OCEANOGRAPHY

BY VINAY TRIPATHI
9899193917
Oceanography is the branch of science that deals with the physical and biological
properties and phenomena of the sea.

Bottom Relief features of ocean

 Our earth is the only planet in the solar system which has water in
abundance, hence, it is often called a ‘watery Planet’.
 About 71 % of the earth’s surface is covered by water.
 Oceans form a single, large, continuous body of water encircling all the
landmass of the earth.
 They account for four- fifth of the Southern Hemisphere and three fifth of
the Northern Hemisphere.
 They contain 97.2 percent of the world’s total water.
 There are five principal oceans in the world which are separated largely on
the basis of their geographical locations.
 These are the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean ,the Indian ocean the
Arctic Ocean and the Southern Ocean . All the other seas, inland seas or
the arms of the oceans, are counted within these five main oceans.
 The National Geographic Society for the first time named the Southern
Ocean as the newest of Earth’s five oceans as of June 2021.

Significance of knowledge of bottom relief of Ocean :-

The bottom of the ocean is a very important place for marine life.
Just about 90% of all marine species live at least part of their life
associated with the bottom. We call this mode of life 'benthic.' These
 species can be found in the intertidal, shelf, bathyal, abyssal, and hadal
zones. Some species even live under the surface of the bottom of the
ocean (called infauna). The bottom of the ocean is a major area of
decomposition where organic material is recycled (cells are broken
down and nutrients are released by bacteria and fungi).

 They are the source of food– fish, mammals, reptiles, salt, and other marine
foodstuffs.
 The tides can be harnessed to provide power.

Ocean Relief Features

The oceans, unlike the continents, merge so naturally into one another that it is hard to
demarcate them. The geographers have divided the oceanic part of the earth into five
oceans, namely the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, Southern, and the
Arctic. The various seas, bays, gulfs, and other inlets are parts of these four large
oceans.

A major portion of the ocean floor is found between 3-6 km below the sea
level. The ‘land’ under the waters of the oceans, that is, the ocean floor exhibits
complex and varied features as those observed over the land.

Earlier echo-sounding techniques were used, now radar soundings and electrical
Echo devices are used to find the precise depths of ocean floors and map the
relief of oceans.

The floors of the oceans are rugged with the world’s largest mountain ranges, deepest
trenches, and the largest plains. These features are formed, like those of the continents, by
the factors of tectonic, volcanic, and depositional processes.
 Fig- Hypsometric Curve

These relief features found on the ocean floor are called submarine relief. The Ocean
basins are broadly divided into four major sub-divisions.
They are: (a) Continental shelf; (b) Continental slope; (c) Abyssal plains and (d)
The ocean deeps.

Besides, these divisions there are also major and minor relief features in the ocean
floors like ridges, hills, seamounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.

Continental Shelf
The continental shelf is the extended margin of each continent occupied by
relatively shallow seas and gulfs. It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an
average gradient of 1° or even less.

 The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
  The width of the continental shelves varies from one ocean to another. The average
width of continental shelves is about 80 km.
 The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some of the margins like the coasts
of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra, etc. On the contrary, the Siberian shelf in the Arctic
Ocean, the largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in width.
 The depth of the shelves also varies. It may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas
while in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.
 The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses of sediments
brought down by rivers, glaciers, wind, from the land, and distributed by waves
and currents. Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continent
shelves become the source of fossil fuels.
 There are 3 views on the continental shelf –
 They can be part of the continent submerged due to the rise in sea level.
 Some smaller continental shelves could have been caused by wave erosion.
 They may have been formed by the deposition of lands-derived or river-borne
materials on the off-shore terrace.

Continental shelf geographical significance

Their shallowness enables sunlight to penetrate through the water, which
encourages the growth of plants and organisms → now rich in plankton → fishes
thrive on them → so continental shelves are the richest fishing grounds.

 E.g. – Grand banks off Newfoundland, the North Sea, and the Sunda shelf.
 Their limited depth and gentle slope keep out cold under-currents and increase the
height of the tide. This sometimes hinders shipping and other marine activities since
ships can only enter and leave port on the tide.
 Ports like Southampton, London, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Hong Kong, and Singapore are
located on continental shelves.
 Marine food comes almost entirely from continental shelves;
 They provide the richest fishing grounds;
 They are potential sites for economic minerals [20% of the world production
of petroleum and gas comes from shelves. Polymetallic nodules (manganese
nodules; concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides) etc. are good sources
of various mineral ores like manganese, iron copper, gold, etc.]

Continental Slope
 The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins. It
begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep
slope.
 The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
 The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
 The slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
 Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
Continental Rise
 The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth.
 When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the
continental rise.
 With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtually flat and merges with the abyssal
plain.

Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain

 An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor
 Found at depths – between 3,000 meters and 6,000 meters.
 Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge.
 It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
 It has extensive submarine plateaus, ridges, trenches, beams, and oceanic
islands that rise above sea level in the midst of oceans.
 E.g. the Azores, Ascension Island
 These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches
Ocean trenches are steep depressions in the deepest parts of the ocean [where
old ocean crust from one tectonic plate is pushed beneath another plate, raising
mountains, causing earthquakes, and forming volcanoes on the seafloor and on land].

 The trenches are relatively steep-sided, narrow basins (Depressions). These areas
are the deepest parts of the oceans.
 They are of tectonic origin and are formed during ocean – ocean convergence and
ocean-continent convergence.
 They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
 The trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea plain at the bases of continental
slopes and along island arcs.
 The trenches run parallel to the bordering-fold mountains or the island chains.
 The trenches are very common in the Pacific Ocean and form an almost continuous ring
along the western and eastern margins of the Pacific.
 The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest
trench with, a depth of more than 11 kilometers.
 Other ocean deeps –
 Mindanao deep (35000 feet)
 Tonga trench (31000 feet)
 Japanese trench (28000 feet) (all 3 in the Pacific Ocean)

 They are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes (Deep Focus
Earthquakes like in Japan). This makes them very significant in the study of plate
movements.
 As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific Ocean;
19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean.

Minor Ocean Relief Features

Apart from the above mentioned major relief features of the ocean floor, some minor but
significant features predominate in different parts of the oceans.

 Ridges,
 Hills,
 Seamounts,
 Guyots,
 Trenches,
 Canyons,
 Fracture zones,
 Island arcs,
 Atolls,
 Coral reefs,
 Submerged volcanoes and
 Sea-scarps.
Mid-Oceanic Ridges
A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large
depression. The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even
reach above the ocean’s surface. Iceland, a part of the Mid- Atlantic Ridge, is an
example.

Seamount
It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach
the surface of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000-
4,500 m tall. Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the
Pacific Ocean, is a good example.

Submarine Canyons
These are deep valleys, some comparable to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado
River. They are sometimes found cutting across the continental shelves and
slopes, often extending from the mouths of large rivers. The Hudson Canyon is the
best-known submarine canyon in the world.
Guyots
It is a flat-topped seamount. They show evidence of gradual subsidence through
stages to become flat-topped submerged mountains. It is estimated that more than
10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.
Atoll
These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs
surrounding a central depression. It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes
form enclosing a body of fresh, brackish, or highly saline water.

Bank
 These marine features are formed as’ a result of the erosional and depositional activity.
 A bank is a flat-topped elevation located in the continental margins.
 The depth of water here is shallow but enough for navigational purposes.
 The Dogger Bank in the North Sea and Grand Bank in the north-western Atlantic,
Newfoundland are famous examples.
 The banks are sites of some of the most productive fisheries of the world.

Shoal
A shoal is a detached elevation with shallow depths. Since they project out of water with
moderate heights, they are dangerous for navigation.
Reef
 A reef is a predominantly organic deposit made by living or dead organisms that form a
mound or rocky elevation like a ridge.
 Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of the Pacific Ocean where they are associated
with seamounts and guyots.
 The largest reef in the world is found off the Queensland coast of Australia. [We will
study coral reefs in future posts]
 Since the reefs may extend above the surface, they are generally dangerous for
navigation.

Significance of Study of Oceanic Relief

 Ocean relief controls the motion of sea-water.
 The oceanic movement in the form of currents, in turn, causes many variations in both
oceans and in the atmosphere.
 The bottom relief of oceans also influences navigation and fishing.
 Bottom Reliefs of the Pacific Ocean
 The Pacific Ocean, the largest ocean of the world having one-third area of the
globe, extends from east to west for 16,000 km from the east coast of Asia in the
west to the west coasts of Americas in the east and for 14,880 km from north to
south between Bering Strait in the north to Cape Adre (Antarctica) in the south.
 The overall shape of the ocean is triangular if its extent in both the hemispheres
is considered separately.
 Average depth of the ocean in 4,572m.
 Both the coasts (east and west) of the Pacific are paralleled by the chains of
folded mountains and therefore the descent from the coast to the abyssal plains is
very steep.
 More or less uniform broad and extensive ocean floor is characterized by several
swells, rises, sea mounts and depressions (trenches and deeps).
 The Ocean has the largest number of islands (more than 2,000). It may be
pointed out that the western coast is studded with islands, island arcs and
festoons while the eastern coast has only a few islands.
 The islands of the Pacific are grouped in 3 categories e.g.:
o The continental islands (Aleutian Islands, islands off British Columbia of
Canada, and Chilean island)
o Island arcs and festoons (Kuriles, Japanese Archipilago, Philippines and
Indonesian islands)
o Scattered smaller islands which are further subdivided into two major
sub-categories e.g.:

1.
1. Islands based on racial grouping such as:
2. Melanesia (Solomons, New Hebrides and Fizi)
3. Micronesia (Marshalls, Carolines, Gilbert and Ellice)
4. Polynesia (Society, Cook, and Tuamotu)
5. Islands formed of volcanic materials and coral r eefs (Hawaii island-
volcanic island, Fizi, Faunafuti, Ellice etc. coral islands).
The Pacific Ocean has been divided into four sub-regions:

(1) The Northern Pacific represents the deepest part of the whole Pacific where
average depth ranges between 5000m and 6000m. This region makes contact with the
Arctic Sea through Bering Strait.
(2) The Central Pacific is characterized by largest number of islands most of which are
of volcanic and coral origin. H.H. Hess has identified 160 flat-topped sea mounts in this
region. There are a few sub-parallel island chains which have been named by E. Suess
as Oceanides.
(3) The South-West Pacific carries a large number of islands, marginal seas, extensive
continental shelves and oceanic trenches.
(4) The South-East Pacific has the most striking relief of the Pacific Ocean as the East
Pacific Rise or Ridge but there is absence of marginal seas.

Continental Shelf:

 There is significant difference in the extent and characteristics of continental

shelves on the eastern and western coasts of the Pacific.
 The shelves are quite broad and extensive along the eastern coasts of Aus tralia
and Asia where the width varies from 160 km to 1600 km and the depth ranges
between 1000 m and 2000m.
 Several islands are seated on these broad continental shelves (viz. Kuriles,
Japanese islands, Philippines, Indonesia, New Zealand etc.).
 These continental shelves also carry numerous marginal seas like Bering Sea,
Okhotsk Sea, Japan Sea, Yellow Sea, China Sea, Java Sea, Coral Sea,
Tasmania Sea, Arafura Sea etc.
 The continental shelves are less extensive along the western coasts of Americas
because of nearness of cordillerean chains of folded mountains to the coastal
lands.
 The average width is 80 km.
East Pacific Rise:

 The Pacific Ocean does not have central or mid- oceanic ridge like the Atlantic
and the Indian Oceans, albeit there are a few scattered ridges having local
importance.
 The East Pacific Rise or Ridge known as Albatross Plateau is 1600 km wide and it
extends from north of New Zealand to the Californian coast.
 It sends off two branches between 23°S-35°S.
 The eastern branch merges with Chilean coast while the other branch moves
southward in the name of Eastern Island Rise.

Galapagos Ridge
A minor ridge known as Galapagos Ridge runs parallel to the East Pacific Ridge
in the east between the Eastern Island Fracture Zone and Galapagos islands from
where in moves in two branches viz.:
(i) Carnegie Ridge, and
(ii) Cocos Ridge in north-east direction.
The New Zealand Ridge: The New Zealand Ridge is about 200m to 2000 m below sea
level and widens near Fiji island to form Fiji Plateau which is 2000 m below sea level.
The Hawaiian Rise extends from north-west to south-east direction between 35°N -
17°N for a distance of 960 km. This is the most extensive ridge (2640 km wide) of the
Pacific Ocean.

The other minor ridges are

 Nazca Ridge off Peru coast, Lord Howe Rise off eastern coast of Australia
between 20°S and 40° S latitude.
 Norfolk Island Ridge between New Caledonia and New Zea land (23°S-35°S)
 Eauripik-New Guinea Rise north of New Guinea and parallel to 140°E longitude
 Caroline- Soloman Ridge north of Soloman Islands etc.

Besides, there are a few fracture zones running from west to east e.g., (from north to
south) Mendocino Fracture Zone (40°N), Murray Fracture Zone (30°N), Molokai
Fracture Zone (25°N), Clarion Fracture Zone (20°N), Clipperton Fracture Zone (10°N),
Eastern Island Fracture Zone (30°S), Challenger Fracture Zone (40°S) etc.
Ocean Basins:
There are different basins of different shapes and sizes. These basins are separated by
ridges and ‘rises’.
The following are a few important basins of the Pacific Ocean:
(1) Philippine basin is located to the east of Philippines and extends from south of
Japan to 5°N latitude. Kyushu – Paian Ridge runs through the middle of the basins.
Average depth ranges from 5000m to 6000m.
(2)Fiji basin is located to the south of Fiji Island between 10°S and 32°S latitudes and
the average depth is 4000m. The basin to the north of 20°S is known as North Fiji Basin
whereas the South Fiji Basin between 20°S and 32°S is bordered by Norkolk Island
Ridge in the west and Karmadec – Tonga Trenches in the east.
(3) East Australian basin is situated between the east coast of Australia and New
Zealand Ridge with average depth of more than 5000m.
(4) South Australian Basin also known as Jeffreys Basin is located to the south-east
of Australia having average depth of 5000m.
(5)Peru basin is located to the west of Peru coast between 5°S and 24°S latitudes and
extends upto 110°W longitude. The average depth of the basin is 4000m.
(6) South-Western Pacific basin is an elongated basin stretching between 20°S and
50°S latitudes and 180-129°W longitudes. Karmadec Trench with the depth of 10,047 m
is located to the west of this basin.
(7)Pacific-Antarctic Basin is located to the southwest of Chilean coast between 40°S
and 60°S latitudes and extends up to 130°W longitude.

Oceans Deeps:
There are several trenches and deeps in the Pacific Ocean. These depressions are
located either along the island arcs or mountain chains. It may be pointed out that the
trenches are found mainly in the western Pacific Ocean.
The following are the significant trenches:
 Bottom Reliefs of the Atlantic Ocean
 The Atlantic Ocean located between North and South Americas in the west and
Europe and Africa in the east covers an area of 82,000,000 km 2 which is 1/6th of
the geographical area of the globe and half of the area of the Pacific Ocean.
 The ‘S’ shape of the ocean indicates the fact that landmasses (continents) on its
either side were once a contiguous part.
 The Atlantic Ocean was formed due to drifting of North and South Americas to the
west due to plate tectonics.
 The ocean widens to the south of equator and attains the maximum width of 5,920
km at 35°S latitude.
 It narrows down towards the equator. It is only 2560 km wide between Liberian
coast and Cape Sao Roque.
 The width further increases northward and it becomes 4800 km at 40°N latitude.
 It narrows down in the extreme north where it maintains its contact with the Arctic
Ocean through Norwegian Sea, Denmark Strait and Davis Bay.
 The average depth of the ocean is less than the Pacific Ocean because of
extensive continental shelves and marginal and enclosed seas .
 About 24 per cent of the Atlantic Ocean is less than 915m deep.
 The Atlantic Ocean was first formed about 700 million years ago due to seafloor
spreading (see fig. 5.13) and westward movement of the Eurasian and African
plates from the mid-Atlantic ridge.
 About 300 million years BP (before present) the Atlantic Ocean was closed due to
convergence of the American and Eurasian-African plates.
 The ocean again started to open about 150 million years BP due to the move ment
of aforesaid plates in opposite directions.
 The widening of the ocean still continues which is evidenced through seafloor
spreading at an average rate of 4 cm per year.
Continental Shelf:

 Continental shelves have developed along both the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean
and the width ranges from 2-4 km to more than 80 km.
 In fact, the width of continental shelves has been largely controlled by the reliefs
of the coastal lands.
 These become significantly narrow where mountains and hills border the coasts
e.g., the African shelves between Bay of Biscay and Cape of Good Hope and
Brazilian shelves between 5°S and 10°S latitudes.
 The shelves become 200 to 400 km wide along the north -eastern coast of North
America and the north-western coast of Europe.
  Extensive shelves are found around Newfoundland (Grand Bank) and British
Islands (Doggar Bank).
 Similarly, the continental shelves around Greenland and Iceland are quite wide.
 Very extensive continental shelves are found in the South Atlantic Ocean mainly
between Bahia Blanca and Antarctica .
 Many marginal seas are located on the continental shelves in the North Atlantic
but such seas are practically absent in the South Atlantic.
 Among the continental shelf-seated seas significant are the Hudson Bay, the
Baltic Sea, the North Sea, the Davis Strait, the Denmark Strait etc.
 The Caribbean and Mediterranean seas represent enclosed seas.
 There are several islands which are located on the continental shelves e.g.
British Isles, Iceland, Faeroes, Azores, Ascension, Tristan da Cuncha,
Newfoundland, West Indies, Maderia, St. Helena, Trinidad, Falkland, South
Orkneys, Shetlands,Georgia, Sandwitch, Canaries, Cape Verde etc. are
significant islands representing different locations and origin.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge:

 The mid-Atlantic ridge representing the zone of divergent or constructive plate

margins (American plates moving westward and Eurassian and African plates
moving to the east) is the most striking relief feature which having S shape
extends for 14,450 km from Iceland in the north and to Bouvet Island in t he south.
 Though swinging west and east it maintains its central position and nowhere goes
down more than 4000m below sea level.
 The ridge is known as Dolphin Rise to the north and Challenger Rise to the
south of equator.
 It is known as Wyville Thompson Ridge between Iceland and Scotland.
 The ridge becomes quite extensive to the south of Greenland and Iceland and is
called Telegraphic Plateau because first cabbies were laid down in this area.
 A significant branch emerges from this central ridge near 50° latitude and extends
north-westward as Newfoundland Rise and continues upto New-found-land.
 Another important branch known as Azores Rise bifurcates from the mid - Atlantic
Ridge to the south of 40°N latitude and extends up to Azores Islands.
 At the equator the ridge sends off two branches.
 Sierra Leone Rise extends towards north-east and Para Rise stretches in north-
west direction.
 Guinea Ridge, a minor branch of the central ridge, runs north -eastward and
extends up to Guinea coast.
 Two significant branches come out of the central ridge near 40°S latitude.
 The Walvis Ridge extends towards north-east and merges with African continental
shelf while Rio Grande Rise extends towards South American coast.
 Though major part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge is submerged under oceanic water
but a host of peaks and sea mounts project well above the water surface and form
islands.
 The Pico Island of Azores is the highest peak which rises 8,229.6m (27,000
feet) above the sea floor and 213.36m to 243.84 m above sea level.
 Besides, the mid-Atlantic Ridge has several well-marked fracture zones e.g.
Gibbs Fracture Zone (near 40°N), Atlantis Fracture zone (near 30°N),
Oceanographic Fracture Zone (32°N), Kane Fracture Zone (25°N), Vema Fracture
Zone (10°N), Romancha Fracture Zone (near equator) etc.
 As regards the origin of this unique feature all the previous theories based on
compressive and tensional forces stand redundant due to advent of plate tectonic
theory.
 The mid-Atlantic Ridge is the result of westward movement of American plate
and eastward movement of Eurasian and African plates.
 This ridge represents the zone of the divergent or constructive plate margins
where basaltic lavas rise continuously, get solidified and are slided equally on
both sides of the ridge.
 The divergence of plates from this ridge is evidenced by the presence of several
transform faults (fracture zones, as referred to above).
Ocean Basins:
The mid-Atlantic Ridge divides the Atlantic Ocean into two major basins viz. East and
West Atlantic Basins.
There are few important basins within these two major basins :

(1) Labrador basin extends between the continental shelf of Greenland in the north
and Newfoundland Rise in the south covering latitudinal extent of 40° N to 50°N where
the depth of the basin ranges from 4,000 to 4,500m.
(2) North American basin is the most extensive basin of the Atlantic Ocean and
extends between 12°N and 40° latitudes. The east-west section lies between the
continental shelves off the east coast of N. America and 50°W meridian. The depth of
the basin is more than 5000m but a few deeps measure more than 6000m depth.
(3) Brazilian basin is confined between the equator and 30°S latitude and east coast of
Brazil in the west and Para Rise in the east. The depth is more than 4,000m.
(4) Spanish basin is located between the mid- Atlantic Ridge and Iberian Peninsula. It
is bordered by Azores Rise in the south and extends upto 50°N latitude. The average
depth is 5,000m.
(5) North and South Canary basin is comprised of two almost circular basins and is
5,000m deep.
(6) Cape Verde basin is located between the mid- Altlantic Ridge and west African
coast and extends from 10° N to 23.° N. Average depth is 5000 m but at few places it
becomes 5000 m or more.
(7) Guinea basin extends from north-east to southwest in elongated shape between
Guinea Ridge and Sierra Leone Rise and measures 4,000 to 5,000 m in depth.
(8) Angola basin is located between the equator and 30°S latitude. It stretches from the
African coast in the north-east to the knot of the mid-Atlantic Ridge and Walvis Ridge in
the south-west. The basin is most extensive near the African coast and narrows down
towards south-west. The average depth is 5,000m.
Cape Basin (25°S-45°S), Agulhas Basin (40°S- 50°S), Argentina Basin (35°S-50°S,
depth 5,000m- 6,000m) and Atlantic-Antarctic Basin are the other significant basins of
the Atlantic Ocean.

Ocean Deeps:

 The number of deeps in the Atlantic Ocean is far less than in the Pacific Ocean
because of the absence of the effects of Tertiary orogenic movements along the
Atlantic coasts.
 Murray has identified 29 deeps upto the depth of 3,000 fathoms (5,486.4m) in the
Atlantic Ocean.
  Nares Deep (6,000m), Pureto Rico Deep (8,385m), Hatteras Deep (5,445m),
Columbia Deep (5,125m, south of Haiti), Valdivia Deep (3,134 fathoms),
Tizard or Romanche Deep (9,370m), Buchanan Deep (3,063 fath oms),
Moseley Deep (3,309 fathoms), Vema Deep (4,900m) etc. are a few important
ocean deeps of the Atlantic Ocean.

Marginal Seas

 The Mediterranean Sea, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico are significant
marginal seas in the Atlantic Ocean.
 The Mediterranean Sea is divided into two major basins (East and West Basins)
by 4,000m deep mid-sea ridge which runs from the southern Italian coast to the
north African coast.
 The Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea are separated by a 1,600 m deep ridge
running between Yucatan Peninsula and Cuba Island.
 The prominent basins are Mexico basin and Caribbean basin.
 The latter is further divided into four sub-basins e.g. Yucatan basin, Cayman
trough, Columbia basin and Venezuela basin.
 Bottom Reliefs of the Indian Ocean
 The Indian Ocean is smaller than the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean in areal extent
and is bounded by, on all of its sides, Asia in the north, Afr ica in the west, Asia in
the east, Australia in the south-east and Antarctica in the south.
 The ocean has contact with the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans in the south near
Antarctica.
 The average depth of the ocean is 4000m.
 Major parts of the coastal lands of the Indian Ocean formed by the block
mountains of Gondwanaland are compact and solid.
 The coasts of the East Indes are bordered by fold mountain chains.
 The marginal seas are less in number than the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans.
 Significant marginal seas are Mozambique Channel, Red Sea, Persian Gulf,
Andman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal etc.
 Malgasy (Madagascar) and Sri Lanka are the big islands whereas Suqutra,
Zanzibar, Comoro, Reunion, Secychelles, Prince Edwards, Crozet, Kerguelen, St.
Paul, Rodriges, Maldive, Laccadive, Andman-Nicobar, Christmas etc. belong to
the category of small and tiny islands.
 Indian subcontinent in the north divides the Indian Ocean into Arabian Sea and
Bay of Bengal.
 The ocean widens in the south

The Indian Ocean is divided into 3 zones on the basis of regional characteristics:
(1) The Western Zone between African coast and the mid-Indian Oceanic Ridge has large number
of islands and the average depth is 3650 m (2000 fathoms).
(2) The Eastern Zone is deepest of all the zones with average depth of 550 m (3000 fathoms). The
continental shelves are narrow but have steep slopes.
(3) The Central Zone represents the mid-oceanic ridge where many tiny islands are located.

Continental Shelf:

 There is wide range of variation in the continental shelves of the Indian Ocean.
 Quite extensive shelves are found along the margins of Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal.
  Similarly, extensive shelves are observed along the eastern coast of Africa and
around Madagascar which is itself located on the continental shelves.
 On an average, the continental shelves are very wide (640 km) in the west
whereas these are narrow (160 km) along the coast of Java and Sumatra.
 These become further narrow along the northern coast of Antarctica.

Mid-Oceanic Ridge:

 The central ridge or mid-oceanic ridge known as Mid-Indian Oceanic Ridge

extends from the southern tip of Indian Peninsula in the north to Antarc tica in the
south almost in north-south direction and forms a continuous chain of highlands.
 Wherever the central ridge or its branches emerge above the sea level, islands
are formed.
 The main central ridge starts from the continental shelf of the southern tip of
Indian Peninsisula with average width of 320 km.
 This part of the ridge is known as Laccadive-Chagos Rigde (also known as
Maldive Ridge).
 The ridge further extends southward and widens near equator. It is called
Chagos- St. Paul Ridge between equator and 30°S latitude where the average
width becomes 320 km.
 The ridge further widens to 1,600 km between 30°S and 50°S latitudes and is
known as Amsterdam-St Paul Plateau.
 The central ridge bifurcates to the south of 50°S latitude.
 The western branch known as Kerguelen-Gaussberg ridge extends in NW-SE
direction between 48°S and 63°S and the eastern branch is known as Indian-
Antarctic Ridge.

Branches of the Central Ridge:

(1) Socotra-Chagos Ridge also known as Carlesbreg Ridge emerges from the central ridge at 5°S
latitude and extends in northwesterly direction upto Gardafuli Peninsula of N. E. Africa,
(2) Seychelles – Mauritius ridge bifurcates from the main ridge around 18°S latitude near Mauritius
Island and runs in roughly north-west direction in arcuate shape upto Seychelles and Amirante
islands.
(3) Madagascar Ridge stretches from the southern tip of Madagascar (Malagasy) to 40°S latitude.
Its further southward extension is known as Prince Edward – Crozet Ridge between 40°S -48°S
latitudes.
(4) The south-western branch near 23°S latitude is known as S.W. Indian Ridge.
(5) Ninety East Ridge extends from the continental shelf off the Irrawadi river mouth and runs in
almost north-south direction parallel to 90°E longitude upto 40°S where it merges with Amsterdam-
St Paul Plateau.

Ocean Basins:
The mid-Indian Oceanic Ridge divides the Indian Ocean into two major basins-the eastern and the
western basins. These basins are further divided into sub-baisns by the branches of the central ridge
.

(1) Oman basin faces the Gulf of Oman and is spread over the extensive continental shelf with
average depth of 3,658 m.
(2) Arabian basin is located in almost circular shape between Laccadive-Chagos ridge and Socotra
– Chagos Ridge with the depth of 3,600m – 5,486m.
(3) Somali basin is bordered by Socotra – Chagos ridge in the north-west. Central Ridge in the
east, Seychelles – Mauritius Ridge in the south-west and African coast in the west. The average
depth is 3,600m.
(4) Mauritius basin is located between S.W. Indian Ridge and South Madagascar Ridge and ex-
tends from 20°S to 40°S latitude. The depth varies between 3,600m and 5,486 m. The deepest part
measures 6,391 m depth.
5) Mascarene basin of oval shape extends between Madagascar and Seychelles –
Mauritius Ridge.
(6) Agulhas-Natal basin is an elongated basin which is bordered by Madagascar ridge
in the north and north-east, Prince Edward Crozet Ridge in the east and the S.E. African
coast in the west and north-west, Average depth is 3,600m.
(7) Atlantic- Indian – Antarctic basin is in fact the eastward continuation of Atlantic –
Antarctic Basin. It stretches upto 70°E longitude and is bordered by Prince Edward
Crozet Ridge in the north, Antarctica in the south and Kerguelen Gassberg Ridge in the
north-east. Average depth is 3,600m.
(8) Eastern Indian-Antarctic basin is located between Amsterdam – St. Paul Plateau
and Indian-Antarctic Ridge in the north and north-east and Antarctica in the south. The
depth varies from 3,600m to 4,800m. Kerguelen – Gassberg Ridge separates the basin
from the Atlantic – Indian-Antarctic Basin.
(9) West Australian basin is the most extensive basin and forms rectangular shape
surrounded by S.E. Indian Ridge in the south – west, Ninety East Ridge in the west,
continental shelves of Java-Sumatra in the northeast and the continental shelf of west
Australia, Average depth varies from 3,600m to 6,100m but the central part of the basin
is 6,459 m deep.
(10) Mid-Indian basin is bordered by the central ridge in the west and the south-west,
by Ninety East Ridge in the east and by the Bengal plateau in the north. The average
depth of outer part ranges from 3,600m to 6,800m while the depth of the central part of
the basin ranges between 4,800m and 6,100m.

Deeps and Trenches:

 There are very few deeps and trenches in the Indian Ocean. About 60 per cent of
the Ocean consists of deep sea plains with depth ranging from 3,600m to 5,487m.
 Important deep sea plains are Somali Abyssal plain.
 Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Abyssal plain, Indian Abyssal Plain, (4,380m) etc.
  Significant trenches are Java or Sunda Trench (7,450m deep), Ob Tre nch
(6,875m deep), Mauritius Trench, Amirante Trench etc.

Temperature Distribution of Oceans

 The study of the temperature of the oceans is important for determining the
1. movement of large volumes of water (vertical and horizontal ocean currents),
2. type and distribution of marine organisms at various depths of oceans,
3. climate of coastal lands, etc.

Source of Heat in Oceans

 The sun is the principal source of energy (Insolation).
 The ocean is also heated by the inner heat of the ocean itself (earth’s interior is hot. At the sea
surface, the crust is only about 5 to 30 km thick). But this heat is negligible compared to that
received from sun.

The ocean water is heated by three processes.

1. Absorption of sun’s radiation.
2. The conventional currents: Since the temperature of the earth increases with increasing
depth, the ocean water at great depths is heated faster than the upper water layers. So,
convectional oceanic circulations develop causing circulation of heat in water.
3. Heat is produced due to friction caused by the surface wind and the tidal currents
which increase stress on the water body.

The ocean water is cooled by

1. Back radiation (heat budget) from the sea surface takes place as the solar energy once
received is reradiated as long wave radiation (terrestrial radiation or infrared
radiation) from the seawater.
 2. Exchange of heat between the sea and the atmosphere if there is temperature
difference.
3. Evaporation: Heat is lost in the form of latent heat of evaporation (atmosphere gains
this heat in the form of latent heat of condensation).

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution

of Oceans
 Insolation: The average daily duration of insolation and its intensity.
 Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and radiation.
 Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
 The physical characteristics of the sea surface: Boiling point of the sea water is
increased in the case of higher salinity and vice versa [Salinity increased == Boiling
point increased == Evaporation decreased].
 The presence of submarine ridges and sills [Marginal Seas]: Temperature is
affected due to lesser mixing of waters on the opposite sides of the ridges or sills.
 The shape of the ocean: The latitudinally extensive seas in low latitude regions have
warmer surface water than longitudinally extensive sea [Mediterranean Sea records
higher temperature than the longitudinally extensive Gulf of California].
 The enclosed seas (Marginal Seas – Gulf, Bay etc.) in the low latitudes record
relatively higher temperature than the open seas; whereas the enclosed seas in the
high latitudes have lower temperature than the open seas.
 Local weather conditions such as cyclones.
 Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern hemisphere
receive more heat due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in
the southern hemisphere.
 Prevalent winds generate horizontal and sometimes vertical ocean currents: The
winds blowing from the land towards the oceans (off-shore winds-moving away from
the shore) drive warm surface water away from the coast resulting in the upwelling of
cold water from below (This happens near Peruvian Coast in normal years. El-Nino).
 Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds flowing from oceans into continents) pile
up warm water near the coast and this raises the temperature (This happens near the
Peruvian coast during El Nino event)(In normal years, North-eastern Australia and
Western Indonesian islands see this kind of warm ocean waters due to Walker Cell or
Walker Circulation).
 Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the
cold currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf stream (warm
 current) raises the temperature near the eastern coast of North America and the West
Coast of Europe while the Labrador current (cold current) lowers the temperature
near the north-east coast of North America (Near Newfoundland). All these factors
influence the temperature of the ocean currents locally.

Minor Factors:
 Minor factors include:
 (i) Submarine ridges
 (ii) Local weather conditions like storms, cyclones, hurricanes, fog, cloudiness, evaporation
and condensation, and
 (iii) Location and shape of the sea.

How does deep water marine organisms survive in spite of absence of sunlight?
 Photic zone is only about few hundred meters. It depends on lot of factors like turbidity,
presence of algae etc..
 There are no enough primary producers below few hundred meters till the ocean bottom.
 At the sea bottom, there are bacteria that make use of heat supplied by earth’s interior to
prepare food. So, they are the primary producers.
 Other organisms feed on these primary producers and subsequent secondary producers.
 So, the heat from earth supports wide ranging deep water marine organisms.
But the productivity is too low compared to ocean surface.

Why is diurnal range of ocean temperatures too small?, Why oceans take more time to heat or
cool?
 The process of heating and cooling of the oceanic water is slower than land due to vertical
and horizontal mixing and high specific heat of water.
 (More time required to heat up a Kg of water compared to heating the same unit of a solid at
same temperatures and with equal energy supply).

Distribution of Temperature
Distribution of temperature varies both horizontally and vertically. Let us study
it under

 A) Horizontal Distribution of Temperature

 B) Vertical Distribution of Temperature

Horizontal Distribution of Temperature in

Oceans
The horizontal distribution of temperature over the globe can be studied
easily from the isotherm maps of January and July months since the
seasonal extremes of high and low temperature are most obvious in both
northern and southern hemispheres during these months.

Horizontal Distribution of Temperature in January

 In January, the sun shines vertically overhead near the tropic of

Capricorn. Hence, it is summer in southern hemisphere and winter in the
northern hemisphere.
 A high temperature is found over the landmasses mainly in three regions
of the southern hemisphere. These regions are North-West Argentina,
East and Central Africa, and Central Australia.
 Isotherm of 30°C closes them.
  In the northern hemisphere, landmasses are cooler than the oceans. As
the air is warmer over the oceans than over landmasses in the northern
hemisphere, the isotherms bend towards the north (poles) when they
cross the oceans and to the south (equator) over the continents.
 This can be clearly visible over the North Atlantic Oceans. The presence
of warms ocean currents (Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift) make the
Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend towards the
poles. Over the land, the temperature decreases sharply and the
isotherms bend towards the equator in Europe.
 In the southern hemisphere, the effect of the oceans is well pronounced
(due to few landmasses).
 Here, the isotherms are more or less parallel to the latitudes and the
variation in temperature is more gradual than in the northern hemisphere.

Horizontal Distribution of Temperature in July

 In July, the sun shines vertically overhead near the Tropic of cancer.
Hence, high temperatures are found in the entire northern hemisphere.
 The regions having high temperature include South Western USA, the
Sahara, the Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, desert region of India and
China.
 However, the lowest temperature of 0°C is also noticed in the Northern
Hemisphere during summer in the central part of Greenland.
 During summer in the northern hemisphere, isotherms bend towards the
equator while crossing oceans and towards the poles while crossing
landmasses.
 Isotherms are wide spaced over oceans while they are closely spaced
over landmasses.
 In July, the deviation of isotherms is not that much pronounced as in
January.
Vertical Distribution of Temperature in Oceans

It may be pointed out that maximum temperature of the oceans is always at their surface
because it directly receives the insolation and the heat is transmitted to the lower sections of the
oceans through the mechanism of conduction. In fact, the solar rays very effectively penetrate
upto 20m depth and they seldom go beyond 200m depth.
Consequently, the temperature decreases from the ocean surface with increasing depth
but the rate of decrease of temperature with increasing depth is not uniform
everywhere. The temperature falls very rapidly upto the depth of 200m and thereafter
the rate of decrease of temperature is slowed down.

From this stand point the oceans are vertically divided into two zones
(1) Photic or euphotic zone represents the upper surface up to the depth of 200m and
receives solar radiation.
(2) Aphotic zone extends from 200m depth to the bottom and does not receive solar
rays.
The following are the salient features of vertical distribution of temperature of
ocean water:

1. Though the sea temperature decreases with increasing depth but the rate of
decrease of temperature is not uniform. The change in sea temperature below the
depth of 2000m is negligible.
2. Diurnal and annual ranges of temperature cease after the depth of 5 fathoms (30
feet) and 100 fathoms (600 feet) respectively.
3. The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing depth from equator towards the
poles is not uniform.

o Though the surface temperature of the seas decreases from equator

towards the poles but the temperature at the ocean bottoms is
uniform from the equator towards the pole, which means that the rate
of decrease of temperature with increasing depth is more rapid near
the equator than towards the poles.

4. The areas from where sea surface water is driven away by offshore winds resulting
into upwelling of water from below record low temperature at sea surface and thus
the rate of decrease of temperature with increasing depth becomes low.
 o Contrary to this the areas where there is pilling of sea water because
of onshore winds, record relatively high temperature at sea surface
and thus the rate of decrease of temperature with increasing depth
becomes rapid.

5. In some areas high temperature is recorded at greater depths e.g., in Sargasso Sea,
Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Sulu Sea etc. The Medi terranean Sea records 24.4°C
at the depth of 1,829m whereas the Indian Ocean has only 1.1°C temperature at the
same depth. Such anomalous conditions are noticed in the en closed seas of low
latitudes. The enclosed seas of high latitudes register inversion of tempera ture i.e.,
the temperature of sea surface is lower than the temperature below.
6. There is clear-cut layered thermal structure of ocean water.

Vertically the oceans are divided into 3 layers from the stand point of thermal
conditions of seawater, in the lower and middle latitudes as follows:
(1) The upper layer represents the top-layer of warm water mass with a thickness of
500 meters with average temperature ranging between 20°C to 25°C. This lighter ocean
water mass floats over the thickest heavy water mass of the oceans extending up to the
ocean bottoms. This layer is present within the tropics throughout the year but it
develops in middle latitudes only during summer season.
(2) The lower layer extends beyond 1000m depth up to the ocean bottoms. This layer
is very cold and represents denser ocean water mass.
(3) The upper and lower ocean water masses are separated by a transitional zone of
rapid change of temperature with increasing depth. This zone of ocean water mass is
called thermocline which extends between 300m-1000m depth.
 Besides, there are seasonal thermoclines between the depth of 40m and 100m.
These seasonal thermoclines are formed due to heating of water surface through solar
radiation during summer season. There are also diurnal thermoclines which form in
shallow water at depth usually less than 10-15m. The polar seas have only one layer of
cold water mass from the ocean surface (sea level) to the deep ocean floor.

Three-Layer System
 The temperature structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes can be described as a
three-layer system from surface to the bottom.
 The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water and it is about 500m thick with
temperatures ranging between 20° and 25° C. This layer, within the tropical region, is present
throughout the year but in mid-latitudes it develops only during summer.
 The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first layer and is characterized by
rapid decrease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick.
 The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor. Here the temperature
becomes almost stagnant.

General behavior
 In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the surface water temperatures are close to 0° C and so the
temperature change with the depth is very slight (ice is a very bad conductor of heat).
Here, only one layer of cold water exists, which extends from surface to deep ocean floor.
The rate of decrease of temperature with depths is greater at the equator than at
the poles.

 The surface temperature and its downward decrease is influenced by the upwelling of bottom
water (Near Peruvian coast during normal years).
 In cold Arctic and Antarctic regions, sinking of cold water and its movement towards lower
latitudes is observed.
 In equatorial regions the surface, water sometimes exhibits lower temperature and
salinity due to high rainfall, whereas the layers below it have higher temperatures.
 The enclosed seas in both the lower and higher latitudes record higher temperatures at the
bottom.
 The enclosed seas of low latitudes like the Sargasso Sea, the Red Sea and
the Mediterranean Sea have high bottom temperatures due to high insolation throughout
the year and lesser mixing of the warm and cold’ waters.
 In the case of the high latitude enclosed seas, the bottom layers of water are warmer as water
of slightly higher salinity and temperature moves from outer ocean as a sub-surface current.
 The presence of submarine barriers may lead to different temperature conditions on the two
sides of the barrier. For example, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the submarine barrier (sill)
has a height of about 366 m. The subsurface water in the strait is at high temperature
compared to water at same level in Indian ocean. The temperature difference is greater than
nearly 20° C.
 Salinity of Ocean Water
 Salinity means the total content of dissolved salts in Sea or Ocean.
 Salinity is calculated as the amount of salt dissolved in 1,000 gm of seawater.
 It is generally expressed as ‘parts per thousand’ (ppt).
 A salinity of 24.7 % has been regarded as the upper limit to fix ‘brackish water’.
 It is a significant factor in deciding several characteristics of the chemistry of natural
waters and biological processes.
 Isohalines are used on maps to show the salinity of different places.
 Isohalines – lines joining places having an equal degree of salinity.
 The average salinity of the ocean – 3.5% or 35 parts of salt in 1000 parts of water.
The salinity of the Great Salt Lake, (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea, and the Lake Van in
Turkey are 220, 240, and 330 respectively. The oceans and salt lakes are becoming
saltier as time goes on because the rivers dump more salt into them, while freshwater is
lost due to evaporation.

Share of different salts is as shown below—

 sodium chloride — 77.7%

 magnesium chloride—10.9%
 magnesium sulphate —.4.7%
 calcium sulphate — 3.6%
 potassium sulphate — 2.5%

Role of Ocean Salinity

 Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density, absorption
of insolation, evaporation, and humidity.
 It also influences the composition and movement of the sea: water and the distribution of
fish and other marine resources.
  Salinity, along with temperature, determines the density of seawater, and
hence its vertical flow patterns in thermohaline circulation.
 Salinity records the physical processes affecting a water mass when it was
last at the surface.
 precipitation/evaporation – salts excluded from vapor
 freezing/thawing – salts excluded from ice
 Salinity can be used as a conservative (unchanging) tracer for determining
the origin and mixing of water types.

Factors Affecting Salinity of Ocean Water

 Evaporation: The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend

mainly on evaporation. Where the evaporation is greater, the salinity is
higher, for example, Mediterranean sea.
 Freshwater flow influx: Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal
regions by the freshwater flow from rivers, and in polar regions by the
processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
o Where the freshwater flow into the oceans is greater, the salinity is
lower.
oFor instance, at the mouths of rivers such as Amazon, Congo, Ganga
etc., the ocean surface salinity is found to be lower than the average
surface salinity.
 Temperature and density: Salinity, temperature and density of water are
interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or density influences
the salinity of an area.
o In general, regions with high temperatures are also, regions with high
salinity.
 Ocean Currents: They play an important role in the spatial distribution of
dissolved salts in ocean waters.
o The warm currents near the equatorial region push away the salts
from the eastern margins of the oceans and accumulate them near
the western margins.
o Similarly, ocean currents in the temperate regions increase the
salinity of ocean waters near the eastern margins. For instance, Gulf
Stream in the North Atlantic Ocean increases the salinity of ocean
waters along the western margins of the Atlantic Ocean.
 Precipitation: Precipitation and salinity share an inverse relationship.
o In general, regions with higher levels of precipitation have lower
levels of salinity. This is the reason why though the equatorial region
is as hot as the sub-tropics, it records lower salinity than the sub-
tropics since the former receives heavy precipitation in a day.
 Atmospheric pressure and Wind direction: anti-cyclonic conditions with
stable air and high temperature increase salinity of the surface water of
oceans
o winds help is redistribution of salinity, as they drive away saline
waters to less saline areas resulting into decrease of salinity in the
former and increase in the latter
Distribution of salinity
Surface seawater salinities largely reflect the local balance between evaporation and
precipitation.

 Low salinities occur near the equator due to rain from rising atmospheric
circulation.
 High salinities are typical of the hot dry gyres flanking the equator (20 -30
degrees latitude) where atmospheric circulation cells descend.
 Salinity can also be affected by sea ice formation/melting (e.g. around
Antarctica)
 The surface N. Atlantic is saltier than the surface N. Pacific, making surface
water denser in the N. Atlantic at the same temperature and leading to
down-welling of water in this region this difference is because on average
N. Atlantic is warmer (10.0 C) than N. Pacific (6.7 C).
 This is mostly because of the greater local heating effect of the Gulf
Stream, as compared to the Kuroshio Current. Warmer water evaporates
more rapidly, creating a higher residual salt content
 The influence of surface fluctuations in salinity due to changes in
evaporation and precipitation is generally small below 1000 m, where
salinities are mostly between about 34.5 and 35.0 at all latitudes.
 Zones where salinity decreases with depth are typically found occur at low
latitudes and mid latitudes, between the mixed surface layer and the deep
ocean. These zones are known as haloclines.

The spatial distribution of salinity across oceans, is studied in two ways:

 Horizontal Distribution of Salinity

 Vertical Distribution of Salinity
Horizontal distribution of salinity

 On an average, salinity decreases from equator towards the poles.

However, it is important to note that the highest salinity is seldom recorded
near the equator though this zone records high temperature and
evaporation but high rainfall reduces the relative proportion of salt. Thus,
the equator accounts for only 35‰ salinity
 The highest salinity is observed between 20° N and 40° N (36‰) because
this zone is characterized by high temperature, high evaporation but
relatively low rainfall
 The average salinity of 35‰ is recorded between 100 -300 latitudes in the
southern hemisphere
 The zone between 40 deg -60 deg latitudes in both the hemispheres
records low salinity where it is 31‰ and 33‰ in the northern and the
southern hemispheres respectively.
  Salinity further decreases in the polar zones because of influx of Glacial
melt-water. On an average, the northern and the southern hemispheres
record average salinity of 35‰ and 34‰ respectively

Vertical Distribution of Salinity

 Salinity at the surface of the sea is decreased by the input of fresh waters
or increased by the loss of water to ice or evaporation. Thus both the
trends of increase and decrease of salinity with increasing depths have
been observed
 Salinity increases with increasing depth from 300 meters to 1000 meters in
high latitudes i.e. there is positive relationship between the amount of
salinity and depth because of denser water below but salinity becomes
more or less constant beyond 1000 m depth
 Salinity decreases between the depth zone of 300 meters to 1000 meters in
the low latitudes but it becomes more or less constant beyond 1000 m
depth
 It appears from the above mentioned trends of vertical distribution of
salinity that there is rapid rate of change of salinity (both increase and
decrease) in the depth zone of 300m-1000m. This zone of steep gradient of
salinity is called halocline
 Maximum salinity is found in the upper layer of the oceanic water. Salinity
decreases with increasing depth. Thus, the upper zone o f maximum salinity
and the lower zone of minimum salinity is separated by a transition zone
which is called as halocline, on an average above which high salinity is
found in the low latitudes while low salinity is found in the high latitudes
Regional Distribution of water salinity across the oceans :-

 Indian Ocean: The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 parts per
thousand . The low salinity is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to the
influx of river water by the river Ganga. On the other hand, the Arabian
Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and a low influx of
freshwater.
 Pacific Ocean: The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to
its shape and larger areal extent.
 Atlantic Ocean: The salinity in the Atlantic ocean varies between 20 to 37
parts per thousand according to the location.
o For example, Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative
humidity, cloudiness and calm air of the doldrums.
 o Whereas, The polar areas experience very little evaporation and
receive large amounts of freshwater from the melting of ice. This
leads to low levels of salinity, ranging between 20 and 32 parts per
thousand
 North Sea: In spite of its location in higher latitudes, it records higher
salinity due to more saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
 The Mediterranean Sea: The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity
due to high evaporation. Surface waters average about 38 parts per
thousand in this sea
 The Baltic Sea: Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters
in large quantity, averaging around 35 parts per thousand
 The Black Sea: Salinity in the Black Sea is very low due to the enormous
freshwater influx by rivers, averaging around 13–23 parts per thousand

Sub-Surface Salinity
 With depth, the salinity also varies, but this variation again is subject to latitudinal
difference. The decrease is also influenced by cold and warm currents.
 In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. In the middle latitudes, it increases up to
35 metres and then it decreases. At the equator, surface salinity is lower.

Significance

 Salinity has a direct impact on seawater density (salty water is

denser than freshwater) and hence the circulation of ocean
currents from the tropics to the poles, along with the temperature.
 Salinity measurement is one approach to exploring deeper into the
water cycle.
Extra:-

Density of Ocean water

 The density of any substances is the mass per unit volume stated in grams per cubic
centimeter. Commonly the word density is used for specific gravity which is the ratio of
the density to that of distilled water at a given temperature & under atmospheric
pressure.
 Pure water has maximum density of one unit at temperature 4 degree Celsius, whereas
for the sea it changes according to the salinity content.
 Density of pure water depends upon temperature & pressure only.
 Whereas that of sea water depends upon temperature, pressure and salinity.
 This diagram shows the role of salinity on changes in density & freezing point.
 From the figure clear that pure clear that pure water freezes at 0 degree Celsius & has
maximum density at 4 degree Celsius. The freezing point of ocean water decreases with
increasing salinity so also the temperature of maximum density of.
Distribution of density of sea water

 In general there is a latitudinal difference in the density distribution, depending on the

character of the water changing from equator to the poles. The density of the upper
layer commonly increases from the tropics towards the poles.
 The nature of the comparatively dense water in to sink down below the lighter water
when 2 water masses having different density more dense water sinks down & then
spreads out from the place where the similar density is found. It is observed that in the
middle latitude, denser water sinks at lesser depths than the water that sinks at
convergence in higher latitudes.
Vertical Distribution

The vertical distribution of density would reveal that generally at surface water of low
density are found which increase in density towards the bottom. It is so because any
amount of water which finds itself among less dense water would sink automatically
below the surface up to that depth where water of similar density is found. Hence at
places of convergences dense water mass sinks below the lighter one & forms bottom
water. Nevertheless contrary to the surface current from the equator towards the pole
there is bottom and this brings denser water under the surface of the sea.
 Extra:-

TEMPERATURE SALINITY CURVE AND OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA

T-S Diagram is also called sigma T (σ - t) diagram. It was proposed by Helland-Hansen (1916) with
a purpose to show the relationship between temperature and salinity on the basis of density the
water masses are identified. Thus, this diagram specifically helps in the identification of water
masses. Water masses is defined as the large body of masses with more or less homogeneous
physical property, a 3D water column where density variations are sleek.

 The T-S curve helps in the scientific preparation of oceanographic data and is used to detect errors
and to make it homogenous. Incorrect observations can be detected since they fall outside the
normal T-S curve for that oceanic Area.
 The T-S curve is also helpful in the investigation of the problem of the origin and the mixing of
characteristic water masses in oceanic areas.
 An accurate analysis of the T-S relationship in different parts of the oceans goes a long way in the
closer classification of the water types of which ocean is made up.
 This also helps in a clarification of the formation, spreading and mixing of the individual water types,
and thus facilitates a quantitative description of the oceanic circulation of the deep and bottom
layers.
 Temperature and salinity combine to determine the potential density of seawater, contours of
constant potential density are often shown in T-S diagram.

On the given graph, the sigma values are plotted to show the location of air masses.
On the X-axis, salinity and on the Y-axis temperature and depth are plotted. Halocline (salinity with
depth) and thermocline (temperature with depth) are pointed on the graph. These 2 lines always
remain parallel showing that the temperature and salinity the physical properties are directly
proportional to each other. The freshwater density is taken as 1.0 and the sea water density may
vary from 1.028 to 1.032, To find the value of sigma, 1 is extracted from the density of sea water and
the received value is multiplied with 1000, the sigma is equal to 32 which denotes the density
conditions in comparison to the freshwater and normal water. Once the water masses are identified
as OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion) are established. If the water masses have thermal
contrast of 22°, harnessing energy from the ocean by inserting physio-electrical sheet which convert
physical pressure into electrical currents. Thus T-S diagram is useful for the OTEC Plants and also
identifying the water masses and moreover it shows the thermo-haline condition with depth and can
establish the circulatory pattern.
 OCEAN DEPOSITS

There are unconsolidated sediments, deposited on the ocean floor. These are ocean deposits.
They vary from location to location. The study of ocean deposits is important in understanding
the rocks exposed on the earth’s surface which were once laid under sea. Ocean deposits are
one of the most important aspects of our planet. In fact, without them, life on Earth
would be impossible. This is because ocean deposits provide us with many resources
that we use every day.

The unconsolidated sediments, derived from various sources,

deposited at the sea floors are included in ocean deposits. The study of
ocean (marine) deposits includes the consideration of types of
sediments, their sources, methods of their transportation, horizontal
distribution, lithological successions or vertical variations in their
distribution and composition etc.

The sediments derived from weathering and erosion of continental

rocks are transported to the oceans by rivers, winds etc. Volcanic
eruptions also provide sediments. Besides, the decay and
decomposition of marine organisms (both plants and animals) also
contribute sediments to ocean deposits.
IMPORTANCE OF OCEAN DEPOSITS

Ocean sediments are particles and fragments of dirt, dust, and other debris that have
settled out of the water and accumulated on the ocean floor. The crucial importance of
marine sediments is that they reveal much about Earth’s history. Marine sediments
provide clues to past climates, movements of the ocean floor, ocean circulation
patterns, and nutrient supplies for marine organisms.
Marine sediments can also be helpful in ascertaining the timing of major extinctions,
global climate change, and the movement of plates.

The classification of oceanic deposits can be done on the basis of Source,

Location ,structure and composition of Sediments :-

A. Source based Classification of Oceanic

Deposits
1. Terrigenous/Lithogenous (material eroded from land)
2. Hydrogenous (e.g. Carbonite)
3. Biogenous (Siliceous, Calcareous)
4. Cosmogenous (e.g. meteorite)
5. Volcanic materials
6. Inorganic precipitate (from Air)

Lithogenous Sediment/Terrigenous :-
Terrigenous deposits include gravels, sands, muds, volcanic materials
etc. which are derived through weathering and erosion of continental
rocks by various denudational processes. There is marked gradation of
these sediments when they are deposited in the oceans. The sequence
of these materials from the coast towards the sea is gravel, sand, silt,
clay and mud. The ocean currents and waves very often disturb the
gradation and sequence of sediments.

Terrigenous deposits are classified into 3 categories on the

basis of location and depth:

(1) Littoral deposits are generally found on the continental shelves

mainly near the coastal margins upto the depth of 100 fathoms (600
feet) but they have been also traced upto the depth of 1000m-2000m.
Littoral deposits consist of gravels, sands, silt, clays and muds.

(2) Shallow water deposits include terrigenous sediments deposited

between low tide water and 100- fathom depth. These deposits consist
of gravels, sands, silt and clays of varying proportions. Sea waves and
tidal waves help in the gradation and sorting of sediments but
landslides, slumping, strong storm waves, and storms sometimes
disturb the vertical stratification of sediments.

(3) Deep water deposits include the sediments deposited below the
depth of 100 fathoms. There is marked gradation of sediments in
vertical succession where the sequence of sediments with increasing
depths is blue mud, red mud, green mud, coral mud and volcanic mud.
In Box:-

Terrigenous materials

In general, the Terrigenous deposits consist mainly of

a) Material derived from the wear and tear of the land,

b) The remains of animals and plants,

c) Volcanic material.

• On the basis of size, composition and chemical characteristics,

Terrigenous sediments are divided into gravels, sands, silt, clay and
mud.
• Gravels are further sub-divided into boulders, cobbles, pebbles,
granules etc in accordance with their size.
• Mud is finer than clay. Clay is significant cementing element.

Types of mud

Murray has divided mud into 3 types on the basis of colour.

Blue mud

• It includes the materials derived through the disintegration of rocks rich

in Iron Sulphide and organic elements.
• It contains 35% of calcium carbonate.
• It predominates in the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Artic Sea.
 Red mud

• The sediments derived through the communition of rocks rich in iron

oxides from red mud.
• The reddish colour is mainly due to dominance of iron content.
• It predominates in the Yellow sea, Brazilian coast and the floors of
Atlantic Ocean.

Green mud

• It is formed due to chemical weathering wherein the colour of blue mud

is changed to green mud due to reaction of sea water.
• It contains green silicates of potassium and Glauconite.
• It contains calcium carbonate between 0 to 56%.
• These are generally found at the depth of 100 to 900 fathoms.
• Green mud are found along the Atlantic and Pacific coast of North
America, Japan coast etc.

Biogenous Sediment / Ooze

The source of organic materials is sea itself. They include skeletons of
marine organisms and plant remains. These are two categories

a) Neretic matter

b) Pelagic matter

The distribution of neritic or pelagic sediments is controlled by proximity to

sources of lithogenous sediments (i.e.: landmasses) and the productivity of
microscopic marine organisms.
a) Neretic matter includes skeletons of marine organisms and plant
remains. The term neritic is used to described the shallow part of the ocean
near a coast and overlying the continental shelf.
Neritic sediments are generally shallow water deposits formed close to land.
They are dominated by lithogenous sources and are typically deposited quickly.
Neritic sediments cover about ¼ of sea floor and are near landmasses.

b)Pelagic Matter:-
The term pelagic means "of or relating to the open sea" particularly the upper
layers of the ocean away from shore.
Pelagic sediments are generally deep-water deposits mostly oozes (see below)
and windblown clays. They are typically finer-grained sediments that are
deposited slowly. Because they are deposited far beyond the continental margins
they are typically less lithogenous and more biogenous depending on biologic
productivity. Pelagic sediments cover about ¾ of seafloor and are mostly in
deep water Pelagic matter consists of remains of different types of algae.
Pelagic deposits consisting of remains of marine plants and animals in
the form of different types of oozes cover about 75.5 per cent of the
ocean areas.

In Box:
What is Ooze?
ooze, pelagic (deep-sea) sediment of which at least 30 percent is composed of the
skeletal remains of microscopic floating organisms. Oozes are basically deposits of soft
mud on the ocean floor. They form on areas of the seafloor distant enough from land so
that the slow but steady deposition of dead microorganisms from overlying waters is not
obscured by sediments washed from the land.

• Pelagic materials are oozes which are divided into two groups on the
basis of lime and silica contents . The Subdivision of Oozes are
i) calcareous oozes (containing skeletons made of calcium carbonate)
ii) and siliceous oozes (containing skeletons made of silica) and
 I. Calcareous oozes

• They contain lime in abundance.

• They are seldom found at greater depth because of their high degree of
solubility.
calcareous oozes, a biogenic ooze made up of skeletal debris. Calcareous oozes
cover about half of the world’s seafloor and are present chiefly above a depth
of 4,500 metres (about 14,800 feet); below that they dissolve quickly. In the
Atlantic basin the calcareous oozes are found 500 metres (about 1,600 feet)
deeper than in the Pacific basin, reflecting both a high rate of supply and low
rate of dissolution in comparison to the Pacific.Variation in input,
productivity, and dissolution rates in the geologic past have caused the
calcareous oozes to vary over 2,000 metres (about 6,600 feet).

Calcareous Oozes are further subdivided into two subtypes:-

Pteropod oozes
• They are formed of floating pteropod molluscs.
• They contain 80% calcium carbonate and is mostly found in the tropical
oceans .

Globigerina oozes
• They are formed from the shells of a variety of foraminifera but most of
such oozes are formed of germs called globigerina.
• When they are dried up they become dirty white powder.
• They contain 64% calcium and 1.64% silica.

II. Siliceous oozes

• Silica content dominates in the siliceous oozes.

• Silica is derived from a group of protozoa or radiolarians and benthic
animals mainly sponges.
• Such oozes are found in both warm and cold water at greater depths.

Siliceous Oozes are further subdivided into :-

Radiolarian oozes
They are formed by the shell of radiolarian and foraminifera. Radiolarian
oozes are made mostly of radiolarian skeletons and are located mainly in tropical
equatorial and subtropical regions. Examples of radiolarian ooze are the oozes of the
equatorial region, subtropical Pacific region and the subtropical basin of the Indian
Ocean.

Diatom oozes
• They are formed of the shells of very microscopic plants. Diatom ooze
(formed from microscopic unicellular algae having cell walls consisting of or
resembling silica) is the most widespread deposit in the high southern
latitudes but, unlike in the Pacific, is missing in northern latitudes. About
three-fifths of the bottom itself is covered with mud (oozes, globigerina, and so
forth), about one-fourth with sand, and the rest with rock, gravel, and shells.
Airborne material is abundant off the west coast of Africa, where dry offshore
winds carry material from the desert regions. In high latitudes, ice-
rafted detritus, including rock fragments that occasionally show the effect of
glacial abrasion, is an important component.
Distribution of Calcareous and Siliceous Oozes:-

Pteropod, diatom and radiolarian oozes cover 0.4, 6.4 and 3.4 per cent
areas of all the oceanic deposits respectively. Red clay constitutes 31.1
per cent of the total ocean deposits.
Pteropod oozes are found over an area of 12,90,000 km . Globigerina
oozes cover larger areas in the Pacific (64.5 million km2), the Atlantic
(37.9 million km2) and the Indian (31.4 million km2) oceans (figs. 27.3,
4 and 5). Radiolarian oozes are found over an area of 5.16 million
km2 in the Pacific and Indian oceans, Diatom oozes arc spread over an
area of 1,03,000 km2 in the North Pacific Ocean and 27.6 million
km2 in the southern oceans. Red clay is distributed over an area of 129
million km2 of all the oceans.

Philippi has described a vertical stratification of different pelagic

sediments wherein the sequence from top to the bottom includes
pteropod ooze, globigerina ooze, radiolarian ooze, diatom ooze and red
clay.
It is apparent from the figures that terrigenous deposits are found
along the coasts mainly on continental shelves but they cover greater
extent near the East Indies, in the North Pacific and along the
Labrador coast. Globigerina ooze, red clay and diatom ooze dominate
in the western, eastern and southern parts of the Indian Ocean
whereas it contains maximum areal extent in the Pacific Ocean.

Hydrogenous Sediment
Hydrogenous sediment is derived from the dissolved material in water. Chemical
reactions within seawater cause certain minerals to precipitate. Precipitation usually
occurs when there is a change in conditions, such as a change in temperature or
pressure or the addition of chemically active fluids.
Manganese Nodules
Manganese nodules are rounded, hard lumps of manganese plus iron plus other metals
typically 5 cms to 20 cms in diameter. When cut in half, they often reveal a layered
structure formed by precipitation around a central nucleation object, which might be a
piece of lithogenous sediment, coral, volcanic rock, a fish bone, or a shark s tooth.
Manganese nodules are found on the deep-ocean floor. The major components of these
nodules are manganese dioxide (around 30% by weight) and iron oxide (around
20%). Other accessory metals present in manganese nodules include copper, nickel
and cobalt. Although the concentration of these accessory metals is usually less than
1%, they can exceed 2% by weight, which may make them attractive exploration targets
in the future.
Phosphates
Phosphates occur abundantly as coatings on rocks and as nodules on the continental
shelf and on banks at shallow depths. Concentrations of phosphates in such deposits
indicate abundant biological activity in surface water above where they accumulate.
Because phosphates are valuable as fertilizers, ancient marine phosphate deposits that
have been uplifted onto land are extensively mined to supply agricultural needs.
Carbonates
The two most important carbonate minerals in marine sediment are aragonite and
calcite. Both are composed of calcium carbonate but aragonite has a different
crystalline structure that is less stable and changes into calcite over time. Most
carbonate deposits are biogenous in origin. However, hydrogenous carbonate deposits
can precipitate directly from seawater in tropical climates to form aragonite crystals
Metal Sulfides
Deposits of metal Sulfides are associated with hydrothermal vents and black smokers
along the mid-ocean ridge. These deposits contain iron, nickel, copper, zinc, silver, and
other metals in varying proportions. Transported away from the mid-ocean ridge by sea
floor spreading, these deposits can be found throughout the ocean floor and can
even be uplifted onto continents.

Cosmogenous (e.g. meteorite)

Cosmogenous sediment is fairly rare in the ocean and it does not usually
accumulate in large deposits. However, it is constantly being added to through
space dust that continuously rains down on Earth. About 90% of incoming
cosmogenous debris is vaporized as it enters the atmosphere, but it is
estimated that 5 to 300 tons of space dust land on the Earth’s surface each
day!
Volcanic Products:

In volcanic regions the deposits of continental shelf and slope consist chiefly of products of
volcanism, which are subject to chemical and mechanical weathering and are carried to the ocean
by actions of running water and wind. The volcanic deposits differ from the ordinary terrigenous
deposits in one respect—they are made of pyroclastic volcanic products and lava, rather than
quartz. Organic Products Such deposits consist of shells and skeletons of various plants and
animals that live and grow on the sea floor and are changed into mud and sand by chemical and
mechanical processes. They differ from the ordinary terrigenous deposits in the sense that they
consist of calcium carbonate only

Inorganic precipitate (from Air):-

This is in the form of red clay, which is apparently of a volcanic origin. The chief constituents of red clay
are silicon and aluminium dioxide, while other constituents include iron, manganese, phosphorus and
radium. The red clay is the most widely spread pelagic deposit and covers 38% of the sea floor. The red
clay covers more than half of the Pacific floor.
 On the Basis of Location:

This classification is based on typical locations of particular marine

sediment. Though several scientists have attempted to classify ocean
deposits on the basis of their locations, the classifications of Sir John
Murray and J.T. Jenkins are widely acclaimed.

(i) Classification of Murray:

Sir John Murray has classified the ocean deposits into two
broad categories viz.:

(a) Terrigenous deposits and

(b) Pelagic deposits.

Terrigenous deposits are found mainly on the continental shelves and

slopes whereas pelagic deposits predominate on the deep sea floor.
Terrigenous deposits are composed of coarser materials and are
derived from the continents through weathering and erosional
processes and are transported to the oceans by various agencies.

Their colour may be blue, yellow, grey or red. Pelagic deposits consist
of fine materials formed of skeletons and shells of marine organisms
and a few inorganic substances. They are generally blue, grey or red in
colour.

(ii) Classification of Jenkins:

Jenkins has divided marine deposits into three groups viz.:
(a) Deep sea deposits,

(b) Shallow water deposits, and

(c) Littoral deposits.

The following is the detailed classification of Jenkins:
(A) Pelagic deposits:
(1) Red clay,

(2) Radiolarian ooze,

(3) Diatom ooze,

(4) Globigerina ooze, and

(5) Pteropod ooze.

(B) Terrigenous deposits:

(1) Blue mud,

(2) Red mud,

(3) Green mud,

(4) Coral mud,

(5) Volcanic mud,

(6) Gravel, and

(7) Sand.

Classification of Oceanic Deposits based

on nature of sediments :-

a)Littoral Deposits – Boulder and Gravels

b)Sub-Littoral Deposits – Sand and Silt i
Hemipclagic deposits (Partly
c)Supra-littoral Deposits/
from land and partly from marine origin): – Mud
 d) Eupelagic deposits (Of marine and cosmic origin):
 (i) Red clay.

 (ii) Radiolarian ooze.

 (iii) Globigerina ooze.

 (iv) Pteropod ooze.

 Ocean Current

What are Ocean Currents?

 Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional
movement of seawater. It is a massive movement of ocean water
that is caused and influenced by various forces. They are like river
flows in oceans.
 Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically.

o Horizontal movements are referred to as currents, while vertical

changes are called upwellings or downwellings.
 Ocean currents impact humankind and the biosphere due to their
influence on climate.
Which are the Factors that Influences Ocean Current?
 Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:

o Primary forces:

 Heating by solar energy: Heating by solar energy causes

the water to expand. That is why, near the equator the
ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle
latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient and water tends
to flow down the slope.
 Wind: Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the
water to move. Friction between the wind and the water
surface affects the movement of the water body in its
course.
 Gravity: Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and
create gradient variation.
 Coriolis force. The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the
water to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to
 the left in the southern hemisphere.

 These large accumulations of water and the flow around

them are called Gyres.
 These produce large circular currents in all the ocean
basins.
o Secondary forces:

 Differences in water density: It affects vertical mobility of

ocean currents.

 Water with high salinity is denser than water with low

salinity and in the same way cold water is denser than
warm water.
 Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water
tends to rise.
 Temperature of water: Cold-water ocean currents occur
when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly moves
towards the equator.

 Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along

the surface, flowing towards the poles to replace the
sinking cold water.
What are the Types of Ocean Currents?
 The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth:

o Surface currents: Large-scale surface ocean currents are

driven by global wind systems that are fueled by energy from the
sun.

 These currents transfer heat from the tropics to the polar

regions, influencing local and global climate.
  It constitute about 10% of all the water in the ocean, these
waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean.
o Deep water currents: Differences in water density, resulting
from the variability of water temperature
(thermo) and salinity (haline), also cause ocean currents. This
process is known as thermohaline circulation.

 It makes up the other 90% of the ocean water.

 These waters move around the ocean basins due to
variations in the density and gravity.
 Deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high
latitudes, where the temperatures are cold enough to cause
the density to increase.
 This starts' the global conveyor belt, a connected system
of deep and surface currents that circulate around the globe
on a 1000 year time span.
 This global set of ocean currents is a critical part of Earth’s
climate system as well as the ocean nutrient and carbon
dioxide cycles.
 Ocean currents can also be classified based on temperature:

o Cold currents: It brings cold water into warm water areas.

These currents are usually found on the west coast of the
continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both
hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the
Northern Hemisphere.
o Warm currents: It brings warm water into cold water areas and
is usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low
and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres).

 In the northern hemisphere they are found on the west

coasts of continents in high latitudes.
What are the Characteristics of Ocean Currents?
 Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by the stresses
exerted by the prevailing winds and coriolis force. The oceanic
circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric
circulation pattern.
 The air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly
anticyclonic (more pronounced in the southern hemisphere than in
the northern hemisphere). The oceanic circulation pattern also
corresponds with the same.
 At higher latitudes, where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the
oceanic circulation follows this pattern.
 In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the monsoon winds
influence the current movements.
 Due to the coriolis force, the warm currents from low latitudes
tend to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to their
left in the southern hemisphere.
 The oceanic circulation transports heat from one latitude belt to
another in a manner similar to the heat transported by the general
circulation of the atmosphere.
 The cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move
towards warmer water in tropical and equatorial regions, while
the warm waters of the lower latitudes move polewards.
What are the Various Ocean Currents?
 Equatorial Currents System: Every ocean, except the Arctic
Ocean, has a North Equatorial Current, a South Equatorial Current
and an Equatorial Counter Current.

o The North and South equatorial currents flow from east to west.
 Equatorial Counter Current: It is located between the North and
South equatorial currents and flows in opposition to them, that is,
from west to east.
 Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC): The ACC is an ocean
current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica. An
alternative name for the ACC is the West Wind Drift.
 Humboldt or Peruvian Current: This low-salinity current has a
large marine ecosystem and serves as one of the major nutrient
systems of the world.

o Flows from the southernmost tip of Chile to northern Peru, along

the west coast of South America.
 Kurile or Oyashio Current: This sub-arctic ocean current circulates
in a counterclockwise direction.

o It originates in the Arctic Ocean flows south via the Bering Sea
in the western North Pacific Ocean.
o It is a nutrient-rich current.
o It collides with Kurioshio off the Japanese eastern shore to form
the North Pacific Drift.
 California Current: It is the extension of the Aleutian Current along
the west coast of North America in a southward flowing direction.

o It is a part of North Pacific Gyre.

o Region of strong Upwelling.
 Labrador Current: It flows from the Arctic Ocean towards the south
and meets the warm northward moving Gulf Stream.

o The combination of cold Labrador Current and warm Gulf

Stream is known for creating one of the richest fishing grounds
of the world.
 Canary Current: Low salinity current extending between Fram Strait
and Cape Farewell.

o It connects the Arctic directly to the North Atlantic.

o Major freshwater sink for the Arctic.
o It is a major contributor to sea-ice export out of the Arctic.
 Benguela Current: Branch of West Wind Drift of the Southern
Hemisphere.

o Eastern portion of South Atlantic Ocean Gyre.

o Low salinity, presence of upwelling- excellent fishing zone.
 Falkland Current: It is a branch of Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

o It is also known as Malvinas Current.

o It is named after the Falkland Islands.
o This cold current mixes with warm Brazil current and forms the
Brazil-Malvinas Confluence Zone which is responsible for the
region’s temperate climate.
 Northeast Monsoon Current: Indian North Equatorial Current flows
southwest and west, crossing the Equator.
 Somali Current: Analogous to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic
Ocean.

o The Current is heavily influenced by monsoon.

o Region of major upwelling system.
 Western Australian Current: It is also known as West Wind Drift.

o It is a part of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

o It is a seasonal current- strong in summer and weak in winter.’
 Kuroshio Current: This west boundary current is also known as
Japan current or Black Current. The term “Kuroshio” in Japanese
means “Black Stream ''.

o It is the Pacific analogue of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic

Ocean.
o The average surface temperature of this current is warmer than
the surrounding ocean.
o This also helps in regulating the temperature of Japan, which is
relatively warmer.
 North Pacific Current: It is formed by the collision of Kurioshio &
Oyashio.
 o It circulates counterclockwise along the Western North Pacific
Ocean.
 Alaskan Current: It results from a northward diversion of a part of
the North Pacific Ocean.
 East Australian Current: Acts to transport tropical marine fauna to
habitats in sub-tropical regions along the southeast Australian coast.
 Florida Current: Flows around Florida Peninsula and joins the Gulf
Stream at Cape Hatteras.
 Gulf Stream: Western intensified current-driven mainly by wind
stress.

o It splits into North Atlantic Drift (crossing Northern Europe &

southern stream) and Canary Current (recirculating of West
Africa)
 Norwegian Current: This wedge-shaped current is one of the two
dominant Arctic inflows of water.

o It is a branch of North Atlantic Drift and sometimes also

considered as an extension of the Gulf Stream.
 Brazilian Current: Flows along the south coast of Brazil till Rio de la
Palta.

o It joins the cold Falkland Current at the Argentine Sea making it

a temperate sea.
 Mozambique Current: Flows between Mozambique and the island
of Madagascar along the African east coast in the Mozambique
Channel.
 Agulhas Current: Largest western boundary ocean current.

o Flows south along the east coast of Africa.

 Southwest Monsoon Current: It dominates the Indian Ocean
during the southwest monsoon season (June–October).
 o It is a broad eastward flowing ocean current that extends into the
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
What are the Effects of Ocean Currents?
 Climatic Conditions: Currents influence the climatic conditions of
the regions in which they flow.

o The warm Equatorial currents raise the temperature of the

region in which they flow. Similarly, the cold currents lower the
temperature of the places where they flow.
o For example, the British Isles would have been extremely cold
without the warm North Atlantic Drift.
o The hot climate of Peru is cooled by the cold Peru Current.
 Rainfall: The winds blowing over warm currents pick up and carry
moisture and bring rainfall like the North Atlantic Drift brings rainfall
in some areas located along the western coasts of Europe.

o On the contrary, cold currents do not bring rainfall and make the
region cooler and drier.
o The Kalahari Desert hardly experiences rainfall due to the cold
Benguela current.
 Fog Formation: The meeting of the warm and the cool currents
results in the formation of fog.

o The ship's face danger due to the fogs caused by the meeting of
the warm currents with the cold currents.
o This has resulted in the wreckage of many ships in the past as
they are not able to view icebergs due to poor visibility.
 Creates Fishing Zone: The mixing of warm and cold currents
results in the deposition of planktons. Therefore, at such places,
fishes can be found in abundance.
 Desert formation: Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on
desert formation in west coast regions of the tropical and subtropical
 continents.

o There is fog and most of the areas are arid due to desiccating
effects (loss of moisture).
 Trade and Commerce: Currents help ships to sail if they follow the
directions of the currents.

o Many warm currents keep the ports of Europe ice free even
during the winters. This helps in trade and commerce.
 Violent Storms: At times the meeting line of a warm and a cold
current may result in a violent storm.

o The hurricanes which occur off the coast of the U.S.A. follow the
line where the Gulf Stream merges with the Labrador Current.
 CORALS & CORALS REEF

"Why is it that scuba divers and surfers are some of the strongest advocates
of ocean conservation? Because they’ve spent time in and around the ocean,
and they’ve personally seen the beauty, the fragility, and even the degradation
of our planet’s blue heart".

— Sylvia Earle

Gorgeous, alive and diverse - the coral reefs of India have stunned
millions of scuba divers and people, all around the world.
Being one of the most ancient and dynamic ecosystems of the world, coral
reefs have been necessary to sustain life in the oceans. Due to the warm,
tropical region in India, corals thrive in the Indian Ocean. These reefs not only
provide sanctuary to a vast ecosystem but also protect the coastlines from
eroding.
How are they formed?
Coral polyps are tiny and fleshy sea anemones that live in tropical and
subtropical oceans and seas. They live in shallow waters along with
microscopic algae called Zooxanthellae, with which they share a symbiotic
relationship. This algae has photosynthesis abilities that feed the coral polyps
with carbon compounds which give them energy. In return, the polyps provide
protection to Zooxanthellae.

Coral reefs are formed when the freely moving larvae of corals attach
themselves to sedimentary rocks or hard surfaces near the coastlines. This
process is undertaken with the help of several other processes like
sedimentation, compaction, cementation and solidification of the skeletons of
coral polyps.

Where are coral reefs found in India?

India is recorded to have around 7,517 km of coastline but only 6,100 km
represents the mainland coastline. The three major types of coral reefs found
in India are fringing, barrier and atolls.

Coral reefs in India are found in a lot of areas including the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf
of Mannar, Palk Bay, Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands. The
Gulf of Kutch in the northwest has some of the most northerly reefs in the
world.

Patches of coral reefs are also found in Ratnagiri, Malvan and Redi, south
Bombay and at the Gaveshani Bank located in the west of Mangalore.

Corals running parallel to the shore are found at Quilon near the Kerala coast
to Enayem in Tamil Nadu. On the east coast, between Parangipettai (south of
Cuddalore) and Pondicherry, corals are found in abundance. When it comes
to island corals, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Lakshadweep Islands
are rich with flourishing corals.

Types of coral reefs in India

India has three major prevailing types of coral reefs:

1. Fringing reefs
Fringing reefs evolve and develop near the continent and remain close to the
coastline. These reefs are separated from the coastline by small, shallow
lagoons. They are the most commonly found reefs in the world.

2. Barrier reefs

Barrier reefs are found offshore on the continental shelf. They usually run
parallel to the coastline at some distance. A deep and wide lagoon is located
between the coastline and the barrier reef.

3. Atolls

Atolls are formed on mid-oceanic ridges. They are shaped circularly or

elliptically and are surrounded by seas on all four sides and have shallow
waters in the center called a lagoon.

What are the ideal environmental conditions for corals to grow?

Coral reefs have certain conditions that must be met for them to grow in full
bloom.

1. Shallow water
Coral reefs need to grow in shallow parts of the water. The surface of the reef
shouldn’t be more than 80m from the water surface. The Zooxanthellae need
adequate sunlight for their photosynthesis processes.

2. Semi-hard or hard surface

The semi-hard or hard surface is a precondition for compaction, cementation

and solidification of the coral polyps skeletons.

3. Clear water

The beautiful coral polyps perish in areas filled with sediment-filled waters.
Moreover, they cease to exist in opaque waters. This is because the presence
of sediments and opaque water limits the passage of sunlight to the algae that
sustains their life.

4. Warm water

Coral reefs are directly connected with the warm oceanic waters. The
temperature of the water must be around 20 degrees. Hence, coral reefs
generally prevail on the eastern coasts of continents. However, this is not true
in the case of India as the eastern waters are filled with high amounts of
sediment matter.

5. Saline-filled waters

The slight salt in ocean waters is extremely important for the development of
coral polyps. The polyps extract calcium from the waters to protect their
skeletons. Hence, mild salinity is a necessity for coral reefs to flourish.

6. Rich supply of nutrients

Coral reefs flourish in sea waters because ocean waves support the constant
supply of rich nutrients. Coral polyps multiply faster when supplied with
nutrients.

Why is the survival of corals and coral reefs important to human

and marine life?
Corals are important to marine life because of the following reasons:
 The health of the marine ecosystem is dependent on corals.
 They support a wide range of ecosystems and hence, are called the
rainforests of the ocean.
 Corals provide a place to live for a huge variety of fish.
 Corals are a primary source of food in the marine ecosystem.

Coral reefs have a somewhat similar significance.

1. Coastal protection

Coral reefs act as a barrier and protect the coastal areas from strong ocean
currents and waves. They provide protection from ocean storms and cyclones.
With the increasing amount of cyclones in India due to climate change, these
natural barriers have become excessively important.

2. Food source

Fish that live in and around coral reefs are a healthy source of protein for
billions of people, mainly living on coastlines. Some fishing industries are
entirely dependent on the coral reefs and the wildlife that it attracts.

3. Medicinal properties

Coral reefs are said to be the medicine chests of the sea. Some fish that the
corals attract, leave behind some chemical compounds that are similar to the
ones used in human hospitals.

4. Meteorology

A new study by the Indian Institute of Meteorology has stated that corals along
the north-western coast provided insights on the patterns of the onset and
withdrawal of Indian monsoons.

5. Tourism

Most of the gross national product of countries with coral reef industries
comes from the tourism sector due to these beautiful corals. A study had
estimated that the value of coral reefs was $10 billion and the direct economic
benefits were approximately $360 million per year.

What are the threats that push corals to the brink of extinction?
Coral reefs are facing a large number of threats, directly or indirectly, by
human actions. Scientists believe that all coral reefs will face threats by 2050,
75% of them facing high-risk threats. Some of these threats are:

1. Global warming

Due to global warming, the waters are getting more acidic and posing threats
to the coral ecosystem. Moreover, the glaciers across the world are melting
due to which sea levels are rising. Rising sea levels lead to the coral reefs
drowning and not getting enough sunlight which leads to their slow growth.

2. Coral Bleaching

Coral bleaching takes place when the oceans get warmer. Since corals have
a narrow temperature tolerance, they get stressed and release a symbiotic
algae in response. When they run out of the algae, they run out of their life
source and hence, cease to exist.

3. Marine pollution

Marine pollution in the form of plastic pollution and other activities has led to
the corals being suffocated. Coral reefs need air and space to breathe. With
the rising levels of sea pollution, we might lose them sooner than we thought.

4. Stronger storms and ocean acidification

The upsurge of stronger storms has led to oceanic waves that break and
damage the coral reefs. They might even break colonies and make them
unsafe for living. As the sea absorbs more and more CO 2, the pH levels
continue to increase. High pH levels lead to weaker coral skeletons, their
vulnerability to diseases and destruction by storms.

5. Ozone depletion
Coral polyps have in-built UV rays protection. However, now that the radiation
is increasing, the corals in shallow waters can get damaged and destroyed.

Laws protecting the coral reefs of India

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change makes and ensures
the guidelines and laws protecting coral reefs are followed properly. The State
Wildlife department takes care of the corals if the coral reef region comes
under a protected area.

All marine resources are protected under the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
of 1991. It provides protection to all coral reefs under the CRZ1 category of
the law. The specific Section 7 (2) of the CRZ states that no hotels or resorts
are to be made on coral reefs. The mining and quarrying of coral reefs are
banned in some states, except for scientific purposes.

Coral reefs have sustained life for over a million years. Its diverse ecosystem
keeps marine life running. It would not be in our best interest to interfere with
the coral reefs. Conservation methods should therefore be taken to protect
these beautiful polyps. Laws should be strictly enforced and if not followed,
penalties should be imposed swiftly. It is in our best interest to protect our
corals from eroding and withering away. Let’s make a pact to do what we can
to protect them, today.