Hierarchical Abstraction

Hierarchical Abstraction means creating a general class (like a blueprint) and then making
multiple specialized classes from it.

It’s like:

 A parent class holds common features.

 Child classes inherit from it and add their own features.

Simple Analogy:

Think of it like this:

 Animal is the parent (base) class.

 Dog, Cat, and Bird are child (derived) classes.

All animals can eat and sleep, but only dogs bark, cats meow, and birds fly. You define the
common stuff once in Animal, and specific stuff in each child class.

Java Code Example

// Parent class (Base class)

class Animal {

void eat() {

System.out.println("This animal eats food.");

void sleep() {

System.out.println("This animal sleeps.");

// Child class 1

class Dog extends Animal {

void bark() {
 System.out.println("The dog barks.");

// Child class 2

class Cat extends Animal {

void meow() {

System.out.println("The cat meows.");

// Child class 3

class Bird extends Animal {

void fly() {

System.out.println("The bird flies.");

// Main class to run the program

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

Dog d = new Dog();

d.eat(); // inherited from Animal

d.bark(); // Dog's own method

Cat c = new Cat();

c.sleep(); // inherited from Animal

 c.meow(); // Cat's own method

Bird b = new Bird();

b.eat(); // inherited from Animal

b.fly(); // Bird's own method

✅ Key Points:

 One parent class, many child classes = hierarchical.

 Child classes reuse code from the parent.

 Makes code clean, organized, and scalable.

Base class Object

In Java, there is a special class called Object. It's kind of like the grandparent of all other
classes.

Key points:

 Every class in Java automatically inherits from the Object class, either directly or
indirectly.

 That means if you create your own class and don’t say it extends anything, it still secretly
extends Object.

Example:

class Animal {

// This class automatically extends Object

So Animal inherits some basic features (methods) from Object.

What features does Object give?

The Object class provides some common methods that all Java classes get for free, such
as:
 toString() – gives a string representation of the object

 equals() – checks if two objects are "equal"

 hashCode() – returns a number used for hashing (like in HashMap)

 getClass() – tells you what class the object is from

 clone() – makes a copy of the object (needs extra setup)

 finalize() – called before an object is deleted by garbage collection (not used much
anymore)

Why is this useful?

Because all objects in Java share the Object class, you can:

 Store different objects in a single collection (like a list of Object)

 Use polymorphism (write code that works on any kind of object)

 Override toString(), equals(), etc., in your class to change how your objects behave

Subclass
A subclass is a class that inherits from another class.

 It's like a child class.

 It uses the keyword extends.

Example:

class Animal {

void makeSound() {

System.out.println("Animal sound");

class Dog extends Animal {

void bark() {

System.out.println("Woof!");

}
 }

Here:

 Dog is a subclass of Animal.

 Animal is the superclass (or parent class).

Because Dog is a subclass of Animal, it inherits the makeSound() method.

Subtype
A subtype means "is a kind of" relationship. It can refer to:

 A subclass (like Dog is a subtype of Animal)

 A class that implements an interface

So, subclassing is one way to create a subtype.

Example with interface:

interface Animal {

void makeSound();

class Dog implements Animal {

public void makeSound() {

System.out.println("Woof!");

Here:

 Dog is a subtype of Animal (even though it’s not a subclass – it’s implementing an
interface).

In simple terms:
Term Think of it as... Example

A child class that inherits

Subclass Dog extends Animal
from another

A class that can be used Dog is a subtype of Animal (either

Subtype
as another extends or implements)

Substitutability
Substitutability means you can use a subclass wherever a superclass is expected, and it
will still work.

This is based on the Liskov Substitution Principle (fancy term, simple idea).

Example:

class Animal {

void makeSound() {

System.out.println("Some sound");

class Dog extends Animal {

void makeSound() {

System.out.println("Woof!");

Now, check this out:

Animal a = new Dog(); // Using Dog object, but treating it as an Animal

a.makeSound(); // Output: Woof!

Even though a is declared as an Animal, it behaves like a Dog.

That’s substitutability — the subclass (Dog) can substitute the parent class (Animal).

Forms of Inheritance – Focus on: Specialization

 Inheritance in Java can happen in different forms, and one common form is:

🔹 Specialization (is-a relationship)

This is when a subclass adds more specific behavior to a more general class.

Think of it like this:

 Animal is general.

 Dog is a more special version of Animal.

Example:

class Animal {

void eat() {

System.out.println("Animal eats food");

class Dog extends Animal {

void bark() {

System.out.println("Dog barks");

 Dog specializes Animal by adding bark().

 It still has all the general Animal features like eat().

Simple Summary:

Concept Simple Meaning Example

You can use a child class in place of Animal a = new

Substitutability
a parent class Dog();

Dog is a more
A subclass adds more specific specific Animal
Specialization
behavior to a general class
 Specification in java
Simple meaning:

Specification is like saying:

“Here’s what should be done — but not how.”

In Java, this usually means interfaces or abstract classes.

Example:

interface Animal {

void makeSound(); // just says what must be done

 This is a specification.

 It tells you what a class should have, but not how it works.

Real-life example:

Think of a contract. It says:

"You must have a makeSound() function."

But it doesn’t care what sound is made — that’s up to the class that implements it.

Construction
Simple meaning:

Construction is when you build a new class from scratch using Java's features — your
own variables, methods, and logic.

Example:

class Person {

String name;

void sayHello() {

System.out.println("Hello, my name is " + name);

}
 }

 You’re constructing this class yourself.

 It doesn’t extend or implement anything.

 You build the class with your own logic and structure.

Real-life example:

It’s like building a small house from the ground up. You decide everything.

Extension
Simple meaning:

Extension is when a new class is made by adding to an existing class.

It uses the keyword extends.

Example:

class Animal {

void eat() {

System.out.println("Animal eats");

class Dog extends Animal {

void bark() {

System.out.println("Dog barks");

 Dog extends Animal

 It gets everything from Animal and adds its own stuff

Real-life example:

Imagine you're upgrading a basic car. You add GPS and speakers — you're extending it.

Final Summary:
 Concept Simple Meaning Java Example

Defines what should be done interface Animal {

Specification
(interface/abstract) void eat(); }

You build your own class from

Construction class Person { ... }
scratch

Add more features to an existing class Dog extends

Extension
class Animal

Limitation
Simple Meaning:

Limitation means when a class stops or restricts some behavior from the parent class.

 You override a method and make it less general, or

 You block certain features intentionally.

Example:

class Animal {

void move() {

System.out.println("Animal moves");

class Fish extends Animal {

@Override

void move() {

System.out.println("Fish swims"); // Limits movement to swimming

 Fish still "moves", but only in a specific way.

 This is a limitation of the general behavior.

 Real-life example:

A bicycle is a vehicle but can't fly like an airplane. It's limited to roads.

Combination
Simple Meaning:

Combination means creating a class that uses features from multiple sources.

In Java, you can’t extend more than one class (no multiple inheritance), but you can:

 extend a class

 and implement multiple interfaces

Example:

interface Swimmer {

void swim();

interface Flyer {

void fly();

class Duck implements Swimmer, Flyer {

public void swim() {

System.out.println("Duck swims");

public void fly() {

System.out.println("Duck flies");

 Duck is a combination of a Swimmer and a Flyer.

 It implements both interfaces to combine features.

Real-life example:

A smartwatch is a combination of a watch, a fitness tracker, and a mini phone.

UNIT-2
 Inheritance –Definition
 Single Inheritance
 Benefits of inheritance
 Member access rules
 super classes
 Polymorphism
 Method overriding
 Using final with inheritance
 abstract classes and
 Base class object.
 Definition
 Inheritance is the process of acquiring the properties by the sub class ( or
derived class or child class) from the super class (or base class or parent
class).

 When a child class(newly defined abstraction) inherits(extends) its

parent class (being inherited abstraction), all the properties and methods
of parent class becomes the member of child class.

 In addition, child class can add new data fields(properties) and

behaviors(methods), and

 It can override methods that are inherited from its parent class.
 Inheritance Basics
The key word extends is used to define inheritance in Java.

Syntax:-

class subclass-name extends superclass-name {

// body of the class
}
 Single Inheritance
-Derivation of a class from only one base class is called single inheritance.

//base class:
class A{ A
//members of A
}
//Derived class syntax: B

class B extends A{
//members of B
}
// Create a superclass. /* The subclass has access to all public members
class A { of its superclass. */
int i, j; subOb.i = 7;
void showij() { subOb.j = 8;
System.out.println("i and j: " + i + " " + j); subOb.k = 9;
}
} System.out.println("Contents of subOb: ");
// Create a subclass by extending class A.
class B extends A { subOb.showij();
int k; subOb.showk();
void showk() { System.out.println();
System.out.println("k: " + k);
} System.out.println("Sum of i, j and k in subOb:");
void sum() {
System.out.println("i+j+k: " + (i+j+k)); subOb.sum();
} }
} }
Contents of superOb:
class SimpleInheritance {
i and j: 10 20
public static void main(String args[]) {
A superOb = new A();
B subOb = new B(); Contents of subOb:
// The superclass may be used by itself. i and j: 7 8
superOb.i = 10; k: 9
superOb.j = 20;
System.out.println("Contents of superOb:"); Sum of i, j and k in subOb:
superOb.showij(); i+j+k: 24
 The Benefits of Inheritance
 Software Reusability ( among projects )
 Code ( class/package ) can be reused among the projects.
 Ex., code to insert a new element into a table can be written once and
reused.

 Code Sharing ( within a project )

 It occurs when two or more classes inherit from a single parent class.
 This code needs to be written only once and will contribute only once to
the size of the resulting program.

 Increased Reliability (resulting from reuse and sharing of code)

 When the same components are used in two or more applications, the
bugs can be discovered more quickly.
 Information Hiding
 The programmer who reuses a software component needs only to
understand the nature of the component and its interface.
 It is not necessary for the programmer to have detailed information such
as the techniques used to implement the component.

 Rapid Prototyping (quickly assemble from pre-existing components)

 Software systems can be generated more quickly and easily by
assembling preexisting components.
 This type of development is called Rapid Prototyping.

 Consistency of Interface(among related objects )

 When two or more classes inherit from same superclass, the behavior they
inherit will be the same.
 Thus , it is easier to guarantee that interfaces to similar objects are
similar.
 Software Components
 Inheritance enables programmers to construct reusable components.

 Polymorphism and Frameworks (high-level reusable components)

 Normally, code reuse decreases as one moves up the levels of
abstraction.

 Lowest-level routines may be used in several different projects, but

higher-level routines are tied to a particular application.

 Polymorphism in programming languages permits the programmer to

generate high-level reusable components that can be tailored to fit
different applications by changes in their low-level parts.
 Types of Inheritance
Single Inheritance Hierarchical Inheritance

A
X

B
A B C

Multilevel Inheritance Multiple Inheritance

A A B

C C
 //Single Inheritance //Multilevel Inheritance

class A{ class A{
} }
class B extends A{ class B extends A{
} }
class C extends B{
}

//Hierarchical Inheritance //Multiple Inheritance

class A{ interface one{

} }
class B extends A{ interface two{
} }
class C extends A{ class A implements one, two{
} }
 Multiple Inheritance can be implemented by implementing multiple
interfaces not by extending multiple classes.

Example :
class B extends A implements C , D{

} OK

class C extends A extends B{ class C extends A ,B{

} }

WRONG
A Superclass Variable Can Reference a Subclass Object
• When a reference to a subclass object is assigned to a superclass variable, you
will have access only to those parts of the object defined by the superclass.
Ex:
class A{
int i=10;
}
class B extends A{
int j=30;
}
class Test{
public static void main(String args[]){
A a=new A();
B b=new B();
a=b;
System.out.println(a.i);
//System.out.println(a.j);
}
}
 Super Keyword
 Subclass refers to its immediate superclass by using super keyword.

• super has two general forms.

• First it calls the superclass constructor.
• Second is used to access a member of the superclass that has been
hidden by a member of a subclass.

 Using super to call superclass constructors

super (parameter-list);
• parameter-list specifies any parameters needed by the constructor in the
superclass.
• super( ) must always be the first statement executed inside a subclass
constructor.
class Box { //Using super to call superclass constructors
Box() { class Box {
System.out.println("Box() in super class"); Box() {
} System.out.println("Box() in super class");
Box(int a){ }
System.out.println("Box(int a) in super class"); Box(int a){
} System.out.println("Box(int a) in super class");
} }
class BoxWeight extends Box { }
BoxWeight(){ class BoxWeight extends Box {
System.out.println("BoxWeight() in sub class"); BoxWeight(){
} super(10);
} System.out.println("BoxWeight() in sub class");
class DemoBoxWeight{ }
public static void main(String args[]) { }
BoxWeight mybox1 = new BoxWeight(); class DemoBoxWeight{
} public static void main(String args[]) {
} BoxWeight mybox1 = new BoxWeight();
}
}
Output:
Box() in super class Output:
BoxWeight() in sub class Box(int a) in super class
BoxWeight() in sub class
 The second form of super acts somewhat like this, except that it always
refers to the superclass of the subclass in which it is used.

Syntax: super.member

 Here, member can be either a method or an instance variable.

 This second form of super is most applicable to situations in which

member names of a subclass hide members by the same name in the
superclass.
// Using super to overcome name hiding.
class A {
int i;
}
// Create a subclass by extending class A.
class B extends A {
int i; // this i hides the i in A
B(int a, int b) {
super.i = a; // i in A
i = b; // i in B
}
void show() {
System.out.println("i in superclass: " + super.i);
System.out.println("i in subclass: " + i);
}
}
class UseSuper {
public static void main(String args[]) {
B subOb = new B(1, 2); This program displays the following:
subOb.show(); i in superclass: 1
} i in subclass: 2
}
 When Constructors Are Called
 In a class hierarchy, constructors are called in order of derivation, from
superclass to subclass.
 super(…) must be the first statement executed in a subclass’ constructor.
 If super(…) is not used, the default constructor of each superclass will be
executed.
 Implicitly default form of super ( super() ) will be invoked in each
subclass to call default constructor of superclass.
class A {
A() {
System.out.println ("Inside A's constructor.");
}
}
class B extends A {
B() {
System.out.println("Inside B's constructor.");
}
}
class C extends B {
C() {
System.out.println("Inside C's constructor.");
}
}
class CallingCons {
Output:
public static void main(String args[]) {
C c = new C();
Inside A’s constructor
} Inside B’s constructor
} Inside C’s constructor
 Member access rules
A subclass includes all of the members (default, public, protected) of its
superclass except private members.
class A{ class Protected{
private int v=10; public static void main(String args[]){
int d=20; B b=new B();
public int b=30; b.disp();
protected int p=40; C c=new C();
} c.show();
class B extends A{ }
void disp(){ }
//System.out.println(“v value : "+v);
System.out.println(“d value : "+d);
System.out.println(“b value : "+b);
System.out.println("p value : "+p);
} Output:
} d value : 20
class C extends B{
void show(){
b value : 30
System.out.println("p value : "+p); p value : 40
} p value : 40
}
 Polymorphism
 Assigning multiple meanings to the same method name

 Implemented using late binding or dynamic binding (run-time binding):

 It means, method to be executed is determined at execution time, not at

compile time.
 Polymorphism can be implemented in two ways
 Overloading
 Overriding
 When a method in a subclass has the same name, signature and return
type as a method in its superclass, then the method in the subclass is said
to be overridden the method in the superclass.

 By method overriding, subclass can implement its own behavior.

//Overriding example class B extends A{
class A{ int k;
int i,j; B(int a, int b, int c){
A(int a,int b){ super(a,b);
i=a; k=c;
i=b; }
} void show(){
void show(){ System.out.println(“k=:”+k);
System.out.println(“i and j :”+i+” “+j); }
} }
class Override{
}
public static void main(String args[]){
B subob=new B(3,4,5);
subob.show();
}
}
Output:
K: 5
 Dynamic Method Dispatch
 Dynamic method dispatch is the mechanism by which a call to an
overridden method is resolved at run time, rather than compile time.

 When an overridden method is called through a superclass reference, the

method to execute will be based upon the type of the object being
referred to at the time the call occurs. Not the type of the reference
variable.
//Dynamic Method Dispatch class Dispatch{
class A{ public static void main(String args[]){
void callme(){ A a=new A();
System.out.println(“Inside A’s callme method”); B b=new B();
C c=new C();
}
} A r;
class B extends A{
void callme(){ r=a;
r.callme();
System.out.println(“Inside B’s callme method”);
} r=b;
} r.callme();
class C extends A{
r=c;
void callme(){ r.callme();
System.out.println(“Inside C’s callme method”); }
} }
}
Output:
Inside A's callme method
Inside B's callme method
Inside C's callme method
 class Triangle extends Figure {
// Using run-time polymorphism. Triangle(double a, double b) {
class Figure { super(a, b);
double dim1; }
double dim2; // override area for right triangle
Figure(double a, double b) { double area() {
System.out.println("Inside Area for Triangle.");
dim1 = a;
return dim1 * dim2 / 2;
dim2 = b; }
} }
double area() {
System.out.println("Area for Figure is undefined."); class FindAreas {
return 0; public static void main(String args[]) {
} Figure f = new Figure(10, 10);
} Rectangle r = new Rectangle(9, 5);
Triangle t = new Triangle(10, 8);
class Rectangle extends Figure {
Figure figref;
Rectangle(double a, double b) {
figref = r;
super(a,b); System.out.println("Area is " + figref.area());
} figref = t;
// override area for rectangle System.out.println("Area is " + figref.area());
double area() { figref = f;
System.out.println("Inside Area for Rectangle."); System.out.println("Area is " + figref.area());
return dim1 * dim2; }
Inside Area for Rectangle.
}
} Area is 45
} Inside Area for Triangle.
Area is 40
Area for Figure is undefined.
Area is 0
 Abstract Classes
 A method that has been declared but not defined is an abstract method.

 Any class that contains one or more abstract methods must also be declared
abstract.

 You must declare the abstract method with the keyword abstract:
abstract type name (parameter-list);

 You must declare the class with the keyword abstract:

abstract class MyClass{
......
}
 An abstract class is incomplete, It has “missing” method bodies.

 You cannot instantiate (create a new instance of) an abstract class but you
can create reference to an abstract class.

 Also, you cannot declare abstract constructors, or abstract static methods.

 You can declare a class to be abstract even if it does not contain any
abstract methods. This prevents the class from being instantiated.

 An abstract class can also have concrete methods.

 You can extend (subclass) an abstract class.

• If the subclass defines all the inherited abstract methods, it is “complete”
and can be instantiated.
• If the subclass does not define all the inherited abstract methods, it is also
an abstract class.
// A Simple demonstration of abstract.
abstract class A {
abstract void callme();
// concrete methods are still allowed in abstract classes
void callmetoo() {
System.out.println("This is a concrete method.");
}
}
class B extends A {
void callme() {
System.out.println("B's implementation of callme.");
}
}
class AbstractDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
B b = new B();
b.callme();
b.callmetoo();
}
} Output:
B's implementation of callme.
This is a concrete method.
 Using final with Inheritance
The keyword final has three uses:
To create a constant variable
To prevent overriding
To prevent inheritance

To create a constant variable:

– A variable can be declared as final. Doing so prevents its contents from being
modified. This means that you must initialize a final variable when it is
declared.

class FinalDemo{
public static void main(String sree[]){
final int i=20;
System em.out.println(i);
//i=i+1; can’t assign a value to final variable i
//System.out.println(i); cannot assign a value to final variable i
}
}
To prevent overriding
To disallow a method from being overridden, specify final as a modifier at
the start of its declaration. Methods declared as final cannot be overridden.

class A {
final void meth() {
System.out.println("This is a final method.");
}
}

class B extends A {
void meth() { // ERROR! Can't override.
System.out.println("Illegal!");
}
}
To prevent inheritance
To prevent a class from being inherited precede the class declaration with
final.

Declaring a class as final implicitly declares all of its methods as final, too.

It is illegal to declare a class as both abstract and final since an abstract class
is incomplete by itself and relies upon its subclasses to provide complete
implementations.

final class A {
// ...
}
// The following class is illegal.
class B extends A { // ERROR! Can't subclass A
// ...
}
 Normally, Java resolves calls to methods dynamically, at run time. This
is called late binding.
 However, since final methods cannot be overridden, a call to one can
be resolved at compile time. This is called early binding.
 The Object Class
 Object is a special class, defined by Java.

 Object is a superclass of all other classes.

 This means that a reference variable of type Object can refer to an object
of any other class.

 Object defines the following methods:

 Method Purpose
Object clone( ) Creates a new object that is the same as the
object being cloned.
boolean equals(Object object) Determines whether one object is equal to
another.
void finalize( ) Called before an unused object is recycled.
Class getClass( ) Obtains the class of an object at run time.
int hashCode( ) Returns the hash code associated with the
invoking object.
void notify( ) Resumes execution of a thread waiting on the
invoking object.
void notifyAll( ) Resumes execution of all threads waiting on
the invoking object.
String toString( ) Returns a string that describes the object.
void wait( ) Waits on another thread of execution.
void wait(long milliseconds)
void wait(long milliseconds,
int nanoseconds)
import java.io.*;
import java.util.Scanner;
class CharDemo{
static char c[]=new char[10];
public static void main(String sree[])throws Exception{
//BufferedReader d=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
System.out.println("Enter Characters:");
for(int i=0;i<10;i++){
//c[i]=(char)d.read();
c[i]=(char)System.in.read();
}
System.out.println("Entered Characters:");
for(int i=0;i<10;i++){
System.out.println(c[i]);
}
}
}
 Defining an interface
 Implementing an interface
 Differences between classes and interfaces
 Implements and extends keywords
 An application using an interfaces and uses of interfaces

 Defining Package
 Creating and Accessing a Package
 Types of packages
 Understanding CLASSPATH
 importing packages
 Interface

It defines a standard and public way of specifying the behavior of classes.

It defines a contract of a class.

Using interface, you can specify what a class must do, but not how it does it.

All methods of an interface are abstract methods. That is it defines the

signatures of a set of methods, without the body.

A concrete class must implement the interface (all the abstract methods of the
Interface).

Interface allows classes, regardless of their locations in the class hierarchy, to

implement common behaviors.
Once an interface is defined, any number of classes can implement an
interface.

Also, one class can implement any number of interfaces.

Using the keyword interface, you can fully abstract a class’ interface
from its implementation.

Using the keyword implements, you can implement any number of

interfaces.

The methods in interface are abstract by default.

The variables in interface are final by default.

 Defining an Interface

An interface is defined much like a class. This is the general form of an interface:

access interface interfacename {

return-type method-name1(parameter-list);
return-type method-name2(parameter-list);
type final-varname1 = value;
type final-varname2 = value;
// ...
return-type method-nameN(parameter-list);
type final-varnameN = value;
}

Example:
interface Callback {
void callback(int param);
}
Here, access is either public or not used.

When no access specifier is included, then default access results, and the
interface is only available to other members of the package in which it is declared.
When it is declared as public, the interface can be used by any other code.

‘name’ is the name of the interface, and can be any valid identifier.

Notice that the methods which are declared have no bodies. They are, essentially,
abstract methods.

Variables can be declared inside of interface declarations. They are implicitly final
and static, meaning they cannot be changed by the implementing class.
They must also be initialized with a constant value.

All methods and variables are implicitly public if the interface, itself, is declared
as public.
 Implementing Interfaces
Once an interface has been defined, one or more classes can implement that
interface.

To implement an interface, include the implements clause in a class definition,

and then create the methods defined by the interface.

The general form of a class that includes the implements clause looks like this:

access class classname [extends superclass] [implements interface [,interface...]] {

// class-body
}
 Here, access is either public or not used.

 If a class implements more than one Interface, the interfaces are separated
with a comma.

 If a class implements two interfaces that declare the same method, then the
same method will be used by clients of either interface.

 The methods that implement an interface must be declared public.

 Also, the type signature of the implementing method must match exactly
the type signature specified in the interface definition.
 Here is a small example class that implements the Callback interface.

class Client implements Callback {

// Implement Callback's interface
public void callback(int p) {
System.out.println("callback called with " + p);
}
}

Notice that callback( ) is declared using the public access specifier.

When you implement an interface method, it must be declared as public.

It is both permissible and common for classes that implement interfaces to define
additional members of their own.

For example, the following version of Client implements callback( ) and adds
the method nonIfaceMeth( ):
//Example for a class which contain both interface and non interface methods
class Client implements Callback {
// Implement Callback's interface
public void callback(int p) {
System.out.println("callback called with " + p);
}

void nonIfaceMeth() {
System.out.println(“Non Interface Method….");
}
}
 Accessing Implementations Through Interface References

 You can declare variables as object references that use an interface rather than a
class type.

 Any instance of any class that implements the declared interface can be referred
to by such a variable.

 When you call a method through one of these references, the correct version
will be called based on the actual instance of the interface being referred to.

 This is one of the key features of interfaces.

 The calling code can dispatch through an interface without having to know
anything about the “callee.”
The following example calls the callback( ) via an interface reference variable:

class TestIface {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Callback c = new Client();
c.callback(42);
//Callback cb;
//Client c=new Client();
//cb=c;
//cb.callback(42);
}
}

Output:
callback called with 42
 Notice that variable c is declared to be of the interface type Callback, yet it
was assigned an instance of Client.

 Although c can be used to access the callback( ) method, it cannot access any
other members of the Client class.

 An interface reference variable only has knowledge of the methods declared by

its interface declaration.

 Thus, c could not be used to access nonIfaceMeth( ) since it is defined by

Client but not Callback.

 While the preceding example shows, mechanically, how an interface reference

variable can access an implementation object, it does not demonstrate the
polymorphic power of such a reference.
// Another implementation of Callback.
class AnotherClient implements Callback {
// Implement Callback's interface
public void callback(int p) {
System.out.println("Another version of callback");
System.out.println("p squared is " + (p*p));
}
class TestIface2 {
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
Callback c = new Client();
AnotherClient ob = new AnotherClient();
c.callback(42);
c = ob; // c now refers to AnotherClient object
c.callback(42);
}
}
Output:
callback called with 42
Another version of callback
p squared is 1764
 Partial Implementations
If a class includes an interface but does not fully implement the methods defined by
that interface, then that class must be declared as abstract.
abstract class Incomplete implements Callback {
int a, b;
void show() {
System.out.println(a + " " + b);
}
// ...
}
 If a class includes an interface but does not fully implement the methods defined
by that interface, then that class must be declared as abstract.

 Here, the class Incomplete does not implement callback( ) and must be
declared as abstract.

 Any class that inherits Incomplete must implement callback( ) or be declared

abstract itself.
 Variables in Interfaces
You can define variables in an interface but implicitly they are final variables.
That is you can’t modify them.
FinalTest.java
class FinalImpl implements FinalDemo{
public void show(){
System.out.println("FinalTest :Show()");
}
FinalDemo.java }
interface FinalDemo{ class FinalTest{
int i=100; public static void main(String sree[]){
void show(); FinalImpl fi=new FinalImpl();
} fi.show();
//fi.i=200; can’t assign a value to variable i
System.out.println("FinalDemo Varaible i :"+fi.i);

}
} Output:
FinalTest :Show()
FinalDemo Varaible i :100
 Interfaces Can Be Extended
One interface can inherit another by use of the keyword extends.

The syntax is the same as for inheriting classes.

When a class implements an interface that inherits another interface, it must

provide implementations for all methods defined within the interface inheritance
chain.
// One interface can extend another. public void meth2() {
interface A { System.out.println("Implement meth2().");

void meth1(); }
void meth2(); public void meth3() {
} System.out.println("Implement meth3().");
// B now includes meth1() and meth2() -- it adds meth3(). }
interface B extends A { }
void meth3(); class IFExtend {
} public static void main(String arg[]) {
// This class must implement all of A and B MyClass ob = new MyClass();
class MyClass implements B { ob.meth1();
public void meth1() { ob.meth2();
System.out.println("Implement meth1()."); ob.meth3();
} }
} Output:
Implement meth1().
Implement meth2().
Implement meth3().
interface Callback { class TestIface2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
void callback(int param); Callback c = new Client();
} AnotherClient ob = new AnotherClient();
c.callback(42);
class Client implements Callback { c = ob; // c now refers to AnotherClient object
// Implement Callback's interface c.callback(42);
public void callback(int p) { } }
System.out.println("callback called with " + p);
}
void nonIfaceMeth() {
System.out.println(“NonInterface
Method….");
}
}
// Another implementation of Callback.
class AnotherClient implements Callback {
// Implement Callback's interface
public void callback(int p) { Output:
System.out.println("Another version of callback"); callback called with 42
System.out.println("p squared is " + (p*p)); Another version of callback
} p squared is 1764
}
 Class Vs Interface
 The methods of an Interface are all abstract methods. They cannot have bodies.

 An interface can only define constants.

 You cannot create an instance from an interface.

 An interface can only be implemented by classes or extended by other

interfaces.

 Interfaces have no direct inherited relationship with any particular class, they
are defined independently.

 Interfaces themselves have inheritance relationship among themselves.

 A class can implement more than one interface. By contrast, a class can only
inherit a single superclass (abstract or otherwise).
 Abstract Class Vs Interface
 An abstract class is written when there are some common features shared by all
the objects.
 An interface is written when all the features are implement differently in
different objects.

 When an abstract class is written, it is the duty of the programmer to provide

sub classes to it.
 An interface is written when the programmer wants to leave the implementation
to the third party vendors.

 An abstract class contains some abstract methods and also some concrete
methods.
 An interface contains only abstract methods.

 An abstract class can contain instance variables also.

 An interface can not contain instance variables. It contains only constants.
 All the abstract methods of the abstract class should be implemented in its sub
classes.
 All the (abstract) methods of the interface should be implemented in its
implementation classes.

 Abstract class is declared by using the keyword abstract.

 Interface is declared using the keyword interface.

 An abstract class can only inherit a single super class (abstract or otherwise).
 A class can implement more than one interface.

 Interfaces have no direct inherited relationship with any particular class, they are
defined independently. Interfaces themselves have inheritance relationship
among themselves.

 An abstract methods of abstract class have abstract modifier.

 A method of interface is an abstract method by default.
 Uses of Interface
 To reveal an object's programming interface (functionality of the object)
without revealing its implementation.
– This is the concept of encapsulation.
– The implementation can change without affecting the caller of the
interface.

 To have unrelated classes implement similar methods (behaviors).

– One class is not a sub-class of another.

 To model multiple inheritance.

– A class can implement multiple interfaces while it can extend only one
class.
 Packages
Java provides a mechanism for partitioning the class name space into more
manageable chunks. This mechanism is the package.

The package is both a naming and a visibility control mechanism.

A package represents a directory that contains related group of classes and

interfaces.

You can define classes inside a package that are not accessible by code outside that
package.

You can also define class members that are only exposed to other members of the
same package.
 Pre-defined packages
1. java.applet 11. java.text
2. java.awt 12. java.util
3. java.beans 13. java.util.zip
4. java.io 14.javax.sql
5. java.lang 15.javax.swing
6. java.lang.ref
7. java.math
8. java.net
9. java.nio
10. java.sql
 Defining a Packages
To create a package is quite easy: simply include a package command as the first
statement in a Java source file.

Any classes declared within that file will belong to the specified package.

The package statement defines a name space in which classes are stored.
If you omit the package statement, the class names are put into the default
package, which has no name.

This is the general form of the package statement:

Syntax: package pkg;

Example: package MyPackage;

Java uses file system directories to store packages.

More than one file can include the same package statement.

You can create a hierarchy of packages.

To do so, simply separate each package name from the one above it by use of a
period.

The general form of a multileveled package statement is shown here:

package pkg1[.pkg2[.pkg3]];

A package hierarchy must be reflected in the file system of your Java development
system.

For example, a package declared as package java.awt.image; needs to be stored in

java\awt\image on your Windows.
 Finding Packages and CLASSPATH
How does the Java run-time system know where to look for packages that you
create?

The answer has two parts:

First, by default, the Java run-time system uses the current working directory as its
starting point. Thus, if your package is in the current directory, or a subdirectory of
the current directory, it will be found.

Second, you can specify a directory path or paths by setting the CLASSPATH
environmental variable.
For example, consider the following package specification.
package MyPack;
In order for a program to find MyPack, one of two things must be true.
Either the program is executed from a directory immediately above MyPack, or
CLASSPATH must be set to include the path to MyPack.
// A simple package //AccountBalance.java
package MyPack; class AccountBalance {
class Balance { public static void main(String args[]) {
Balance current[] = new Balance[3];
String name; current[0] = new Balance("K. J. Fielding", 123.23);
double bal; current[1] = new Balance("Will Tell", 157.02);
Balance(String n, double b){ current[2] = new Balance("Tom Jackson", -12.33);
for(int i=0; i<3; i++)
name = n; current[i].show();
bal = b; }
} }

void show() {
if(bal<0)
System.out.print("--> "); //To compile
javac AccountBalance.java
System.out.println(name + ": $" + bal);
}
//To run
} java MyPack.AccountBalance

//java AccountBalance invalid

 Access Control

Java addresses four categories of visibility for class members:

 Subclasses in the same package.

 Non-subclasses in the same package.

 Subclasses in different packages.

 Classes that are neither in the same package nor subclasses.

A class has only two possible access levels: default and public.
Class Member Access
//VarProtection.java
package pack1;
public class VarProtection {
int n = 1;
private int pri = 2;
protected int pro = 3;
public int pub = 4;
public VarProtection() {
System.out.println("Individual class constructor");
System.out.println("default value is: " + n);
System.out.println("private value is: " + pri);
System.out.println("protected value is: " + pro);
System.out.println("public value is: " + pub);
}
To Compile:
} d:\>javac –d . VarProtection.java
//SameSub .java:
package pack1;
class SameSub extends VarProtection{
SameSub(){
System.out.println("subclass constructor");
System.out.println("default value is: " + n);
// System.out.println("private value is: " + pri);
System.out.println("protected value is: " + pro);
System.out.println("public value is: " + pub);
}
}

To Compile:
d:\>javac –d . SameSub.java
// SameDiff.java
package pack1;
class SameDiff{
SameDiff(){
VarProtection v1 = new VarProtection();
System.out.println("Delegationclass constructor");
System.out.println("default value is: " +v1. n);
// System.out.println("private value is: " +v1. pri);
System.out.println("protected value is: " +v1. pro);
System.out.println("public value is: " + v1.pub);
}
}

To Compile:
d:\>javac –d . SameDiff.java
//OtherSub.java
package pack2;
import pack1.*;
class OtherSub extends VarProtection{
OtherSub(){
System.out.println("Different Package subclass constructor");
//System.out.println("default value is: " + n);
// System.out.println("private value is: " + pri);
System.out.println("protected value is: " + pro);
System.out.println("public value is: " + pub);
}
}

To Compile:
d:\>javac –d . OtherSub.java
// OtherDiff.java
package pack2;
import pack1.*;
class OtherDiff{
OtherDiff(){
VarProtection v2=new VarProtection();
System.out.println("Different Package non-subclass constructor");
// System.out.println("default value is: " +v2. n);
// System.out.println("private value is: " + v2.pri);
// System.out.println("protected value is: " + v2.pro);
System.out.println("public value is: " + v2.pub);
}
}

To Compile:
d:\>javac –d . OtherDiff.java
 // Demo package p1. To Compile:
d:\>javac –d . MainTest.java
package pack1;
To Run:
class MainTest{ d:\>java pack1.MainTest
public static void main(String args[]){
VarProtection v=new VarProtection();
SameDiff s2=new SameDiff();
SameSub s1=new SameSub();
}
}
package pack2;
import pack1.*;
class OtherMainTest{
public static void main(String args[]){
OtherSub os=new OtherSub();
To Compile: OtherDiff od=new OtherDiff();
d:\>javac –d . OtherMainTest.java }
To Run:
d:\>java pack2.OtherMainTest }
 Importing Packages

There are no core Java classes in the unnamed default package; all of the standard
classes are stored in some named package.

Java includes the import statement to bring certain classes, or entire packages,
into visibility.

Once imported, a class can be referred to directly, using only its name.

In a Java source file, import statements occur immediately following the

package statement (if it exists) and before any class definitions.

This is the general form of the import statement:

import pkg1[.pkg2].(classname|*);
Here, pkg1 is the name of a top-level package, and pkg2 is the name of a
subordinate package inside the outer package separated by a dot (.).

There is no practical limit on the depth of a package hierarchy, except that

imposed by the file system.

Finally, you specify either an explicit classname or a star (*), which indicates that
the Java compiler should import the entire package.

This code fragment shows both forms in use:

import java.util.Date;
import java.io.*;
All of the standard Java classes included with Java are stored in a package called
java.

The basic language functions are stored in a package inside of the java package
called java.lang.

Normally, you have to import every package or class that you want to use, but
java.lang is implicitly imported by the compiler for all programs.

This is equivalent to the following line being at the top of all of your programs:
import java.lang.*;
When a package is imported, only those items within the package declared as public will
be available to non-subclasses in the importing code. For example, if you want the
Balance class of the package MyPack shown earlier to be available as a stand-alone
class for general use outside of MyPack, then you will need to declare it as public and
put it into its own file, as shown here:
package MyPack;
public class Balance {
String name;
double bal;
public Balance(String n, double b) {
name = n;
bal = b;
}
public void show() {
if(bal<0)
System.out.print("--> ");
System.out.println(name + ": $" + bal);
}
}
 import MyPack.*;
class TestBalance {
public static void main(String args[]) {
/* Because Balance is public, you may use Balance
class and call its constructor. */
Balance test = new Balance("J. J. Jaspers", 99.88);
test.show(); // you may also call show()
}
}

As an experiment, remove the public specifier from the Balance class and then
try compiling TestBalance. As explained, errors will result.