What is OSI Model?

- Layers of OSI Model

Last Updated : 22 May, 2025





The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that

explains how different computer systems communicate over a network. OSI
Model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer
has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach makes it
easier for different devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model
provides a clear structure for data transmission and managing network
issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a reference to understand how
network systems function.
Layers of the OSI Model
There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in
handling data. All the layers are mentioned below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits. Physical Layer is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it
into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the
frame back together. Common physical layer devices
are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.
Physical Layer
Functions of the Physical Layer
 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization
of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star
topology, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is
referred to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer
devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
he Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL
also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP ( Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking, "Who has that IP
address?" and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way
for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.
 This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in
the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of
data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Layer 3: Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available. The sender and receiver's IP address are placed in the
header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as
Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such
as routers and switches.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable
from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known
as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely,
the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender and
receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred
to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the
complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment
of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from
the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and
error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to
the Network Layer.
 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server,
it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port
 assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports
assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its
header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from
the (session) layer and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of
the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus, by specifying this address,
the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
Layer 5: Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of
connections, management of connections, terminations of sessions
between two devices. It also provides authentication and security.
Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer
allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that
are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely, and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full duplex.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through
some Messenger application running in their browser. The “Messenger”
here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface
to create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed,
optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s
and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.
 Communication in Session Layer
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from
the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the Presentation
Layer are TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets Layer). JPEG,
MPEG, GIF, are standards or formats used for encoding data, which is part
of the presentation layer’s role.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext,
and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.
Layer 7: Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer
also serves as a window for the application services to access the network
and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in
the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application Layer
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application
allows a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote
host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.
How Data Flows in the OSI Model?
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through
7 layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the
sender's end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver's end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted
physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its
destination correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.

1/8

We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an
example mentioned below.
Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.
Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc.
Writes his email to send. (This happens at Application Layer).
Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data
transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.
Step 3: At Session Layer, there is a connection established between the
sender and receiver on the internet.
Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments. It
adds sequence number and error-checking information to maintain the
reliability of the information.
Step 5: At Network Layer, addressing of packets is done in order to find
the best route for transfer.
Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames,
then MAC address is added for local devices and then it checks for error
using error detection.
Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of
electrical/ optical signals over a physical network medium like ethernet
cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse
and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Person
B email client.
Please refer the below animation for detailed flow.
Protocols Used in the OSI Layers
Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

1: Physical Establishing Physical Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.

Layer Connections between
 Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Devices.

2: Data Link Node to Node Delivery

Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Layer of Message.

Transmission of data
3: Network from one host to IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF,
Packets
Layer another, located in etc.
different networks.

Take Service from Segments (for

4: Transport Network Layer and TCP) or
TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
Layer provide it to the Datagrams
Application Layer. (for UDP)

Establishes Connection,
5: Session Maintenance, Ensures
Data NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP, etc.
Layer Authentication and
Ensures security.

Data from the

application layer is
6:
extracted and
Presentation Data TLS/SSL, MIME, etc.
manipulated in the
Layer
required format for
transmission.

Helps in identifying the

7:
client and FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP,
Application Data
synchronizing etc.
Layer
communication.

Why Does the OSI Model Matter

The OSI Model matters because it provides the user a clear structure of
"how the data moves in the network?". As the OSI Model consists of 7
layers, each layer has its specific role, and due to which it helps in
understanding, identifying and solving the complex network problems easily
by focusing on one of the layers not the entire network.
As the modern Internet does not prefer the OSI Model, but still, the OSI
Model is still very helpful for solving network problems. It helps people
understanding network concepts very easily.
Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Interconnection. Protocol/Internet Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

Package delivery is guaranteed in OSI Package delivery is not guaranteed in the

Model. TCP/IP Model.

In the OSI model, only layers 1,2 and 3 All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed
are necessary for data transmission. for data transmission.

Protocols at each layer is independent of Layers are integrated; some layers are
the other layer. required by other layers of TCP/IP model.

OSI Model is a conceptual framework, Widely used in actual networks like Internet
less used in practical applications. and Communication Systems.
OSI vs TCP/IP
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7
different layers. Its advantages include:
 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to
understand and troubleshoot.
 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed
functions and protocols.
 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.
 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates
separately.
Disadvantages of OSI Model
 The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to
understand for beginners.
 In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always directly
applicable.
 Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations,
which can make the process more time-consuming and less efficient.
 The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it's great for
understanding concepts but not always practical for implementation.

Comment
More info
Advertise with us
Next Article
Physical Layer in OSI Model
Similar Reads
1. Physical Layer in OSI Model2. Functions of Physical layer in OSI
Model3. Network Layer in OSI Model
4. Session Layer in OSI model5. Transport Layer in OSI
Model6. Presentation Layer in OSI model7. Data Link Layer in OSI
Model
8. OSI Model Analogy - OSI 7 layers Explained9. Similarities
Between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model10. Critique of OSI Model
and Protocols

135k+ interested Geeks

Core Computer Science Subject for Interview Preparation
Explore

7k+ interested Geeks

GATE CSE + DA Complete Course Combo [2026]
Explore

3k+ interested Geeks

GATE DA 2026 Complete Course [with Placement Preparation]
Explore

Corporate & Communications Address:

A-143, 7th Floor, Sovereign Corporate Tower, Sector- 136, Noida, Uttar Pradesh (201305)
Registered Address:
 K 061, Tower K, Gulshan Vivante Apartment, Sector 137, Noida, Gautam Buddh Nagar,
Uttar Pradesh, 201305

Advertise with us
 Company
 About Us
 Legal
 Privacy Policy
 Careers
 In Media
 Contact Us
 Corporate Solution
 Campus Training Program
 Explore
 Job-A-Thon
 Offline Classroom Program
 DSA in JAVA/C++
 Master System Design
 Master CP
 Videos
 Tutorials
 Python
 Java
 C++
 PHP
 GoLang
 SQL
 R Language
 Android
 DSA
 Data Structures
 Algorithms
 DSA for Beginners
 Basic DSA Problems
 DSA Roadmap
 DSA Interview Questions
 Competitive Programming
 Data Science & ML
 Data Science With Python
 Machine Learning
 ML Maths
 Data Visualisation
 Pandas
 NumPy
 NLP
 Deep Learning
 Web Technologies
 HTML
 CSS
 JavaScript
 TypeScript
 ReactJS
 NextJS
 NodeJs
 Bootstrap
 Tailwind CSS
 Python Tutorial
 Python Examples
 Django Tutorial
 Python Projects
 Python Tkinter
 Web Scraping
 OpenCV Tutorial
 Python Interview Question
 Computer Science
 GATE CS Notes
 Operating Systems
 Computer Network
 Database Management System
 Software Engineering
 Digital Logic Design
 Engineering Maths
 DevOps
 Git
 AWS
 Docker
 Kubernetes
 Azure
 GCP
 DevOps Roadmap
 System Design
 High Level Design
 Low Level Design
 UML Diagrams
 Interview Guide
 Design Patterns
 OOAD
 System Design Bootcamp
 Interview Questions
 School Subjects
 Mathematics
 Physics
 Chemistry
 Biology
 Social Science
 English Grammar
 Databases
 SQL
 MYSQL
 PostgreSQL
 PL/SQL
 MongoDB
 Preparation Corner
 Company-Wise Recruitment Process
 Aptitude Preparation
 Puzzles
 Company-Wise Preparation
 More Tutorials
 Software Development
 Software Testing
 Product Management
 Project Management
 Linux
 Excel
 All Cheat Sheets
 Courses
 IBM Certification Courses
 DSA and Placements
 Web Development
 Data Science
 Programming Languages
 DevOps & Cloud
 Programming Languages
 C Programming with Data Structures
 C++ Programming Course
 Java Programming Course
 Python Full Course
 Clouds/Devops
 DevOps Engineering
 AWS Solutions Architect Certification
 Salesforce Certified Administrator Course
 GATE 2026
 GATE CS Rank Booster
 GATE DA Rank Booster
 GATE CS & IT Course - 2026
 GATE DA Course 2026
 GATE Rank Predictor
@GeeksforGeeks, Sanchhaya Education Private Limited, All rights reserved
We use cookies to ensure you have the best browsing experience on our website. By
using our site, you ackno