any effect on the dependent variable.
f. RECORDING THE RESULTS
It includes the measurements taken and observations made. These should be given in form of graphs,
tables, figures and charts. Data that is observed or measured should be recorded as the experiment is
being conducted.
Recorded data should be analyzed and graphed. Analysis of data includes calculation of mean, median,
mode and range.
Data presented as graphs can be easily interpreted.

TYPES OF GRAPHS
a. BAR GRAPHS – are used to display discrete data, or data that is distinct and separate from other
information. Data shown on a bar graph reflects measured or counted amounts.
b. LINE GRAPHS - are used to display continuous data or data that goes on without a stop or break.
Experiments that have dependent variables like temperature, time or distance yild data that should
Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 4
 be graphed as a line graph. In a line graph, the independent variable is represented on the
horizontal (x) axis of the graph and the dependent variable is represented on the vertical (y) axis of
a graph.
g. DRAWING CONCLUSION
It is the final step in scientific investigation and it summarizes the results of the experiment and how
these results match up to the hypothesis. Conclusion should
i. State whether the hypothesis was supported or not.
ii. Answer the original question that started the investigation and include results used as the basis
for that conclusion
iii. Include inferences that can be made from the results of the experiment
iv. Include any additional questions that could be investigated.

STRATEGIES OF PLANNING AN INVESTIGATION

When planning an investigation take into account
a. Safety measures required in order to conduct an investigation successfully to avoid danger
from apparatus or chemicals which have hazard factors.
b. The apparatus and chemicals to be used. Apparatus chosen should be appropriate for the
measurement of the quantities involved. Chemicals used must be handled as required
taking safety precautions. Plastic apparatus may be chosen to avoid breakages.
c. Procedure or method to be followed should be clearly shown. Quantities to be varied and
those to be kept constant should be known in advance.
d. Repeated readings should be taken in order to improve reliability of results obtained.

THE STRUCTURE OF A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

The following is the general structure of a standard scientific investigation or experimentation.
a. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
This is a brief and concise statement of the objectives of the experiment. It is derived from the
hypothesis stated.
b. APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT
All the apparatus to be used are identified and listed.
c. PROCEDURE/METHOD
A step by step account of what is to be done, how it will be done and what quantities will be
measured (the quantities to be varied, and those to be kept constant)
Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 5
 A well labeled diagram showing the set up of all the apparatus to be used is drawn.
Statement on how the results will be analysed (e.g. by drawing tables or performing calculations)
d. RESULTS
Results of measurements (including tables, graphs and calculations) are shown. Results should be
presented in table form showing all the quantities measured.
e. ANALYSIS
The results of investigation are discussed e.g. the trend of graph
f. CONCLUSION
The results of the analysis are carefully stated, noting the limitations. Sources of errors should be
discussed and improvements suggested. Conclusion should discuss the extent to which the aim (and
the hypothesis) has been achieved.

CHAPTER 2

THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 6
EXPANSION is the difference between the original size of an object and its size when heated.
Thermal expansion is the change in length or volume which a material or body undergoes on being heated.

WHY DO SOLIDS EXPAND WHEN HEATED?

When solids and liquids are heated, the molecules vibrate more (with a larger amplitude) about their fixed
position and take up more space i.e. expands.
In solids, thermal expansion is in terms of length, height or thickness while in liquids or gases, thermal
expansion is in terms of change in volume.

TO DEMONSTRATE EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION USING A THIN METAL ROD

TO DEMONSTRATE EXPANSION USING A BALL RING AND RING APPARATUS

A ball and ring apparatus consists of a ball and a ring both made of the same metal. The ball can just pass
through the ring at room temperature.
On heating , the ball does not go through the ring. On cooling the ball goes through easily.
On heating there is an increase in length due to expansion in the rod. The expanding moves the roller to the
right making the pointer attached to the roller to deflect in the clockwise direction. On cooling the rod
contracts/decreases in length and moves to the left hence pointer deflects in anticlockwise dire
Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 7
 THERMAL EXPANSION IN SOLIDS
When a solid is heated, its particles vibrate more as a result they collide and push each other further apart.
DIFFERENCES IN THE THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
Different solids expand by different amounts when heated equally.
Increase in length or expansion of a solid depends on
a. The change in temperature
b. The material for which the solid is made
c. The original length of material
BIMETALLIC STRIP

A bimetallic strip is made up of different metals joined together throughout the length ( equal lengths of
two different metals riveted together to make a compound bar). The different expansions of the metals in
the bimetallic strip force the flat strip to bend one way if heated and in opposite direction if cooled below
its normal temperature.

As temperature increases, the bimetallic strip bends downwards with the brass strip outside. This shows
brass expands more than iron. The large force developed between the molecules of brass forces the iron to
bend outwards. On cooling the brass contracts more than iron and the iron strip is forced to bend upwards.

The metal with higher expansion is on the outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on the inner
side when cooled.
Bending of bimetallic strip shows that different metals expand differently.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 8

 FORCE DUE TO EXPANSION IN GLASS
When boiling water is poured into a thick walled glass tumbler it breaks suddenly. This is because the
inside of the glass gets heated and expands before the outside layer becomes warm causing unequal
expansion between the inside and the outside surfaces. The force produced by the expanding molecules on
the inside produces a large strain in the glass and the tumbler breaks.

THERMAL EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS

When a liquid is heated, its molecules gain kinetic energy and vibrate more vigorously. As the vibration
becomes larger, the molecules are pushed further apart and the liquid expands in all directions.

DIFFERENCES IN THE THERMAL EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS

Different liquids of equal volumes expand by different amounts when heated equally.

THERMAL EXPANSION OF GASES

Expansion of gases is much larger than that of solids and liquids under the same rise in temperature. When
the temperature of a gas is increased, the molecules move faster. The collisions between molecules become
more violent and hence move away from each other causing the volume to increase.
EXPANSION OF DIFFERENT GASES
Under the equal pressure, all gases expand at the same rate. A gas expands by the same proportion as the
temperature rises, provided external pressure remains the same.

APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

Thermal expansion has a lot of uses in everyday life e.g.
a. REMOVING BOTTLE STOPPERS – if it is difficult to remove a stopper from a glass bottle,
heat the neck of the bottle. The neck of the bottle expands and the stopper comes out easily.
b. THERMOMETER – property of liquid to expand when heated is used to make a thermometer for
measuring temperature. When mercury in a thermometer expands, the mercury column moves up
the thin capillary tube and column drops if it contracts
c. RIVETING METAL PLATES – rivets are used to hold steel metal plates tightly together. A very
hot rivet (that has expanded) is pushed through two plates and the ends are hammered. When rivet
is cooled it contracts and pulls the two plates together very tightly.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 9

 d. BIMETALLIC STRIP – is used as a thermostat to break an electrical circuit thereby maintains a
steady temperature in a system. As temperature increases the strip bends and breaks electrical
contact in the heater circuit. When the temperature reduces, the bimetallic strip returns to its
original position and shape and contact is restored. This is very useful in fire alarms.

e. CONSTRUCTION IN BULDINGS – the steel used to make rods is designed to expand at the
same rate as the concrete. If the rods were to expand differently the concrete would crack.
f. CAR TYRES – when cars are moving quickly, the rubbing between the tyre and the road increases
the temperature of the air in the tyre causing the tyre to expand. Therefore tyres must be inflated
correctly to avoid bursting.
g. RAILWAY LINES – a gap is left between two ends of the steel rails at the joint to allow for
expansion during summer. If no gaps are left the rail would get distorted.

h. PERIOD OF OSCILLATION IN A PENDULUM IN A CLOCK depends on length. When

temperature changes, the length also changes hence clock loses time in summer and gains time in
winter
i. WALLS OF SOFT DRINK BOTTLES are made very thick to avoid bursting due to thermal
expansion of the liquid they contain. Also space is left in soft drink bottles to allow for expansion of
the drinks.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 10

 j. TELEPHONE AND ELECTRICAL POWER CABLES - are installed with slack in hot summer
weather so that they do not pull the telephone poles over when they contract in winter.

EFFECT OF SUDDEN EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION ON OBJECTS

When a solid expands and contracts so rapidly it will shatter. Too much change in temperature in
rocks cause them to break. In deserts huge temperature changes causes rocks to break resulting in
heaps of mineral grains (sands) and piles of broken rocks at the bottom of a cliff.

CHAPTER 3

UNDERSTANDING DENSITY
Density is mass per unit volume.
MEASURING DENSITY OF REGULAR SOLID
To calculate the density of a regular solid one needs to measure the mass of the solid by weighing it
on a beam balance. Measure the volume using a proper formula e.g. L = L X B X H.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Calculate the density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

MEASURING DENSITY OF IRREGULAR SOLID

To calculate the density of an irregular solid, find the mass by weighing it on a triple beam balance.
Find the volume of the object by measuring the volume of water displaced by the object. Volume of
water displaced can be found by pouring water half full in a measuring, record initial volume. The
irregular object is lowered in the water and final volume recorded.

Volume of water displaced = final volume – initial volume

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 11

 Volume of irregular object = volume of water displaced
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density of irregular object =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

FACTORS THAT AFFECT DENSITY

a. TEMPERATURE
When substances are heated they expand i.e. increase in volume but their masses remain the
same. Therefore the ratio of mass to volume would decrease i.e. dividing the same mass by a
bigger volume.
b. NATURE OR TYPE OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Atoms have different atomic mass units. Substances with atoms of greater mass weigh more
than those with smaller masses when equal volumes are compared. This makes their densities to
differ.
c. SIZE AND DISTANCE BETWEEN CENTRES OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Some substances are made up of particles that are far apart while others that are closer together.
E.g. density of water vapour is much less than density of liquid water or ice because the
particles in a given volume of water vapour are very far apart when compared to those of liquid
water and ice.
TEMPERATURE AND DENSITY
Heating a substance causes molecules to speed up and spread further apart, occupying a larger volume
that results in a decrease in density. Cooling a substance causes molecules to slow down and get closer
together, occupying a smaller volume that results in an increase in density. Hot water is less dense and
will float on room-temperature water.

ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

Density of water increases when its temperature decreases to 4oC and below this temperature
water begins to expand instead of contracting and becomes less dense. If water is heated from
0oC to 4oC instead of expanding it contracts.
This is why ice floats on top of water.

EFFECTS OF UNUSUAL EXPANSION OF WATER.

a. Freezing of lakes and ponds

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 12

 When temperature falls to 0oC water freezes and becomes less dense than the water and
therefore ice stays at the top and water at the bottom remains 4oC and this enables aquatic
animals to survive in cold weather.

b. Bursting of pipes
Water pipes can burst when the water flowing through the pipe freezes because on freezing
the volume of water increase.
c. Weathering of rocks
When water freezes in the cracks of a rock, its volume increase. This causes the rock to
break into small pieces resulting into weathering of rocks.

RELATIVE DENSITY
Relative density tells how many times one substance is denser than the other. Densities of
substances are compared to that of water by dividing the density of a substance by that of water.
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Relative density = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

AVERAGE DENSITY
It is total mass of a substance divided by total volume of that substance.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Average density = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

WHY DO OBJECTS SINK OR FLOAT ON WATER

a. SHIP MADE UP OF STEEL FLOATS

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 13

 The ship contains large space that is filled with air. Adding the mass of steel (of little volume)
to the mass of air (larger volume) and dividing by the large volume (occupied by air and steel)
gives an average density that isles than that of sea water. As a result, the ship floats.
A steel bar would sink in water because the average density of the steel is greater than that of
water.
b. A FRESH EGG SINKS IN WATER WHILE A ROTTEN EGG FLOATS ON WATER.
A fresh egg sinks because it is denser than water while a rotten egg floats because it is less
dense than water.

c. A FRESH EGG FLOATS ON SALTY WATER.

A fresh egg floats in salty water because the average density of the egg is less than the average
density of salty water. A fresh egg sinks in fresh water because the average density of the egg is
greater than the density of fresh water.
d. WHY DOES A ROTTEN EGG FLOAT ON WATER AND A FRESH EGG SINKS?
The rotten egg floats because bacteria is eating away some of the egg contents which is making
it lighter i.e. making it less dense than water.

IMPORTANCE OF DENSITY
Density can be used to
a. Distinguish pure substances from impure substances
b. Identify substances which look alike.
c. Separate mixtures of immiscible liquids.
d. Determine the sources and nature of rocks.
e. To find out the mass of liquid when a containing vessel is filled
f. Check the compactness of a road and the strength of concrete slabs.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 14

 CHAPTER 4

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Temperature is a measure of how hot something is while heat is a measure of the thermal energy contained
in an object. When heat is transferred to an object , its temperature increases depending on
a. Mass of the object
b. Substance the object is made from
c. Amount of energy transferred to the object
For a particular object, more heat energy transferred to it, the greater its temperature increase. The
relationship between heat (Q) that is transferred to an object of specific heat capacity (C) and the
change in temperature (∆T) is expressed as
Q = C∆T = C (Tf – Ti)
Proportionality constant in the equation is the heat capacity (C). the temperature change is the
difference between the final temperature (Tf) and the initial temperature (Ti)
HEAT CAPACITY
It is the amount of heat that is required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1oC.
Mathematical equation used when calculating heat capacity is
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Heat capacity = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒

Example
How much heat energy must be transferred to raise the temperature of 2 kg of water from 20oC to 30oC
Solution
Q = m x c x ∆T
= 2kg x 4181J/kg0C x (30oC – 20oC)
= 2kg x 4181 x 10
= 83,620J
= 83.62kJ
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
It is the amount of heat that is required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1oC.
Heat required (H) = mass (m) x specific heat capacity (C) x temperature change (∆𝑇)

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 15

 H = mC∆𝑇
𝐻
Specific heat capacity (C) = 𝑚∆𝑇

Mass is measured in kilograms (kg), heat in joules (J) and change in temperature in Kelvin (K) or in
degrees Celsius (oC).
SI unit of specific heat capacity is joule/kilogram Kelvin (J/KgK) or Joule/kilogram degrees Celsius
(J/KgoC). different substances have different specific heat capacities.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

a. The difference between heat capacity and specific heat capacity is that for heat capacity the mass of the
substance varies, while for specific heat capacity the mass is fixed i.e. 1kg.
b. Specific heat capacity is measured in J/KgoC while heat capacity is measured in J/oC.
Heat capacity is energy/temperature change and it changes because it depends on the mass of the substance
but specific heat capacity is constant for a substance.

HOW TO FIND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER

1kg of water is weighed and poured into insulated container, measure initial temperature, switch on
electric heater of known power. Time and final temperature is noted.
Type of Mass Initial Final Temperature Power of Time on Heat
liquid of temperature temperatur change (oC) heater (p) (t) in sec supplied
liquid Ti (oC) e Ti (oC) = pxt
in kg
water 1 25 35 10 100J/s 419 41900J

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 16

 𝐻
Specific heat capacity (C) = 𝑚∆𝑇

= 41 900J/(1kg x 10oC)
= 4 190J/KgoC

IMPORTANCE OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

a. Helps to come up with technological innovations such as thermometers and pots – thermometers
have low specific heat capacity so that they are sensitive to temperature.
b. Cooking utensils are made up of metals e.g. iron and aluminium which have low specific heat
capacity so that they heat up quickly thereby saving energy i.e. they need less energy to raise up the
temperature.
c. Pots have handles that have high specific heat capacity so that they absorb heat slowly i.e. their
temperature won’t become too high even if they absorb large amount of heat.. They are poor
conductors of conductors, so people do not burn themselves when they touch the handles.
d. Cooling system of car engine uses water because it has a high specific heat capacity so that as water
circulates in the engine it absorbs large amount of water. Heat is released when hot water flows to
the radiator which later releases the heat to the surrounding air.
e. Sea and land breezes are a result of specific heat capacity.

SEA BREEZE
During day land heats up quickly because it has low specific heat capacity while the sea water heats
up slowly because it has high specific heat capacity. The air above land gets hotter faster than the
air above the sea. The hot air above the land becomes less dense and rises and cool air from the sea
blows towards the land to take up the place of rising air i.e. forming convection current.

LAND BREEZE

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 17

 At night the land cools fast and becomes cold while the sea releases heat slowly. The sea is hotter
than the land. The sea hot air rises and cold air from the land blows towards the sea forming
convection current.

CHAPTER 5

HEAT TRANSFER
There are three modes of heat transfer namely
a. Conduction
b. Convection
c. Radiation

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 18

A. CONDUCTION
It is the flow of heat through matter from higher temperature areas to low temperature areas without the
movement of particles. This commonly occurs in solids.

TYPES OF CONDUCTORS
a. GOOD CONDUCTORS – are materials that conduct heat very quickly (fast) e.g. metals like
copper, gold, iron and aluminium. Metals have free electrons and when the metal is heated these
electrons quickly move and share their heat with atoms. Due to fast moving electrons, the warming
of metals occurs quickly.
b. BAD CONDUCTORS (INSULATORS) are materials that do not conduct heat easily, e.g. air,
wood, water, plastic, feathers and glass. Insulators do not have free electrons and they only depend
on conduction vibrations to transfer heat energy to neighbouring atoms.

COMPARING RATE OF CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS

A match stick is fixed by wax to the end of each of the three rods of copper, aluminium and iron of
same length and thickness. Free ends are heated with a burner.

When the temperature of the other ends of the rods reach the melting point of wax, the match stick falls ff.
the match sticks do not fall at the same time because the energy transferred is not equal for all the rods. The
match stick from copper rod is the first to fall off showing that of the three metals, copper is the best
conductor of heat followed by aluminium and then iron
Process of conduction is speeded up if:
a. Temperature difference between ends of a conductor is large
b. Cross sectional area is increased
c. Length is reduced.

B. CONVECTION

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 19

It is the flow of heat energy through fluids from areas of high temperature to areas of low temperature by
movement of particles i.e. particles carry heat with them.
During convection of heat the warmer, less dense part of the fluid moves upward and the colder, denser
part of the fluid falls to take the place of the warmer, less dense part. This creates a stream of a liquid
called convection current.
CONVECTION CURRENT IN HOT WATER
When heating a pot of water over a flame, heated water expands and becomes more buoyant. Cooler,
denser water near the surface descends and patterns of circulation is formed.

C. RADIATION
It is the flow of heat energy from an area to another by electromagnetic waves.

APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER IN EVERYDAY LIFE

a. USES OF CONDUCTION
 Pots, frying pans, boilers and baking pans are made of metal because they are good
conductors of heat i.e. they pass on heat to contents in them quickly
 The handles of pots and pans are made of poor conductors to avoid conducting heat quickly
which would burn.

b. USES OF CONVECTION
 Refrigerators cool food by circulating a current of air which cools all the food inside.
 Thermal convection is used in houses that have hot water systems that use boilers.
 Huge convection currents in the atmosphere cause winds which would be used to drive
windmills for electricity and water pumping.
 Convection also causes land and sea breezes

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 20

  Cooling car engines. Engine is covered with a metal water jacket which conducts het from
the engine and heats the water. The water jacket is connected to a radiator which is cooled
by outside air flowing past it.
 Ventilation. Fresh cold air enters a building through windows placed low down near the
floor. The warm air rises and escapes through ventilators (small holes) high up on the walls
or ceiling.
GRASS THATCHED HOUSE
Grass thatched roofs of houses have air molecules trapped between the fibres of grass. Since
air is a bad conductor of heat, heat losses by conduction is minimized from the house hence
maintaining the temperature constant in the house.

THERMOS FLASK
A vacuum flask is used to keep hot things hot and cold things cold. The double-silvered glass is
very shiny not to allow heat to enter or leave the flask through radiation.
The vacuum prevents heat loss by convection and conduction since it contains no matter. The
stopper is insulated to reduce heat loss by convection and conduction. Cork lid is a poor conductor
of heat.

DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEM

A domestic hot water supply system works n the principle of convection current

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 21

 Hot water heated using fire goes up the hot water storage tank through pipe A. Cold water flows
down from cold water storage tank into the boiler through pipe B (return pipe). When hot water is
being drawn from the top hot water storage tank, it is replaced by water from main cold water tank
built at the top of the house.

USES OF ALUMINIUM FOILS

a. Used in keeping food warm. Hot food is wrapped with aluminium foil. Heat from the food is
reflected back in the food by the shiny surface of the aluminium foil making the food to be
warm for some time.
b. Used in designing a simple solar heater. Aluminum foil is wrapped on the inner curved
surface of a large dish placed with shiny surface facing upwards towards the sun. aluminum
surface reflects sunlight to a focal point that causes a rise in temperature at this point of focus.
The heat at this point can be used to heat water or cooking.

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF HEAT TRANSFER

Knowledge of heat transfer helps to design things such as kettles, food warmers, fire fighting
jackets and solar heaters. E.g. inside of kettles are shiny to prevent heat loss through radiation.

CHAPTER 6

POWER AND MACHINES

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 22
 POWER
It is the rate of doing work or work done per unit time i.e. rate at which energy is being transferred.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
Power = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

MACHINES
These are devices that help one to do work more easily and more quickly e.g. bottle opener, screw
driver, scissors, wheelbarrow, inclined, crow bar, bicycle and pulley. Other machines are simple
while others are complicated.
Inclined plane is a machine is because it makes to do work more easily.

LOAD AND EFFORT

LOAD
It is the weight to be lifted.

EFFORT
It is the force applied to move a load.

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
It is the ratio of load to effort. It is the advantage one gets by using the machine.
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Mechanical advantage = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

When mechanical advantage is much greater than one, the machine enables one to do something
with much less force.
Example
A student applies an effort of 200N to lift a box weighing 800N using a machine. Calculate the
mechanical advantage of the machine.
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
M.A. = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
800𝑁
= 200𝑁

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 23

 =4
THE INCLINE PLANE
Examples of inclined planes are a ramp, slope or hill. Inclined plane makes one apply less force to
move the load on the plane. Using a smooth and longer planks increases the mechanical advantage.
Inclined plane with rollers has even much greater mechanical advantage.

WAYS OF INCREASING MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OF AN INCLINED PLANE

a. Make the inclined plane longer result in less effort being used to pull the load.
b. Use a smooth inclined plane. This reduces friction hence less effort is required to pull the load.
c. Rolling the object along the inclined plane rather than sliding it as it requires less effort.
PULLEY
It is a wheel with a grooved rim. Pulleys are very useful for lifting a load vertically. When
lifting something, it is easier to pull downwards than to pull upwards. Pulleys help tochange
direction of pulling as an advantage.

ADVANTAGES OF PULLEYS
a. Pulleys change the direction of effort.
b. Pulleys help in reducing the size of effort applied to overcome the load

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OF PULLEYS

Mechanical advantage of pulleys increases as number of pulleys increase. In a pulley system
mechanical advantage = number of pulleys =number of sections of the rope supporting the load.
In a pulley system, the stretching force called tension, is the same at every part of the rope
supporting the load and is equal to effort.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 24

 LEVERS
A lever is a rigid body which is pivoted about an axis called fulcrum. Levers are machines that
apply the principle of moments. An effort applied at one point to move a load applied at another
point, e.g. crowbar, bottle opener, pliers, seesaw, etc
Weight x distance on the left hand side of the fulcrum = weight x distance on right hand side of
the fulcrum.
Fulcrum is a point at which the levers twin i.e. a point where something turns.

PRINCIPLES OF MOMENTS
A moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and perpendicular distance from
the point to the line of action of the force.
Moments of a force about a point = force (N) x perpendicular distance (m)
=Fxd

Where d1 is the load distance (load arm)

d2 is the effort distance (effort arm)
At balance;
Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
d2 x E = d1 x F

PRINCIPLES OF MOMENTS OR LAW OF LEVERS

It states that the load x load arm = effort x effort arm i.e. the sum clockwise moment at a point is
equal to the sum anticlockwise moment at the same point at equilibrium.
Load arm – distance between fulcrum and load
Effort arm – distance between the fulcrum and effort

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 25

 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚
In a lever M.A. = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
= 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

Example 1
Figure shows a simple machine in the first class.

Calculate the value of d

Solution
At equilibrium;
Clockwise moments at a point of action = anticlockwise moments at the same point

d1 x F1 = d2 x E2
60N x d1 = 12cm x 100N
12𝑐𝑚 𝑥 100𝑁
d1 = 60𝑁

= 20cm
Example 2
A worker uses a crow bar to lift a rock of 800N as shown in the figure

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 26

 Calculate the effort E used to lift the rock
Solution
At balance;
Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
2.4m x E = 0.6m x 800N
0.6𝑚 𝑥 800𝑁
E = 2.4𝑚

= 200N
CLASSES OF LEVERS
a. FIRST ORDER CLASS LEVERS
These are levers that have a fulcrum between effort and load e.g. pliers, scissors, forearms,
crowbars, and seesaw.

b. SECOND ORDER CLASS LEVERS

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 27

 These are levers that have load between the effort and the fulcrum, e.g. bottle opener,
wheelbarrow, can opener, hammer and paper cutter.

c. THIRD ORDER CLASS LEVERS

These are levers that have the effort applied between the load and the fulcrum, e.g. arm, fishing
rod, knife and shovel

CHAPTER 7

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 28

 ELECTROSTATICS
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
An atom is the basic unit or building block of matter. It is made up of protons, electrons and
neutrons. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus while electrons are found in shells or orbits.

ELECTRIC CHARGE
It is a basic physical property of matter carried by some particles that cause it to experience a force
when it is close to another electrically charged matter.
There are two types of charges i.e. positive and negative charge.
Protons have a positive charge hence are positively charged.
Electrons have a negative charge hence are negatively charged.
Neutrons have no charge hence they are neutral.
A proton and an electron have equal value of charge. If a particle has more protons than electrons,
the particle is positively charged. If the particle has more electrons than protons, the particle is
negatively charged.

ELECTRIC FIELD OF A POINT OF CHARGE

An electric field is a region or space surrounding a charge. In this region another charged body may
move away or towards the charged body producing the electric field.
P is a positively charged body and N is a negatively charged body producing an electric field.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 29

 DIRECTION OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD
The direction of the electric field at a particular point is defined as the direction in which the unit
positive charge is free to move when placed at that point.
The path along which a unit positive charge would tend to move in the electric field is called
electric field line or electric line of force.

ELECTRIC FIELD PATTERNS

The electric field lines around a charged body depends on whether the body is completely isolated
or is in the presence of other bodies.
Electric field of a charge is represented electric field lines drawn around the charge. For a positive
charge, the electric field lines point AWAY from the charge. For a negative point of charge, the
electric field lines are drawn TOWARDS the charge
a. ISOLATED POSITIVE CHARGE
The field lines are radially outwards from the positive charge

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 30

 b. ISOLATED NEGATIVE CHARGE
The field lines are radially inwards towards the negative charge.

c. TWO EQUAL POSITIVE CHARGES

The field lines start radially outwards from each charge. The resultant field is due to the
electric field produced by each charge.

At point N lies midway between the two charges, on the line joining them. At this point
resultant force acting on the unit positive charge is zero and is called neutral point.
Force due to A = force due to B
FA = FB
No field lines exist at the neutral point.
d. TWO UNLIKE POINT CHARGES
The field lines start from positive charge and end on the negative charge. Thhere is no neutral
points as a unit positive charge placed at any point experiences a force.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 31

 THE LAW OF CHARGES
Law of charges states that like charges repel while unlike charges attract.
LIKE CHARGES i.e. positive and positive or negative and negative REPEL i.e. they exert a
repulsive (pushing) force on each other. UNLIKE CHARGES i.e. positive and negative
ATTRACT i.e. they exert an attractive (pulling) force on each other.

ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING
Materials can be charged by
a. Friction (rubbing)
b. Contact (touching)
c. Induction
CHARGING BY FRICTION (RUBBING)
When two objects are against each other, one of the objects loses electrons to the other object. The
object that loses electrons becomes positively charged while the object that gains electrons becomes
negatively charged e.g. when a polythene rod is rubbed with a cloth, the rod becomes negatively
charged and the cloth becomes positively charged.

RUBBING POLYTHENE AGAINST CLOTH

Materials like glass lose electrons to the materials like silk when rubbed and becomes positively
charged.
RUBBING GLASS AGAINST A SILK CLOTH.
Materials like silk cloth gains electrons and becomes negatively charged.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 32

 SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE
Rubbing tend to move some of loosely held electrons from one material and transfer them to the
other i.e. electrons are knocked off from one material to the other

When materials are charged by friction

a. The excess negative charges on the body are equal to the excess positive charges on the other.
No new charges are created.
b. During rubbing process, some materials always acquire the same kind of charge whereas some
materials may acquire either negative or positive charges
c. The quantity of charge produced in some cases may be small and in some cases the charges may
escape before they are detected.

CHARGING BY CONTACT (TOUCHING)

When a neutral object comes into contact with a charged object, some of the charge from the
charged object is transferred to the neutral object. The neutral object gains a similar charge (positive
or negative) to that of the charged object.

CHARGING BY INDUCTION
Induction means something happens without direct contact i.e. when a charged object is brought near
a neutral object. When a positively charged object is moved near a neutral object, electrons in the
neutral object are attracted to the positively charged object, resulting in the object to be positively
charged on one side and negatively charged on the other side.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 33

 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Conductors are materials that allow electrons to move freely through them e.g. most metals (like
silver, copper, gold, aluminium, iron) and human body.
Insulators or non-conductors are materials that do not allow electrons to move through them e.g.
plastic, glass, wood, paper, rubber and silk.
Semi-conductors are materials that partially allow electrons to pass through them e.g. silicon.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR

If excess charge is placed on an insulator, it will stay where it is placed while if excess charge is
placed on a conductor the like charges will repel each other and spread out over the surface of the
object.

DETECTION OF CHARGE USING AN ELECTROSCOPE

An electroscope is a very sensitive instrument which can be used to detect and test a small electric
charge. A leaf electroscope consists of an earthed metal case with transparent plastic or glass
windows. A brass rod is inserted through an insulated cork stopper. A brass disc or cap is mounted
on the rod and a thin metal leaf (aluminium or gold) is attached to the bottom of the rod.

ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
Electrostatic force is a force which charged particles exert when brought close to each other.
Electrostatic force is attractive when unlike charges are brought close together and it is repulsive
when like charges are brought together

FACTORS THAT AFFECT ELECTROSTATIC FORCE

Electrostatic force that charged particles experience depends on the following factors:

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 34

 a. The size of charge – when the size of charges increases, the electrostatic force increases and
when the size of charge decreases the electrostatic force decreases.
b. Distance between the charges – when the distance between the charges increases, the
electrostatic force decreases and when the distance between charges decreases, the electrostatic
force increases.
These can be summarized in Coulomb’s law which states that electrostatic force between two
charged particles is directly proportional to the product of their charged and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS
a. AIR PURIFICATION – induction is used to in buildings to purify air by taking dust
particles out of the air to breathe. Air in the purifier is sprayed with positive ions which
attracts dust via induction (giving dust positive charge) and these dust particles are attracted
to the negative plates in the purifier hence allowing clean air to leave the device.
b. ELECTROSTATIC DUST PRECIPITATORS – are used in chimneys of coal-burning
power stations. The precipitators have metal plates that attracts the dust where they build up
and fall down the chimneys.
c. SPRAY PAINTING – the spray gun is charged positively causing each paint particle to
become positive charged resulting in the paint particles to spread out i.e. through repulsion.
The object to be painted is given a negative charge and so attracts the paint particles. Less
paint is wasted and repulsion between the paint positively charged paint particles ensures an
even coat of paint.
d. INSECTICIDE SPRAY – the insecticide from an aircraft is given a static charge. The static
drops spread evenly as they all have the same charge and are attracted to the earth.
e. PHOTOCOPYING AND LASER PRINTING – the copier puts a positive electrical charge
matching to the image being copied onto a sheet of paper. Negatively charged powder (toner)
is attracted to the positively charged areas on the paper creating a copy of the image. In laser
printer, the light from the laser creates an electronic image of the page on a charged drum,
which in turn attracts toner in the shape of electronic charge.
f. DEFIBRILLATORS – machines used by paramedics to restart a heart if it stops beating. The
defibrillator has two paddles that are charged and are put in contact with patient chest. These
paddles pass a charge through the patient which can cause the heart to contract.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 35

 DANGERS OF ELECTROSTATICS
a. It leads to formation of lightning that can kill people and cause fire to belongings.
b. It can cause sparks that can ignite fuel when an air craft is being refueled with kerosene and
when a car is being refueled with petrol. This is prevented by connecting the frame of the aircraft
to the earth before refueling and pipe leading to the petrol tank in a car is connected to the body
of the car so as to spread out the charge.

FORMATION OF LIGHTNING
Lightning is a large charge which jumps through the air.
Charges build up in the thunderstorm clouds through friction i.e. rising and sinking of air through
the clouds. Positive charge builds up on the upper part of the clouds while negative charge
accumulates on the lower side of the clouds.
The lower negative charge induces the surface of the earth to become positively charged. When
accumulation of the charge is large some of the negative charge (electrons) jumps from the clouds to
the positively charged surface of the earth - causing a spark as lightning.

LIGHTNING ARRESTOR
It is a device that is used to prevent tall buildings and towers against the destructive effects of
lightning. It is a thick metal rod to which a metal plate is attached and buried deep in the ground. The
other end is pointed and sticks up above the building. This conductor provides a path for electrons to
flow easily through it.
If a positively charged cloud is above the building, a negative charge will be induced on the pointed
edges of the lightning conductor. Electrons concentrate on these points and by discharge action of
the pointed edges, negative ions are sprayed into the air and attracted by the positive charges on the
cloud thus reducing the charge on the base of the cloud (by neutralization) thereby preventing large
build up of charges that would result into lightning.
Even if lightning strikes, the huge electrical charge is conducted through the metal rod to the earth.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 36

 EARTHING
It is the simplest way to discharge any object by bringing it in contact with the earth. Discharging
means removing all excess electric charge from an object.
Electrical appliances are earthed or grounded so that they are protected in the event of etra charges
building in them or when there is short circuiting.
Houses are fitted with a metal rod (conductor) that goes to the ground so that in event of lightning
the charges are conducted to the earth.

CHAPTER 8
LIGHT I : RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF
LIGHT AND IMAGE FORMATION
SOURCES OF LIGHT
There are two sources of light
a. Luminous sources
These are all objects that produce their own light e.g. sun, stars, lit candle, light bulb, fire, etc
b. Non-luminous sources
Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 37
 These are all objects that do not produce their own light but just reflect light from theluminous
objects e.g. moon, glass, etc

FORMATION OF SHADOWS
There are three types of materials
a. Transparent objects are those through which light can pass through and one can see through
them e.g. air, clear glass
b. Translucent objects are those one through which light passes through but one can partially
see through them e.g. frosted glass.
c. Opaque objects are those that completely do not allow light to pass through them e.g. wood,
brick wall, person’s body, etc
A shadow is formed when an opaque is placed in the path of rays (beams) of light. It is a shade cast by
an object blocking the direct rays of light. An opaque block the passage of light since light travels in a
straight line.
FORMATION OF SHADOWS WITH A POINT SOURCE OF LIGHT
A narrow opening forms a point source of light when illuminated with light. The area between lines PR
and QS receives no light. A shadow of PQ is cast on the screen creating a complete darkness (umbra)in
the area between R and S

FORMATION OF SHADOWS WITH AN EXTENDED SOURCE OF LIGHT

A large opening forms an extended source of light when illuminated with light. The region RS on the
screen is in complete darkness (umbra). The region RT and SV are in partial darkness (penumbra)
because light comes from only one part of the extended source.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 38

 REGIONS OF A SHADOW
A shadow has two regions
a. Umbra –it is the region that is completely dark.
b. Penumbra – a region that is partially dark or look blurred i.e. some of the light reaches the region.

When light comes from a point source it only produce an umbra. Shadows produced by a point source of
light has the following characteristics:
 It has sharp edges
 It has the same shape as that of the opaque object
 It has umbra only i.e. it is dark
When light comes from an extended source it produces both umbra and penumbra. Shadows produced
by extended source of light have the following characteristics:
 It does not have sharp edges
 It has both umbra and penumbra
 It does not have the same shape as that of the opaque.

ECLIPSE
It is a phenomenon where a shadow of a moon is cast on the earth or a shadow of the earth is cast
on the moon. The sun is a source of light and the moon or earth is the object.

TYPES OF ECLIPSE
a. SOLAR ECLIPSE (ECLIPSE OF THE SUN)
It occurs when the moon is between the sun and the earth, thus the shadow of the moon is cast
on the earth. This occurs in the day when there is a temporary darkness on the earth due to the
shadow of the moon. If the moon is near the earth then a total eclipse is seen while if the moon

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 39

 is far from earth a partial eclipse is seen since the moon is smaller than the sun i.e. sun is seen as
a ring
Depending on the position of the moon, some parts of the earth lie in the region of umbra (total
eclipse) and some regions in penumbra (partial eclipse)

b. LUNAR ECLIPSE (ECLIPSE OF THE MOON)

It occurs when the earth is between the sun and the moon, thus the shadow of the earth is cast on the
moon. A temporary darkness falls on the moon due to the shadow of the earth. It takes place at night
and takes about 105 minutes. Depending on the position of the moon, a total eclipse or partial eclipse
of the moon will occur. A total eclipse occurs if the moon is in the region of umbra while a partial
eclipse occurs if any part of the moon is in the region of penumbra.

PINHOLE CAMERA
It is a simple optical imaging device in the shape of a closed box or chamber. It is also called a
camera obscura or dark chamber.
It has a small hole on one of its sides through which light travels and creates an image of the outside
object on a screen (film) on the opposite side of the box.
It has light-proof (opaque) box or enclosure made of cardboard, wood or metal.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 40

 Because light travels in a straight line, the image formed on the screen of a pinhole camera is inverted
(upside down)

The size of the image depends on the distance of the object from the pinhole since the image distance
from pinhole to the screen is fixed. The size of the image increases as the distance of the object from
the pinhole decreases.

MAGNIFICATION OF IMAGE IN A PINHOLE CAMERA

Magnification is a factor by which the image has been enlarged (increased) or diminished (reduced).
It is how big or small the image is as compared to the object. It is the ratio of the height of the image
and the height of the object.
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Magnification = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
ℎ𝑖
= ℎ𝑜

When it is difficult to measure the height of an image, magnification can be calculated in terms of
distances. When the object distance decreases, magnification increases.
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Magnification = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑖
=
𝑑𝑜

EXAMPLE
James placed a pinhole camera on a bench, so that the pinhole was 60cm away from a burning candle.
He could see an inverted image of the burning candle that was 15cm from the pinhole camera.
Calculate magnification of the image of the burning candle.
Solution

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 41

 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Magnification = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

= 15cm
60cm
= x0.25

CHAPTER 9

LIGHT II :REFLECTION OF LIGHT AND PLANE

MIRRORS
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
It is the bouncing back of light from a plane surface e.g. plane mirror.

Point of incidence – it is a point where an incident ray strikes a reflecting surface.

Incident ray – it is incoming ray that strikes the plane surface.
Reflected ray – it is the ray that moves away from the plane surface.
Normal – it is an imaginary line that is perpendicular to the plane surface at the point of incidence
The angle between the incident ray and normal is called angle of incidence (𝜃𝑖) and angle between the
reflected ray and normal is called angle of reflection (𝜃r)
REGULAR AND DIFFUSE REFLECTION
a. When light is reflected by a plane of a smooth surface, the reflection is regular, when
reflection occurs on a rough surface , the reflection is diffuse

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 42

 LAWS OF REFLECTION
Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. The incident ray, the reflected ray and normall lie in
the same plane.
PLANE MIRROR
it is a thin glass coated with silver on one side and a protective layer on the other side.
PLANE MIRRORS AND IMAGE FORMATION
Property of light to reflect enables one to see images of oneself. When light rays from an object strike
the plane mirror, they are reflected away from the mirror while obeying the laws of reflection. When
reflected rays enter the eyes one perceives the rays as if they come from behind the mirror and views
the image of the object as if it is behind the mirror.

The eye sees the letter P in the signboard on the left hand side, but the image of the letter P in the
mirror is on the right hand side.
Lateral inversion is a condition when the left hand side becomes the right hand side.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE MIRROR

An image formed by plane mirror has the following characteristics:

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 43

 a. It is upright
b. It is the same size as the object (magnification = x1)
c. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object in from of it.
d. It is reversed, left < −−> right. (The person’s right hand becomes the image’s left hand).
e. It is virtual i.e. it is formed by imaginary light rays).

MIRRORS ARRANGED AT AN ANGLE

a. Mirrors placed parallel to each other form infinite number of images because there is endless
multiple reflections. Light rays from the object are reflected by one mirror and are projected to the
other mirror. The second mirror reflects the light rays and projects them back to the first mirror. This
process continues and leads to an infinite number of images being observed.
b. When the mirrors are held at an angle of 60o, multiple reflections occur but eventually cease, leading
to a finite number of images being formed.
The number of images formed is given by the formula
360
Number of images = -1
𝜃

Where 𝜃 is the angle between the mirrors

EXAMPLE
Chimwemwe would like to arrange two plane mirrors, so that they would produce seven images of
an apple placed between them. At what angle should the mirrors be held in order to accomplish her
mission?
360
Number of images = -1
𝜃
360
= 𝜃
-1=7
360
= =7+1
𝜃

8𝜃 = 360
360
𝜃= 8

=45o
Angle between the mirrors should be 45o
APPLICATION OF REFLECTIONS
a. Reflection of light helps one to see images in the mirror.
b. To see around or behind an object e.g. dentist viewing the back of one’s teeth.
c. To highlight road signs or road markings at night.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 44

 d. Large mirrors are used to make rooms appear bigger.
e. Spreads light around a room and so all parts are well illuminated.
f. To direct light to a particular location e.g. reflecting mirror on a microscope
g. Periscopes use the property of reflection.
h. Laser use reflected light
i. Reflectors like those on bicycles use reflection of light.
j. The moon can be seen because of reflection of light.
k. Used by magicians to deceive their audience.

THE PERISCOPE
It is an optical device used for viewing objects that are out of line of sight. It is a device that is used to see
over the top of tall objects such as fences or walls and also to see around corners by using property of
reflection of light.
Light hits the top mirror at 45o and reflects away at the same angle. The light then bounces down to the
bottom mirror. When that mirror reflected light hits the second mirror, it is reflected again at 45o, right
into the eye of an observer.

Periscopes are used in submarines or tanks so that the captain below the surface of water can see what is
happening above the surface.

Chapter 10
Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 45
 LIGHT III : REFRACTION
REFRACTION
It is the bending of light when travelling from one medium to another e.g. when light moves from air to
water or from air to glass its direction of propagation changes.
Refraction is caused by change of velocity of light as it travels from one medium to another.

When light travels from less optically dense to a more optically dense medium (e.g. from air to glass) it is
refracted towards the normal.
When light travels from more optically dense to a less optically dense medium (e.g. from glass to air)

The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called angle of incidence and the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal is called angle of refraction.
If light travels at right angles to the boundary there is no change in direction but its speed is reduced.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 46

 A PRISM AND THE SPECTRUM
A prism is a glass object with five flat faces designed to split white light into its component colours
The prism uses the property of refraction of light to refract light components at different angles..
The white light that is incident on one side of the prism is a mixture of colours which get refracted at
different angles and take different directions of propagation. When the light components emerge at the
other side of the prism they are also refracted and proceed propagating in a different direction thus enabling
one to see the multiple colours of the spectrum.

White light is split up into a series of colours as it enters the glass prism. The splitting of white light into its
constituent colours is called dispersion and the coloured band produced is called visible spectrum.
For the same angle of incidence, each colour has its own angle of refraction inside the glass prism and
angle of deviation. Each colour travels with its own speed inside the glass e.g. violet light having the least
angle of refraction has the greatest refractive index for glass. The speed of violet light is the least in glass.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 47

 RAINBOW FORMATION
Rainbow has many colours just like a spectrum produced by a prism. Formation of a rainbow is similar to
the formation of a spectrum by a prism. The water droplets act like a prism, to split white sunlight that
strikes them. White light is split into different colours that form the rainbow.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT AND APPARENT DEPTH

Objects placed in liquids like water appear to be at a shallower depth than where they really are i.e.
apparent depth.
Apparent depth is the depth seen by an observer through a transparent substance. Apparent position of an
object in water is less than the real position because rays of light coming from the object are refracted from
the normal as they leave the water so that when they are received by the eyes they appear to come from a
shallower depth.
Refraction of light is what makes the objects to appear at such depths.
Refraction enables one to see an object placed in water at a position that one would not be able to see it
without the water.

Without water Water added

The rays from the coin are refracted at the water-air boundary changing direction of propagation. The
refracted light rays from the coin then enter the eye of the observer to see it.
In the eye of observer, the refracted light rays appear as if they come from the direction indicated by the
dashed lines which is a shallower depth than where the coin really is.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 48

 BENDING STICK IN WATER
Objects such as a stick or a pencil appear bent or broken when partially immersed in liquids e.g. water.
Because of refraction of light, the observer sees the portion of the pencil at a further horizontal distance
than where it really is; making the pencil appear bent or broken.

CHAPTER 11

INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR PHYSICS

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
An atom consists of a nucleus which contains protons and neutrons (nucleons) and orbits or shells which
contains electrons.
The number of protons in each atom represents atomic number of the atom. Atomic number is the number
of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Atomic number is the identity of an atom i.e. identifies one atom from
another.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 49

Each neutral atom consists of an equal number of protons and electrons. Number of electrons cannot be
used to indentify an atom because it can change i.e. atoms lose or gains electrons.
Atomic particle Where found Mass in amu Charge
Electron Shells/orbits 0 Negatively charged (-)
Proton nucleus 1 Positively charged (+)
Neutron nucleus 1 No charge (0)

Atomic mass unit (amu) is the unit measure of the mass of atoms and their subparticles.
Since an electron mass is zero, the mass of atoms come from nucleus i.e. the protons and neutrons.
Mass number (A) is equal to the sum of the numbers of protons (Z) and neutrons (N).
Mass number = protons + neutrons
A=P+N

NUCLEAR NOTATION
The nucleus of each atom can be represented by nuclear notation as 𝐴𝑍𝑋
X – is the chemical symbol of the atom
A – is the mass number
Z – is the atomic number

Chemical symbol Nuclear notation

1
H 1𝐻
5
Li 3𝐿𝑖
12
C 6𝐶
16
O 8𝑂

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 50

 ISOTOPES
These are elements of the same atom that have the same atomic number and similar properties but different
mass numbers or atomic masses

Element Atomic number Isotopes

Hydrogen 1 Hydrogen-1
Hydrogen-2 (deuterium)
Hydrogen-3 ( tritium)
Carbon 6 Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Potassium 19 Potassium-39
Potassium-40
Potassium-41
Uranium 92 Uranium-234
Uranium-235
Uranium-238

Some atoms have stable nuclei while others have unstable nuclei. Stable nuclei have the following
characteristics:
a. Atomic number (Z) = number of neutrons (N)
b. Nuclides have even numbers of Z and N
Unstable nuclei break up to release tiny particles and energy i.e. radiation.

RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AND RADIATION

Radioactive isotopes are those isotopes that are unstable and break up to release some radiation. A
radioactive element may change itself into another element by disintegration.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
It is a process by which an element changes into another element by emitting a particle or radiation.
Radioactive substances may be dangerous as well as useful if handled carefully.
Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 51
 RADIATION EMITTED BY RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
Radioactive substances such as radioisotopes emit the following radiations
a. Alpha (𝛼)
b. Beta (𝛽)
c. Gamma (𝛾)
These radiations have different penetrative powers.
When radiation pass through a magnetic or electric field, they are affected based on their charge.

PROPERTIES OF ALPHA
a. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus i.e. a helium atom without electrons. It is 8000 times
heavier than an electron. The charge is +2. It has mass number of 4 and atomic number of 2.
b. Alpha particles travel in straight line in space.
c. Alpha particles travel at 1 x 106 m/s
d. Due to their heavy mass they possess a lot of kinetic energy.
e. They affect photographic papers.
f. They ionize gas through which they travel.
g. They cause fluorescence on certain substances like zinc sulphide.
h. Their range in air is 5 – 7cm. during this time they ionize the air molecules and lose their energy
completely.
i. Since they lose their energy in the ionization process, their penetration power is limited
j. Alpha particles are deflected in both magnetic and electric fields.

PROPERTIES OF BETA
a. A beta particle is a negatively charged fast moving electron emitted from a nucleus i.e. neutron
emits an electron and becomes a proton.
Neutron Proton + electron (beta)
b. Beta particles do not travel in straight line but have well defined path.
c. Speed of beta is 10-15 times the speed of an alpha particle. Energetic betas are emitted with the
speed of light.
d. They affect photographic paper less slightly than in alpha
e. The ionize gas particles slightly less than alpha particles.
f. They also cause fluorescence on some substances like zinc sulphide.
Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 52
 g. Their range in air is few metres up to 5metres.
h. Their penetrating power is more than that of alpha.
i. Beta particles are deflected by both magnetic and electric field
.
PROPERTIES OF GAMMA
a. They are uncharged electromagnetic radiation having no mass and no charge. They are like
visible light or x-ray with very short wavelength and high frequencies.
b. They travel in straight line but no well defined path
c. Travel with the speed of light i.e. 1 x 108m/s in air.
d. Possess energy called photon energy
e. Affect photographic papers but their effect is less than alpha and beta particles.
f. Have infinite range in air.
g. Have the highest penetrating power compared to alpha and beta.
h. Are not deflected in either magnetic or electric field.

SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES OF RADIATIONS

Type of Nature of radiation Mass in Speed Relative Ionizing Penetrating power Effects on
radiation amu charge effect fields
Alpha A particle has 4 Up to +2 strong Not very penetrating Deflected
7
2 protons and 2 3x10 can be stopped by
neutrons m/s sheet of paper and few
cm of air
Beta Electron created Almost Up to -1 weak penetrates more than deflected
when the nucleus zero 2.7x 108 alpha but stopped by
disintegrates m/s aluminium
8
Gamma Electromagnetic Zero 3x10 0 Very Very penetrating- can Not
waves, very high m/s weak be reduced by lead deflected
frequency and concrete

USES OF RADIOISOTOPES
a. Industries - thallium-204 used to control and measure thickness and gauge of paper, metal and
rubber as a quality control measure.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 53

 b. Electricity generation – uranium-235 used as fuel for nuclear plants
c. Medicine – for radiotherapy e.g. cobalt-60 for cancer treatment, sterilization of surgical
equipment and iodine-131 for treating thyroid disorders such as goiter.
d. Tracing water leaks – sodium-24 is used to locate industrial pipe leaks and americium-241 used
to detect smoke in homes and industries in event of fire break-outs.

e. In agriculture – phosphorus-32 used to trace fertilizer actions in plants

f. Archaeology – carbon-14 for carbon dating (used to estimate how old things are)

DANGERS AND SAFETY WITH RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

Large and long exposure to radiation can lead to
a. Damage of cells (cancer)
b. Stopping body organs from functioning
c. Upsetting chemical instructions to cells leading to abnormal cell growth that causes cancer.

BACKGROUND RADIATION
It is the small radiation found in the environment. This small amount of radiation is found in air,
soil, rocks, building materials and food.

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 54

 SAFETY MEASURES WHEN HANDLING RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Radiation can be reduced by a number of ways.
a. Place radioactive substances in their containers.
b. Limit time of exposure to radioactive sources
c. Avoid eating food that is contaminated with radioactive materials
d. Shield workers with lead and concrete walls
e. Do not hold radioactive substances with hands i.e. use forceps
f. Wear protective clothing when working with radioactive substances
g. Wear radioactive badges that track the intensity o exposure to radioactive substances.
h. Check presence of radioactive materials in the surrounding by using detectors like Geiger
Muller.
i. In medicine the radioactive materials used should have a short half life so that the material
reaching the body quickly decays away.

THE END

Physics made simple series NEW HOPE PUBLICATIONS LIMITED Page 55