SMA 305: COMPLEX ANALYSIS

Background Information
Complex Numbers
In the general quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0
-b ± b 2 - 4ac
x=
2a
When b - 4ac < 0 we cannot get the root of the negative numbers directly.
2

We thus define i 2 = -1 Þ i = -1 .
This definition gives a set of new numbers called Complex numbers.
A complex number can be defined as z = a + bi where a is the real part and b is the imaginary
part.
If z = a + bi , the conjugate of z is written as z = a - bi .
z z = ( a - bi )( a - bi )
= a 2 - abi + abi - b 2i 2
= a2 + b2
Addition of Complex Numbers
If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di , z1 + z2 = ( a + bi ) + ( c + di ) a + c + ( b + d ) i
real part
imaginary part

Subtraction of Complex numbers

z1 + z2 = ( a + bi ) - ( c + di )
= ( a + bi ) - c - di )
= ( a - c )+ ( b + d ) i
real part imaginary part

Multiplication of Complex numbers

z1 ´ z2 = ( a + bi )( c + di )
= ac + adi + bci + bdi 2
But i 2 = -1
\ z1 ´ z 2 = ac + adi + bci - bd
= ( ac - bd ) + ( ad + bc ) i
Division of Complex numbers
z1 a + bi
=
z2 c + di
We can rationalize the denominator by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator.
z (a + bi) ´ ( c - di )
i.e 1 =
z2 (c + di ) ( c - di )
ac - adi + bci - bdi 2
= 2
c - cdi + dci - d 2i 2
ac - adi + bci + bd
=
c2 + d 2

1
 (ac + bd ) + (bc - ad )i
=
c2 + d 2
ac + bd æ bc - ad ö
= 2 +ç ÷i
c + d 2 è c2 + d 2 ø
Example 1:
z1
If z1 = 3 + i, z2 = 5 - i find, (a) z1 + z2 (b) z1 - z2 (c) z1 z2 (d)
z2
Solution:
(a) z1 + z2 = ( 3 + i ) + ( 5 - i ) = ( 3 + 5 ) + ( i - i ) = 8
(b) z1 - z2 = ( 3 + i ) - ( 5 - i ) = 3 + i - 5 + i = -2 + 2i
(c) z1 z2 = ( 3 + i )( 5 - i ) = ( 3 )( 5 ) + 3 ( -i ) + i ( 5 ) - i 2
= 15 - 3i + 5i + 1
= 16 + 2i
z 3 + i ( 5 + i ) 15 + 3i + 5i + i 2
(d) 1 = ´ =
z2 5 - i ( 5 + i ) 52 + 11
15 + 8i - 1
=
26
14 + 8i 7 + 4i
= =
26 13
Argand diagram
A complex number a + bi can be considered as an ordered pair of real numbers. We can
represent such numbers by points in an x,y-plane called the complex plane or argand diagram.
Example 2:
Let z = 3 + 4i .Represent z in the complex plane.
Solution:
y
4 z=(3,4)

Imaginary 3

axis 2

1 2 3 x

Real axis

2
Modulus-argument form
Let z = a + bi ,we can represent z in the following diagram.

b z(a,b)

q a x

b b
tan q = Þ q = tan -1
a a
Now, z = a + bi Þ z = a 2 + b 2 z is called the modulus of the complex number and q is called
the argument.
If we let r = z = a 2 + b 2 , then
r 2 = a 2 + b 2 - (1)
But from the diagram above,
b = a tan q
Þ b 2 = a 2 tan 2 q . Substituting this in 1, we get
r 2 = a 2 + a 2 tan 2 q
(
= a 2 1 + tan 2 q )
r = a sec q
2 2 2

a2
r2 =
cos 2 q
Þ a 2 = r 2 cos2 q
Þ a = r cos q
Similarly, b = r sin q
We can replace a and b in z = a + bi by a = r cos q , b = r sin q to get
z = r cos q + ir sin q -
= r ( cosq + i sin q ) -modulus-argument form
But cosq + i sin q = eiq
\ z = reiq
If r = 1, z = eiq
Example 3:
Express the following complex numbers in polar form.

3
(a) z = -5 + 5i (b) z = - 6 - 2i
Solution:
(a) z = -5 + 5i; a = -5, b = 5
b 5
tan q = = = -1; tan -1 1 = 450
a -5
Tangent is negative and q is in 2nd quadrant
\q = 1350
iy

1350

q x

-5

( -5 )
2
z =r= + 52 = 50 = 5 2
\ z = r ( cosq + i sin q )
(
= 5 2 cos1350 + i sin1350 )
- 2
(b) z = -6 - 2i i q = tan -1 = 300
- 6
iy

- 6

q x

- 2

In the 3rd quadrant, q = (180 + 30 ) = 210 0

0

(- 6 ) + (- 2 )
2 2
r= z = = 8=2 2

(
\ z = 2 2 cos 2100 + i sin 2100 )

4
Exercise 1
z
1. Find 1 , where z1 = 2 + i and z2 = 3 - 2i .
z2
De moivre’s theorem
If z1 = a1 + ib1 = r1 ( cos q1 + i sin q1 ) and z2 = a2 + ib2 = r2 ( cos q 2 + i sin q 2 ) then
z1 z2 = r1 ( cos q1 + i sin q1 ) r2 ( cos q 2 + i sin q 2 )
= r1r2 [ cos q1 cos q 2 + i sin q 2 cos q1 + i sin q1 cos q 2 - sin q1 sin q 2 ]
= r1r2 [ cos q1 cos q 2 - sin q1 sin q 2 + i (sin q 2 cos q1 + sin q1 cos q 2 ]
But cosq1 cos q 2 - sin q1 sin q 2 = cos (q1 + q 2 ) and sin q 2 cos q1 + sin q1 cos q 2 = sin (q1 + q 2 )
\ z1 z2 = r1r2 éë cos (q1 + q 2 ) + i sin (q1 + q 2 ) ùû …(1)
A generalization of (1) leads to
z1 z2 K zn = r1r2 K rn {cos (q1 + q 2 + Kq n ) + i sin (q1 + q 2 + Kq n )} …(2)
If z1 = z 2 = K zn = z , equation (2) becomes
zz K zn = rr K rn {cos (q + q + Kq n ) + i sin (q + q + Kq n )}
i.e z n = r n {cos nq + i sin nq } …(3)
When r = 1, z n = cos nq + i sin nq
Equation (3) is called De-Moivre’s theorem.
Example 4
If z = 1 + 3i , find z 5
Solution iy

( 3)
2
z = r = 12 + = 4=2 q 3

3 1 z
q = tan -1 = 600
1
\ z = 2 ( cos 600 + i sin 600 )

( ) (
z 5 = 25 éë cos 5 ´ 600 + i sin 5 ´ 600 ùû )
= 3 2 ( cos300 0 + i sin 3000 )
Example 5
Prove the identities , cos 5q = 16cos5 q - 20cos3 q + 5cos q
Solution
z n = ( cos q + i sin q ) = cos nq + i sin nq
n

When r=1
When n=5
z 5 = cos 5q + i sin 5q
Þ ( cos q + i sin q ) = cos 5q + i sin 5q
5

5
Expanding the L.H.S ,we get

( cos q + i sin q )
= cos 5 q + 5(i sin q ) cos 4 q + 10 ( i sin q ) cos3 q + 10 ( i sin q ) cos 2 q + 5 ( i sin q ) cos q + ( i sin q )
5 2 3 4 5

(Using Binomial expansion/ Pascal’s triangle)

= cos5 q + 5i sin q cos4 q - 10sin 2 q cos3 q - 10i sin 3 q cos 2 q + 5sin 4 q cos q + i sin 5 q
Separating the real and imaginary parts, we get

( cos q + i sin q )
5
{
= cos5 q - 10sin 2 cos3 q + 5sin 4 q cos q + i 5sin q cos 4 q - 10sin 3 q cos2 q + sin 5 q }

{
\ cos 5q + i sin 5q = cos5 q - 10sin 2 q cos3 q + 5sin 4 q cos q + i 5sin q cos4 q - 10sin 3 q cos 2 q + sin 5 q }
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get

cos 5q = cos5 q - 10sin 2 q cos3 q + 5sin 4 q cos q

( ) ( )
2
= cos5 q - 10 1 - cos 2 q cos 3 q + 5 cos q 1 - cos 2 q

= cos5 q - 10 cos 3 q + 10 cos 5 q + 5 cos q [1 - 2 cos 2 q + cos 4 q )

= cos5 - 10 cos3 q + 10cos5 q + 5cosq - 10cos3 q + 5cos5 q

= 16 cos5 q - 20cos3 q + cos q

Exercise 2
1. Prove the identities

(a) sin 3q = 3sin q - 4sin 3 q

(b) cos 4q = 8sin 4 q - 8sin 2 q + 1

(c) cos 3q = 4cos3 q - 3cos q

(d) sin 5q = 16 cos4 q - 12cos 2 q + 1

Example 6
Solution (question (b) in exercise 2)

(b) cos 4q = 8sin 4 q - 8sin 2 q + 1

Using Demoivre’s theorem when n=4,

( cos q + i sin q ) = cos 4q + i sin 4q

4

6
Expanding the L.H.S, we get

( cos q + i sin q ) = cos 4 q + 4i cos 3 q sin q + 6 cos 2 q ( i sin q ) + 4 cos q ( i sin q ) + ( i sin q )
4 2 3 4

= cos4 q + 4i cos3 sin q - 6cos2 q sin 2 q - 4i cos q sin 3 q + sin 4 q

= cos 4 q - 6 cos 2 q sin 2 q + sin 4 q + i ( 4 cos3 q sin q - 4 cos q sin 3 q )
Equating the real parts, we get
cos 4q = cos 4 q - 6 cos2 q sin 2 q + sin 4 q
( ) - 6 cos q sin q + sin q
2
= cos 2 q 2 2 4

= (1 - sin q ) - 6 (1 - sin q ) sin q + sin

2
2 2 2 4
q
= 1 - 2sin 2 q + sin 4 q - 6sin 2 q + 6sin 4 q + sin 4 q
cos 4q = 8sin 4 q - 8sin 2 q + 1

Roots of Complex numbers

1
A number w is called an n root of a complex number z if w = z and we write w = z . From De
th n n

Moivre’s theorem, we can show that if n is a positive integer,

1 1
z n = {r ( cos q + i sin q )} n
1
ì æ q + 2p k ö æ q + 2p k ö ü
= r n ícos ç ÷ + i sin ç ý
î è n ø è n ÷ø þ
k = 0, +1, ±2L
1
It follows that there are n different values of z n , i.e n different nth roots of z ,provided z ¹ 0 .
Example 7
Find all the values of z for which z 5 = -32 and locate these values in the complex plane.
Solution:
z 5 = -32 = -32 + 0i iy
æ 0 ö
0 = tan -1 ç ÷=0 q x
è -32 ø

Acute angle is 0 (-32,0)

q is in 2nd quadrant, thus q = 1800

( -32 )
2
r= + 02 = 32

z 5 = 32 éë cos (180 + 2p k ) + i sin (180 + 2p k ) ùû

Taking the 5th root of both sides, we have
1

{
z = 32 éë cos (180 + 2p k ) + i sin (180 + 2p k ) ùû } 5

7
 1
ì æ 180 + 2p k ö æ 180 + 2p k ö ü
= 32 ícos ç
5
÷ + i sin ç ÷ý
î è 5 ø è 5 øþ
= 2k = 0,1, 2, 3, 4
When k=0, z1 = 2 ( cos 360 + i sin 360 )
æ 3p 3p ö
When k=1, z2 = 2 ç cos + i sin ÷
è 5 5 ø
When k=2, z3 = 2 ( cos 5p + i sin 5p )
æ 7p 7p ö
When k=3, z4 = 2 ç cos + i sin ÷
è 5 5 ø
æ 9p 9p ö
When k=4, z5 = 2 ç cos + i sin ÷
è 5 5 ø
Note: For k=5,6,…as well as -1,-2,… repetitions of the above values are obtained.
Hence these are the only roots/ solutions of the given equation.

The five roots are called the fifth roots of -32.

Example 8
Find the third roots of -1+i
Solution
Let z=-1+i iy
( -1) + (1)
2 2
z =r= = 2

From the diagram, q in the 2nd quadrant. 1 q 1350 x

1 -1
tan -1 q = = -1
-1
acute angle is 450

\q = 1800 - 450 = 1350

8
 (
\ z = 2 éë cos 1350 + 2p k + i sin 1350 + 2p k ùû) ( )
{ )}
1 1

z =
3
( 0
)
2 éë cos 135 + 2p k + i sin 135 + 2p k ùû ( 0 3

é 1
= ( 2 ) ê cos
6
(135 0
+ 2p k )
+ i sin
(135 0
+ 2p k ) ù
ú
êë 3 3 úû
K=0,1,2
1
When k=0, z1 = 2 6 ( cos 450 + i sin 450 )
æ 11 ö
1
11
When k=1, z2 = 2 6 ç cos p + i sin p ÷
è 12 12 ø
æ 19 ö
1
19
When k=2, z3 = 2 6 ç cos p + i sin p ÷
è 12 12 ø
Example 9
Find the fourth root of z = -2 3 - 2i
Solution:
( -2 ) ( )
2
z =r= + -2 3 = 4 + 12 = 16 = 4
2

-2
q = tan -1
-2 3
From the diagram, q is in the 3rd quadrant iy
-2 1
tan q = = 2100
-2 3 3

p
Acute angle is 300 = -2 3 -2 q x
6

q = 300 + 1800 = 2100 =

(
\ z = 4 cos 210 0 + i sin 210 0 )
1
1 é ì
ï
z = ê 4 ícos
(
2100 + 2p k )
2100 + 2p k ( ) üïù 4
4
+ i sin ýú
ê ï 4 4 ïþúû
ë î
=for k=0,1,2,3
æ 7p 7p ö
When k=2, z1 = 2 ç cos + i sin ÷
è 24 24 ø
æ 19p 19p ö
When k=1, z2 = 2 ç cos + i sin ÷
è 24 24 ø

9
 æ 31p 31p ö
When k=2, z3 = 2 ç cos + i sin ÷
è 24 24 ø
æ 43p 43p ö
When k=3, z4 = 2 ç cos + i sin ÷
è 24 24 ø
Example 10
Find the square roots of -15 - 8i
Solution
Let z = -15 - 8i
( -8 ) + ( -15)
2 2
z =r= = 64 + 225 = 17
-8
q = tan -1 ; From the diagram below, q is in the 3rd quadrant
-15
Acute angle is 280
\q = 1800 + 280 = 2080

2080

-8 x

-15

\q = 17 {cos (108 + 2p k ) + i sin ( 208 + 2p k )}

1 1
z = {17{cos ( 208 + 2p k ) + i sin ( 208 + 2p k )} 2
2

æ æ 208 + 2p k ö ( 208 + 2k ) ö
= 17 ç cos ç ÷ + i sin ÷
è è 2 ø 2 ø
For k=0,1
When k=0, z1 = 17 ( cos104 0 + i sin104 0 )
When k=1, z2 = 17 ( cos(104 + p ) + i sin(104 + p )
Exercise 3
1.Express in polar form
(a) 2 - 2i
(b) -1 + 3i
(c) -i
3 3
(d) - i
2 2

10
2. Solve the equation 24 + 8i = 0
3. Solve the equation 26 + 1 = 3i
4. Find the square roots of (a) 5 - 12i
(b) 8 + 4 5i
5. Find the cube roots of -11 - 2i

Expansion of cos n q ,sin n q , cos nq and sin nq

Let z = cos q + i sin q
z - m = ( cos q + i sin q )
-m

1
=
( cos q + i sin q )
m

1
= (De Moivre’s)
cos mq + i sin mq
= ( cos mq + i sin mq )
-1

= cos ( -mq ) + i sin ( -mq )

= cos mq - i sin mq
When n=1, z = cos q + i sin q
1
z -1 = = cos q - i sin q
z
1
z + = cos q + i sin q + cos q - i sin q
z
1
z + = 2cos q
z
1
Similarly, z - = cos q + i sin q - cos q + i sin q
z
1
z - = 2i sin q
z
In the same way, z n = ( cos q + i sin q ) = cos nq + i sin nq and
n

1
= ( cos q + i sin q ) = cos nq - i sin q
-n
n
z
Thus z n = ( cos q + i sin q ) = cos nq + i sin nq
n

1
zn + = 2cos nq
zn
1
zn - = cos nq + i sin nq - cos nq + i sin nq
zn
= 2i sin nq
Example 11
Express cos6 q in multiple angles.
Solution:

11
 1
2cos q = z +
z
6 2 3 4 5 6
æ 1ö æ1ö æ1ö æ1ö æ1ö æ1ö æ1ö
\ ( 2 cos q ) = ç z + ÷ = z 6 + 6 z 5 ç ÷ + 15 z 4 ç ÷ + 20 z 3 ç ÷ + 15 z 2 ç ÷ + 6 z ç ÷ + ç ÷
6

è zø èzø èzø èzø èzø èzø èzø

æ 1ö æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
= ç z 6 + 6 ÷ + 6 ç z 4 + 4 ÷ + 15 ç z 2 + 2 ÷ + 20 z
è z ø è z ø è z ø
1
But z 6 + 6 = 2cos 6q
z
1
z 4 + 4 = 2cos 4q
z
1
z 2 + 2 = 2cos 2q
z
6
æ 1ö
\ ( 2 cos q ) = ç z + ÷ = 2 cos 6q + 12 cos 4q + 30 cos 2q + 20
6

è zø

1
cos6 q = {2cos 6q + 12cos 4q + 30cos 2q + 20}
32
Example 12

Express sin 5 q in multiple angles

Solution
5
æ 1ö
( 2i sin q )
5
=çz- ÷
è zø

æ -1 ö æ -1 ö æ -1 ö æ -1 ö æ -1 ö æ -1 ö
0 2 3 4 5

= z ç ÷ + 5 z 4 ç ÷ + 10 z 3 ç ÷ + 10 z 2 ç ÷ + 5 z ç ÷ + ç ÷
5

è z ø è z ø è z ø è 2 ø è z ø è z ø

æ1ö æ 1 ö 1
5
= z 5 - 5 z 3 + 10 z - 10 ç ÷ + 5 ç 3 ÷ -
èzø èz ø z

1 æ 1ö æ 1ö
= z5 - - 5 ç z 3 - 3 ÷ + 10 ç z - ÷
z 5
è z ø è zø

= 2i sin 5q - 5 ( 2i sin 3q ) + 10 ( 2i sin q )

32i sin 5 q = 2i sin 5q - 10i sin 3q + 20i sin q

1
sin 5 q = {sin 5q - 5sin 3q + 10sin q }
16

12
Exercise 4
Express the following in multiple angles.

1. cos 4 q 2. sin 3 q 3. sin 5 q

Absolute Value

The absolute value or modulus of a complex number a + bi is defined as z = x + iy = x 2 + y 2

e.g z = -4 + 2i

( -4 )
2
z = + 22 = 20 = 2 5

If z1 , z 2 , z3 ,K , zm are complex numbers, the following properties hold

(1) z1 z2 = z1 z2 or z1 z2 K zm = z1 z2 K zm

z1 z
(2) = 1 ,if z2 ¹ 0
z2 z2

(3) z1 + z2 £ z1 + z2

(4) z1 + z2 ³ z1 - z2

Proof

(1) z1 z2 = z1 z2

Let z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2

z1 z 2 = ( x1 + iy1 )( x2 + iy2 )

= x1 x2 + ix1 y2 + iy1 x2 - y1 y2

= ( x1 x2 - y1 y2 ) + i ( x1 y2 + y1 x2 )

( x1 x2 - y1 y2 ) + ( x1 y2 + y1 x2 )
2 2
=

( x1 x2 ) - 2 x1 x2 y1 y2 + ( y1 y2 ) + ( x1 y2 ) + 2 x1 x2 y1 y2 + ( y1 x2 )
2 2 2 2
=

= x12 x2 2 - 2 x1 x2 y1 y2 + y12 y2 2 + x12 y2 2 + 2 x1 y2 y1 x2 + y12 x2 2

13
= x12 x22 + x12 y22 + y12 y2 2 + x22 y12

( )
= x12 x2 2 + y2 2 + y12 y2 2 + x22 ( )
= (x1
2
+ y12 )( x
2
2
+ y2 2 )
= x12 + y12 x22 + y2 2

= z1 z2

3. z1 + z2 £ z1 + z2

14
Analytic functions
If the derivative f ' ( z ) exists at all points of z of a region R, then f ( z ) is said to be analytic in R
or a function analytic in R. The terms regular and homomorphic are sometimes used for analytic.
The Cauchy-Riemann equations
A necessary condition that w = f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) be analytic in a region R is that, in R ,u
and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
¶u ¶v ¶u ¶v
= , -
¶x ¶y ¶y ¶x
Example 16:
Show that f ( z ) = e - y eix is analytic.
Solution:
eix = cos x + i sin x
\ f ( z ) = e - y eix
Þ f ( z ) = e - y ( cos x + i sin x )
f ( z ) = e- y cos x + ie - y sin x
\ u = e- y cos x; v = e - y sin x
¶u ¶v
= -e - y sin x; = -e - y sin x
¶x ¶y
¶u ¶v
\ =
¶x ¶y
¶u ¶v ¶u -¶v
= -e - y cos x; = e- y cos x \ =
¶y ¶x ¶y ¶x
Harmonic Functions
If the second partial derivative of u and v with respect to x and y exist and are continous in a
region R , then
¶ 2u ¶ 2 u ¶ 2v ¶ 2v
+ = 0, + =0
¶x 2 ¶y 2 ¶x 2 ¶y 2
¶2 ¶2
Or V 2 u = 0, V2 v = 0 where V 2 = + .
¶x 2 ¶y 2
It follows that under this conditions, the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function satisfy
Laplace’s equation.
Example 17:
Show that f ( z ) = z 3 - 2 z is analytic and harmonic.
Solution:
Let z = x + iy
z 3 - 2 z = ( x + iy ) - 2 ( x + iy )
2

= x 3 + 3iyx 2 + 3 ( iy ) x + ( iy ) - 2 x - 2iy
2 3

(
= x 3 - 3xy 2 - 2 x + i 3 yx 2 - y 3 - 2 y )
1
\ u = x3 - 3 xy 2 - 2 x; v = 3 yx 2 - y 3 - 2 y
¶u ¶v ¶u ¶v
= 3 x 2 - 3 y 2 - 2; = 3x 2 - 3 y 3 - 2 \ =
¶x ¶y ¶x ¶y
¶u ¶v ¶u ¶v
= -3x ( 2 y ) = -6 xy; = 3 y ( 2 x ) = 6 xy \ =- ;
¶y ¶x ¶y ¶x
Therefore, f ( z ) = z - 2 z is analytic.
3

¶u ¶ 2u
= 3x - 3 y - 2 Þ 2 = 6 x
2 2

¶x ¶x
¶u ¶u
2
= -6 xy Þ 2 = -6 x
¶y ¶y
¶v ¶ 2v
= 6 xy Þ 2 = 6 y
¶x ¶x
¶v ¶ 2u
- 3 x 2 - 3 y 2 - 2 Þ 2 = -6 y
¶y ¶y
¶ 2u ¶ 2u
\ ¹ = 6 x - 6 x = 0 and also
¶x 2 ¶y 2
¶ 2v ¶ 2v
+ = 6y -6y = 0
¶x 2 ¶y 2
Therefore, f ( z ) = z 3 - 2 z is harmonic.
Note:
¶ 2u ¶ 2u
If u(x,y) is harmonic, then it satisfies the Laplace equation Ñ 2u = + =0.
¶x 2 ¶y 2
¶ 2 v ¶ 2v
Also, if v(x, y) is harmonic, it satisfies the Laplace equation Ñ u = 2 + 2 = 0 .
2

¶x ¶y
Example 18:
Prove that u = e- x ( x sin y - y cos y ) is harmonic.
Solution:
u = xe - x sin y - e - x y cos y
¶u
= e - x sin y + ( -1) xe - x sin y + e - x y cos y
¶x
¶u
= e - x sin y - xe - x sin y + e - x y cos y
¶x
¶ 2u
= -e - x sin y - ( e - x sin y - xe - x sin y ) - e- x y cos y
¶x 2

= -e- x sin y - e - x sin y + xe - x sin y - e- x y cos y

= -2e - x sin y + xe- x sin y - e - x y cos y …(1)
¶u
= xe - x cos y - e - x ( cos y - y sin y )
¶y

2
 = xe - x cos y - e - x cos y + ye - x sin y
¶ 2u
= - xe - x sin y + e - x sin y + e - x sin y + ye- x cos y …(2)
¶y 2

Adding (1) and (2) gives

-2e - x sin y + xe - x sin y - e - x y cos y + 2e - x sin y - xe - x sin y + ye - x cos y = 0
¶ 2u ¶ 2v
\ + = 0 Þ u is harmonic.
¶x 2 ¶y 2
Example 19:
From the example 19 above, find v such that f ( z ) = u + iv is analytic.
Solution:
u = e- x ( x sin y - y cos y )
¶u
From example 19, = e - x sin y - xe - x sin y + ye - x cos y
¶x
Since f ( z ) is analytic, then
¶u ¶v
= = e - x sin y - xe - x sin y + e - x cos y
¶x ¶y
( )
v = ò e - x sin y - xe - x sin y + e - x cos y dy
= -e - x cos y + xe- x cos y + e - x ò y cos y dy
= -e - x cos y + xe - x cos y + e - x ( y sin y + cos y ] + F ( x )
= -e - x cos y + xe - x cos y + e - x y sin y + e - x cos y + F ( x )
= xe - x cosy + e - x y sin y + F ( x ) where F(x) is an arbitrary real function of x.
¶u ¶v
Also, = - = xe - x cos y + ye- x sin y - e - x cos y
¶y ¶x
¶v
= e - x cos y - xe - x cos y - ye - x sin y …(1)
¶x
But v = ye - x sin y + xe - x cos y + F ( x )
¶v
= - ye - x sin y + e - x cos y - xe - x cos y + F ( x ) …(2)
¶x
Equating equation 1 and 2
e - x cos y - xe - x cos y - ye - x sin y = - ye - x sin y + e - x cos y + F ' ( x )
F ' ( x) = 0
Þ v = ye - x sin y + xe - x cos y + k
Example 20:
Given that u ( x, y ) = y 3 - 3 x 2 y , find v(x, y) such that f ( z ) = u + iv is analytic.
Solution:
u ( x, y ) = y 3 - 3 x 2 y

3
¶u ¶v
= -6 xy =
¶x ¶y
æ y2 ö
\ v = ò ( -6 xy ) dy = -6 x ç ÷ + F1 ( x )
è 2 ø
= -3xy + F ( x ) where F ( x ) is an arbitrary real function of x.
2

OR
¶u ¶v
=-
¶y ¶x
¶u ¶v
= 3 y 2 - 3x 2 = -
¶y ¶x
¶v
= 3x 2 - 3 y 2
¶x
( )
v = ò 3 x 2 + 3 y 2 dx
= x + 3y x
3 2

= -3y 2 x + f ( x )
Exercise 7
1. Prove that the function u = 2 x (1 - y ) is harmonic.
2. Find a function v(x, y) such that f(x) is analytic (in number 1 above).
3. Express f(x) in terms of z (fro 1 and 2).
4. Show that u ( x, y ) = 2 x - x 3 + 3xy 2 is harmonic and hence find a harmonic conjugate v ( x, y ) .

4
Elementary Functions
Here we consider various elementary functions studied in the calculus of real variables and
define corresponding functions of a complex variable.
I. The Exponential function
The exponential function is defined by
1. f ( z ) = e z = e x + iy = e x eiy - e x ( cos y + i sin y ) - e x cos y + ie x sin y
Examples:
1. Determine whether or not f ( z ) = e z is analytic.
Solution:
f ( z ) = e z = e x +iy = e x ( cos y + i sin y )
w = u + iv = e x cos y + ie x sin y
u = e x cos y v = e x sin y
¶u ¶v
= e x cos y = e x cos y
¶x ¶x
¶u ¶v
= -e x sin y = e x sin y
¶y ¶x
¶u ¶v ¶u -¶v
\ = and =
¶x ¶y ¶y ¶x
Hence f ( z ) = e is analytic.
z

2. If a is real and positive, we define a z = e z ln a

Proof
L.H.S
Let y = a z ; ln y = ln a z ; ln y = z ln a ; log e y = z log e a ; y = e z ln a = R.H .S
3. e z = e x
Proof
e z = e x +iy = e x ( cos y + i sin y ) = e x cos y + ie x sin y
e z = e x cos y + ie x sin y
= e x ( cos y + i sin y )
= e x cos y + i sin y

= ex cos2 y + sin 2 y
= ex 1
ez = ex
Argument of e z is given by:
f ( z ) = e z = e x cos y + ie x sin y
sin y
( )
arg e z = tan -1
cos y
= tan -1 tan y = y

1
4. f ( z ) = e z = e a ( cos y + i sin y )
Applying natural log on both sides, ln e z = ln e x ( cos y + i sin y )
z = ln e x eiy
z = ln e x + ln eiy
z = ln e x + iy
But e x = mod e z and y = arg e z
(
\ z = ln mod e z + i arg e z) ( )
z + 2p i
5. e =e z

Proof
e ( z + 2p i ) = e z e 2p i
= e z ( cos 2p + i cos 2p )
= e z (1 + oi )
= ez
i.e the exponential function is periodic with a pure imaginary period of 2p i
6. e z1 z2 = e z1 + z2
Prove
e z1 z2 = e x1 + iy1 e x2 + iy2
= e x1 eiy1 e x2 eiy2
= e x1 ( cos y1 + i sin y1 ) e x2 ( cos y2 + i sin y2 )
= e x1 e x2 ( cos y1 + i sin y1 )( cos y2 + i sin y2 )
= e x1 e x2 ( cos y1 cos y2 + i cos y1 sin y2 + i sin y1 cos y2 - sin y1 sin y2 )
= e x1 x2 [cos y1 cos y2 - sin y1 sin y2 + i (cos y1 sin y2 + sin y1 cos y2 )
= e x1 x2 [cos ( y1 + y2 ) + i sin ( y1 + y2 )
= e x1 e x2 ei( y1 + y2 ) = e x1 e x2 eiy1 eiy2
= e x1 + iy1 + x2 +iy2 = e z1 + z2
Exercise 8
e z1
Prove that z2 = e z1 - z2
e

1
7. e0 = 1 and z
= e- z
e
8. ( e z ) = enz
n

9. elog z = z
Exercise 9
1. Show that e( 2+3p i ) = -e z
2 +p i
2. Show that e 4 = e
(1 + i )
2

2
3. Determine whether or not f ( z ) = 2 z 2 - 3 - ze z + e - z is analytic.
Example 21
Find all values of z such that e z = -2 .
Solution:
e z = -2 = -2 + oi
( -2 )
2
e z = -2 + oi = + o2 = 2

( )
arg e z = tan -1
0
-2
= 1800

\ e = 2 ( cos1800 + i sin180 0 )
z

e z = 2e180e = 2ep i
ln e z = ln ( 2ep i )
ln e z = ln 2 + ln (p i + 2p ki )
(since e z + 2p i = e z ) , k = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K
\ z = ln 2 + ln (p i + 2p ki )
Example 22:
Find all the values of z such that e 2 z -1 = 1
e 2 z -1 = 1 + oi
e 2 z -1 = 12 + 02 = 1

( )
arg e 2 z -1 = tan -1
0
1
= tan -1 o = o0
2 z -1
\e = 1cos 0 + i sin o0
0

= eio + 2p ki (since e z = e z + 2p i ) where k = o, ± 1, ± 2,K

= e2p ki
Equating the powers of e, we have
2 z - 1 = 2p ki
2 z = 1 + 2p ki
1
z = + p ki, k = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K
2
Example 24:
Show that the function e z is not analytic anywhere.
Solution:
e z = e x -iy = e x eiy = e x ( cos ( - y ) + sin ( - y ) )
= e x ( cos y - i sin y )
= e x cos y - e x i sin y
u + iv = e x cos y - e x i sin y
Þ u = e x cos y , v = -e x sin y

3
 du dv
= e x cos y; = -e x cos y
dx dy
du dv
\ ¹
dx dy
du dv
= -e x sin y = -e x sin y
dy dx
du dv
¹-
dy dx
Þ e z is not analytic.
Exercise 10
1. Find all the values of z such that e z = 1 + 3i .
2. If z = e w , (a)Show that u = ln r and v = 0 + 2p k , k = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K
(b)Determine the values of ln (1 - i ) .What is the principle value?

II. Trigonometric functions

From the formulas
eix = cos x + i sin x and e -ix = cos x - i sin x , we have
eix + e - ix = cos x + i sin x + cos x - i sin x
eix + e- ix = 2cos x
eix + e- ix
\ cos x =
2
Similarly,
eix - e - ix = cos x + i sin x - cos x + i sin x
eix - e - ix = 2i sin x
eix - e -ix
\ sin x =
2i
The sine and cosine functions of a complex variable can be defined in a similar manner by the
eid - e - iz eid + e -iz
equations sin z = and cos z = .
2i 2
The sine and cosine functions are analytic since they are linear combinations of the analytic
functions eiz and e -iz .
sin z eiz - e- iz eiz + e - iz
Similarly, tan z = = /
cos z 2i 2
- iz
e -e
iz
2
= ´ iz -iz
2i e +e
- iz
e -e
iz
=
i ( eiz + e - iz )

cot z =
1 (
i eiz + e -iz
= iz - iz
)
tan z e -e

4
 1 2
sec z = = iz - iz
cos z e + e
1 2i
cos ecz = = iz - iz
sin z e - e
Example 25:
Let z = x + iy . Show that sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
Solution:
eiz - e -iz ei ( x +iy ) - e -i ( x + iy )
sin z = =
2i 2i
e - e- ix + y
ix - y
=
2i
e e - e -ix e y
ix - y
=
2i

=
( cos x + i sin x ) e - i ( cos x - i sin x ) e y
-y

2i

=
( cos x + i sin x ) e -y
i ( cos x - i sin x ) e y
2i 2i
-i ( cos x + i sin x ) e -y
i ( cos x - i sin x ) e y
= +
2 2
1 1 i
(since = ´ -i = = -i )
i ix - 1 - -1
=
( -i cos x ) e- y + (sin x ) e- y - ( i cos x ) e y + sin x e y
2 2 2 2
Rearranging the terms, we have
i cos x i cos x - y sin x sin x
= -e - y + ey +e + ey
2 2 2 2

= i cos x
( e - e ) + sin x ( e + e )
y -y -y y

2 2
-y
e -e
y
e y + e- y
But = sinh y while = cosh y .
2 2
\ sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
Exercise 11
1. Let z be any non-zero complex number. Show that if z = reiq then (a) z = re- iq
(b) e(log r +iq ) = z
2. Let z=x+iy . Show that cos z = cos x cosh y - i sin x sinh y .

III.Inverse trigonometric functions

If z = sin w , then w = sin -1 z is called the inverse of sin z . Others are cos -1 z , tan -1 z , cot -1 z e.t.c.
The inverse functions can be expressed in terms of natural logarithms as follows.

5
 1
(
1. sin -1 z = ln iz + 1 - z 2
i
)
Proof:
Let sin -1 z = w
Þ sin w = z
eiw - e -iw
Þ =z
2i
Þ eiw - e - iw = 2iz
1
Þ eiw - iw = 2iz
e
e -1
2 iw
Þ = 2iz
eiw
Þ e 2iw - 1 = eiw ( 2iz )
e 2iw - 2izeiw - 1 = 0
( e ) - ( 2iz ) e
2
iw iw
-1 = 0
Let eiw = p
p 2 - 2izp - 1 = 0
2iz ± -4 z 2 - 4 ( -1)( -1)
p=
2
2iz ± 4 - 4 z 2
=
2
2iz ± 2 1 - z 2
=
2
\ eiw = iz ± 1 - z 2 ; taking the natural log of both sides, we have
(
ln eiw = ln iz ± 1 - z 2 )
(
iw ln e = ln iz + 1 - z 2 ; but log e e = 1)
(
\ iw = ln iz + 1 - z 2 )
w=
1
i
(
ln iz + 1 - z 2 )
1
(
\ sin -1 z = ln iz + 1 - z 2
i
)
1 æ 1 + iz ö
2. tan -1 z = ln ç ÷
2i è 1 - iz ø
Let tan w = z
sin w eiw - e- iw eiw + e - w
= /
cos w 2i 2

6
 eiw - e- iw
= =z
(
i eiw + e - iw )
eiw - e -iw = zi ( e iw
+ e -iw )
eiw - e -iw = zieiw + zie -iw
1
eiw - iw = zieiw + zie - iw
e
e -1
2 iw
= zieiw + zie - iw
eiw
e 2iw - 1 = eiw ( zieiw + zie - iw )
e 2iw - 1 = ize 2iw + zi
( e ) - 1 = iz ( e ) + zi
2 2
iw iw

( e ) - iz ( e ) = 1 + zi
2 2
iw iw

( e ) [i - iz ) = 1 + zi
2
iw

1 + zi
e 2iw =
1 - zi
æ 1 + iz ö
ln e 2iw = ln ç ÷
è 1 - iz ø
æ 1 + iz ö
2iw = ln ç ÷
è 1 - iz ø
1 æ 1 + iz ö -1
w = ln ç ÷ = tan z
2i è 1 - iz ø
Exercise 12
1
1.Show that cos-1 ( z ) = ln z + z 2 - 1 .
i
( )
-1 1 æ 1+ z2 -1 ö
2. cos ec z = ln ç ÷ . Prove.
i çè z ÷
ø
1 æ 1+ 1- z2 ö
3. sec -1 z = ln ç ÷ . Prove.
i çè z ÷
ø
1 æ z +i ö
4. Show that cot -1 z = ln ç ÷.
2i è z - i ø
Example 26:
Find all the roots of cos z = 2 .
Solution:
cos-1 2 = z
Þ z = cos-1 2 + 2p ik

7
 1
( 1
) ( )
But cos-1 z = ln z + z 2 - 1 = ln 2 + 3 = -i ln 2 + 3
i i
( )
( )
\ z = -i ln 2 + 3 + 2p ik , k = 0,1, 2,K

(
= 2p ik - i ln 2 + 3 )
= 2p ik + i ln ( 2 + 3 ) , k = 0,1, 2,K
Since 3 = ±
Exercise 13
1. Find all the roots of the equation sin z = cosh 4 by equating the real parts and the imaginary
parts of sin z and cosh 4 .
IV.Hyperbolic functions
The hyperbolic sine and the hyperbolic cosine of complex variables are derived as they are with
real variable i.e
e z - e- z e z + e- z
sin Lz = , cosh = ,
2 2
sinh z e z - e z
tanh z = =
cosh z e z + e - z
Since e z and e - z are entire, it follows that the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine functions
are entire.
d d
( sinh z ) = cosh z ( tan z ) = sec h2 z
dz dz
d d
( cosh z ) = sinh z ( coth z ) = - cos ech2 z
dz dz
d d
( sech z ) = - sech z tanh z ( cos ec h z ) = - cos echz cot z
dz dz
Identities
cosh 2 z - sinh 2 = 1
sinh ( z1 + z2 ) = cosh z1 sinh z2 + sinh z1 sinh z2
cosh ( z1 + z2 ) = cosh z1 cosh z2 + sinh z1 sinh z2
sinh ( - z ) = - sinh z
cosh ( - z ) = cosh z
Also,
sinh ( iz ) = i sin z
cosh ( iz ) = cos z
sin ( iz ) = i sinh z
cos ( iz ) = cosh z
The real and imaginary parts of the hyperbolic sine and cosine function are
sinh z = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y

8
 e z - e- z
=
2
e - e-( x +iy )
x + iy
=
2
eex iy
e - x e - iy
= -
2 2
= ex
( cos y + i sin y ) - x ( cos y - i sin y )
-e
2 2
e cos y e cos y æ e sin y e- x sin y ù
x -x x
= - + iç + ú
ç 2
2 2 è 2 û
cos y x - x sin y x - x
= éë e - e ùû + i é e + e ùû
2 2 ë
æ e x - e- x ö é e x + e- x ù
= cos y ç ÷ + i sin y ê ú
è 2 ø ë 2 û
= cos y sinh x + i sin y cosh x
Exercise 14
1.Prove that cosh x = cosh x cos y + i sin y sinh x .
V.Logarithmic functions
Let log r denote the natural logarithm of a positive real number r, as defined in calculus of real
variables. We define the logarithmic function in complex analysis by the equation
log z = log r + iq …(1) where r = z and q = arg z .
It is a multiple-valued function which is defined for all non-zero complex numbers z.
Recall:
f ( z ) = e z Þ z = log r + iq
Since z is periodic,
z = log r + i (q + 2p k ) , k = 0,1, 2,K
\ log z = log r + i (q + 2p k ) , k = 0,1, 2,K (2)
The principle value of log z is the value obtained from equation (2) where k=0.
i.e log z = log r + iq or ln z = ln r + iq
Properties of logarithms
1. elog z = z , z ¹ 0
Proof:
log ( reiq )
elog z = e ( ) = e
log x + iy

= elog r + iq
= elog r eiq
= reiq = z
2. log elog z = log e z + i arg e z
3. log ( z1 + z2 ) = log z1 + log z2

9
 æz ö
4. log ç 1 ÷ = log z1 - log z 2
è z2 ø
Complex exponents
z c is a complex exponent where c is any number.
c iq (
c log r + log eiq )
z c = e log z (since a z = e z log a ) = e c log z = ec log re =e
=e (
c( log r + iq ) c( log r + iq + 2p ki ) c log r + i (q + 2p k ) )
=e =e
i i log ( re ( iq ) )
e.g z i = elog z = ei log z = e
= ei (log r +iq )
=e(
i log r + i (q + 2p k ) )

= ei log r e (
i i (q + 2 k ) )

= ei log r e-(q + 2p k )
= e-(q + 2p k )ei log r
=e (
- q + 2p k )
éëcos ln r + i sin ( ln r ) ùû , k = 0,1, 2,K
Example 27:
Find the principle value of i i .
Solution:
i
i i = eln i = ei ln i
i ln i ( cos 900 + i sin 900 )
=e
æ ö
ç since i = 0 + i ÷
çr = i =1 ÷
ç ÷
ç q = tan -1 1 = 900 ÷
è 0 ø
i 90 + 2 p ki
= ei ln e
=e
(
i ln e (
i 90+ 2 p k )
)
=e [
i i 90 + 2p k ]

p + 2p k p
=e 2 , k = 0,1, 2,K
The principle value is obtained when k=0,1,2,…
-p
ii = e 2
Example 28:
Determine all the principle values of (1 + i )
i

Solution:
(1 + i ) = eln(1+i )
i
i

= ei ln(1+i )
But 1 + i = 12 + 12 = 2

10
 arg (1 + i ) = tan -1 = p
1
1 4
æ i( p + 2 p k ) ö
i ln ç 2e 4 ÷
\ (1 + i ) = e
i è ø

é i( p + 2 p k ) ù
i êln 2 + ln e 4 ú
=e ë û

é (p + 2 p k ) ù
i êln 2 + i 4 ú
=e ë û

=e
i ln 2 - p + 2p k
4 ( )

= ei ln 2 e
(
- p + 2p k
4 ) , k = 0,1, 2,K
( ) écos ln 2 + i sin ln 2 ù
=e
- p + 2p k
4
ë ( ) ( )û
Example 29:
Find 1 2
Solution:
2
1 2
= eln1 = e 2 ln1

(
2 ln ieiq +2 p ki )
=e
(since z = 1 + oi Þ r = z = 1, arg z = tan -1 0 = 0 )
z ln1e 2 p ki
=e
(
2 ln1+ ln e 2p ki )
=e
=e ( )
2 2p ki

(since ln1 = 0 and ln e 2p ki = 2p ki

i ( 2 2p k )
=e
(
= cos 2 2p k + i sin 2 2p k ) ( )
Example 30:
Find the principle value of ( -1)
i

Solution:
( -1) = eln( -1) = ei ln -1
i
i

0
But z = -1 Þ z = -1 + oi Þ z = 1 and arg z = tan -1 = 2700
-1
\ ( -1) = e
i (
i ln 1e 270 i )
(
i ln1+ ln e 270 i + 2p ki ) i é ln1+ ( 270 + 2p k )i ùû i é 0 + ( 270 + 2p k )i ùû
=e =eë =eë
= ei ( 270+ 2p k ) = e-( 270+ 2p k )
When k = 0, ( -1) = e -270
i

Exercise 15
1.Find the principle value of ( i )
-2i

11
Mapping of elementary functions
Let the mapping of the z-plane onto the w-plane be by means of the equation w = z + c where c is
a complex constant i.e. if z = x + iy , c = c1 + ic2 then the image of any point (x, y) in the z-plane is
the point ( x + c1 , y + c2 ) .
The general linear transformation is given by w = Bz + c ( B ¹ 0 ) …(1) where B and C are
complex constants.
f ( z ) = w = u + iv is a transformation which is given by the transformation equations
u = u ( x, y ) , v = v ( x, y ) equation(1) consists of a rotation and an expansion or contraction
followed by a translation.
Therefore, given f ( z ) = Bz + c , this represents an enlargement scale factor k = B centre (0, 0)
followed by a rotation centre (0, 0) through the angle argument of B then finally followed by a
translation given by c = é c1 ù where
êë c2 úû
c1 =Real part of c
c2 =Imaginary part of c
Example 30:
Let z = x + iy .Consider a triangle in the z-plane with vertices O(0, 0), P(2, 0), Q(0,2) .Find the
image of OPQ under the mapping given by f ( z ) = 3 z .
Solution:
f ( z ) = w = 3 ( x + iy ) = 3 x + i3 y
The transformation equations are u = 3 x ; v = 3 y
\ O ( 0, 0 ) ® 0' ( 0, 0 )
P ( 2, 0 ) = P ' ( 6, 0 )
Q ( 0, 2 ) = Q ' ( 0, 6 )

iy iv
Q' 6 S'

2 3 R ' ( 3,3)

0 R(1,1) P x

z-plane 2 w-plane O' 3

6

1
Points inside are mapped onto points inside.

e.g R (1,1) ® R ' ( 3,3) while points outside are mapped onto points outside
e.g. S (1, 2 ) ® S ' ( 3, 6 )
Now, k = 3 = 3
q = arg B = tan -1 0 = 0

()
Translation = c = 0 since f ( z ) = 3 z + 0
0
Therefore, the transformation represents an enlargement centre (0, 0) and scale factor 3 followed
by a rotation centre (0, 0) through angle q = 00 then followed by a translation given by 0 .
0 ()
Example 32
Find the image of the triangle OPQ where O(0,0), P(2, 0), Q(0,2) under a transformation given
by f ( z ) = ( 3i ) z + 2 - 3i .
Solution:
f ( z ) = 3i ( x + iy ) + 2 - 3i
= 3ix - 3 y + 2 - 3i
= -3 y + 2 + i ( 3 x - 3)
\ u = 2 - 3 y; v = 3 x - 3
\ O ( 0, 0 ) ® O ' ( 2, -3)
P ( 2, 0 ) ® P ' ( 2, 3)
Q ( 0, 2 ) ® Q ' ( -4, -3)

z-plane w-plane

iy iv

Q(O, 2) 3 P'

2 2

O 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 u

P(2, 0) x -1

-2

2
Comparing w = Bz + c with f ( z ) = w = b i) z + 2 - 3i , we have B = 3i, c = 2 - 3i

k = B = 32 + 02 = 3
0
q = tan -1 = tan -1 0 = 900
3
Translation = 2 ( )
-3
Thus, the transformation is an enlargement scale factor 3 about (0, 0), followed by a rotation of
900 centre (0, 0) and then a translation of 2 .
-3( )
Exercise 16
1. Find the image of the unit square in the z-plane given by a translation f ( z ) = Bz + c where
B = 3 + 4i, c = 2 + 3i .
Fixed points (or invariant points)
A fixed point of a transformation w = f ( z ) is a point z0 such that z0 = f ( z0 ) .
Example 33
Find the fixed points of f ( z ) = z 2 .
Solution:
z = z 2 Þ z 2 - z = 0 Þ z ( z - 1) = 0 Þ z = 0 or z = 1
\q and 1 are the fixed points of f ( z ) = z 2
Confirm: f ( 0 ) = 02 = 0 and f (1) = 12 = 1
Example 34
3z - 10
Find the fixed points of f ( z ) =
z +1
Solution:
3z - 10
z= Þ z 2 + z = 3 z - 10
z +1
Þ z 2 - 2 z + 10 = 0
2 ± 4 - 40 2 ± -36
Þz= =
2 2i
2 ± 6i
=
2
\ z1 = 1 + 3i, z2 = 1 - 3i
Check if f (1 + 3i ) = 1 + 3i, f (1 - 3i ) = 1 - 3i
Exercise 17
2z - 5
Find the fixed or invariant points of w =
z+4
1
(2)The function f ( z ) = (Inversion)
z

3
 1 1
f (z) = Þ w = u + iv =
z x + iy
1 ( x - iy ) x - iy
= = 2
( x ´ iy ) ( x - iy ) x + y 2
x iy
= - 2
x +y 2 2
x + y2
x -y
Thus, u = 2 ,v = 2
x +y 2
x + y2
1 1
On the other hand, f ( z ) = Þ z =
z f ( z)
1 ( u - iv ) u - iv
\ x + iy = =
( u + iv ) ( u - iv ) u 2 + v 2
u v
x + iy = - 2 2
u +v u +v
2 2

u -v
Þx= 2 2,y= 2 2
u +v u +v
i.e. any point inside the z-plane is mapped outside in the w-plane.
e.g
z-plane w-plane

iy iv

Example 35
1
Show that f ( z ) = maps the line x = k onto a circle.
z
Solution:
u
Using the equation x = 2 2 ; since there is no y ,the imaginary part is not needed i.e
u +v
x = k + oi .
u
Now, k = 2 2
u +v

4
 (
Þ k u 2 + v2 = u )
Þ ku 2 + kv 2 = u
Þ ku 2 - u + kv 2 = 0 completing the square, we have
u
u 2 - + v2 = 0
k
2 2
u æ1 1ö æ 1 ö
u - +ç ×- ÷ + v = ç ÷
2 2

k è2 kø è 2k ø
2 2
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
çu - ÷ + v = ç ÷
2

è 2k ø è 2k ø
æ 1 ö 1
This is the equation of the circle centre, ç , 0 ÷ ,radius .
è 2k ø 2k
Example 36
1
Show that f ( z ) = maps the line x=2 onto the circle.
z
Solution:
u u
x = 2 2 Þ 2 = 2 2 Þ 2u 2 + 2v 2 = u Þ 2u 2 - u + 2v 2 = 0
u +v u +v
u æ 1 -1 ö
2 2 2 2
u æ1ö æ 1ö æ1ö
Þ u - + v = 0 Þ u - + ç × ÷ + v = ç ÷ çu - ÷ + v = ç ÷
2 2 2 2 2

2 2 è2 2 ø è4ø è 4ø è4ø
æ1 ö 1
This is the equation of a circle radius ç , 0 ÷ centre .
è4 ø 4
Example 37
1
Find the image of a circle centre (0, 0) radius 2 under the transformation given by f ( z ) = .
z
Solution:
x -y
u= 2 ;v = 2
x +y 2
x + y2
\ 0 ( 0, 0 ) ® ( ¥, ¥ )
æ 1ö
P ( 0, 2 ) ® ç 0, - ÷
è 2ø
æ 1 ö
Q ( -2, 0 ) ® ç - , 0 ÷
è 2 ø
æ 1ö
R ( 0, -2 ) ® R ' ç 0, ÷
è 2ø
S (1, 0 ) ® S (1, 0 )
'

æ x -y ö
( x, y ) ® ( u , v ) = ç , 2 2 ÷
èx +y x +y ø
22

5
 iy iv

2 P

1
R'
2

1
Q 2 - T'
2

1 1
-2 T x Q' - u
2 2

-2 R P'

inside

outside

æ1 1ö
Y ( 2, 2 ) ® ç , - ÷ ()
è4 4ø
æ 1 1ö
V ( -1, -1) ® ç - , - ÷
è 2 2ø
inside outside
Exercise 18
1
1. Find the image of the circle, z - 1 = 1 under the mapping f ( z ) = .
z
2. A square S in the z-plane has vertices at O(0, 0), I(1, 0), K(1, 1) and J(O, 1). Determine the
region in the w-plane into which S is mapped under the transformation.
1
(a) w = z 2 (b) w =
z +1
3.Linear fractional transformation
az + b
The transformation w = f ( z ) = where a, b, c, d are complex constants is called a linear
cz + d
fractional transformation or a mobills transformation.
When c=0,it is simply a linear transformation.
There is one linear fractional transformation that maps three given distinct points
z1 , z2 and z3 onto three specified distinct points w1 , w2 and w 3 respectively. The equation is given

by
( w - w1 )( w2 - w3 ) = ( z - z1 )( z2 - z3 )
( w - w3 )( w2 - w1 ) ( z - z3 )( z2 - z1 )
NB:If one point say w2 is mapped to ¥ ,then the factors containing w2 are reduced to 1.

6
 æ w3 ö
( w - w1 ) ç1 - ÷
è w2 ø ( z - z1 )( z2 - z3 )
=
æ w ö ( z - z3 )( z2 - z1 )
( w - w3 ) ç1 - 1 ÷
è w2 ø
w w w - w1 ( z - z1 )( z 2 - z3 )
Since 3 ® 0 as w2 ® ¥ and 1 ® 0 as w2 ® ¥ , we have =
w2 w2 w - w3 ( z - z3 )( z2 - z1 )
Example 38
Find the linear transformation that maps z1 = 1, z2 = 0, z3 = -1 onto w1 = i, w2 = ¥, w3 = 1
respectively.
Solution:
w - i ( z - 1)( 0 - -1) z -1 1- z
= = =
w - 1 ( z - -1)( 0 - 1) ( z + 1)( -1) z + 1
w - i 1- z
=
w -1 z +1
Þ ( w - i )( z + 1) = ( w - 1)(1 - z )
wz + w - iz - i = w - wz - 1 + 7
wz + w + wz - w = -1 + z + iz + i
2wz = z (1 + i ) + i - 1
z (1 + i ) + i - 1
w=
2z
Exercise 19
1. Find the linear fractional transformation that maps the points z1 = 2, z 2 = i, z3 = -2 onto the
points w1 = 1, w2 = i, w = -1 .
2. Find a bilinear transformation which maps the points i, -i,1 of the z-plane onto 0,1, ¥ of the w-
plane respectively.
4. Mapping of a half plane onto a circle
z-plane iv w-plane
iy
P(Z,0) C' B'

R A'

A B C D E F x F' u

D' E'

Let z be any point P in the upper half of the z-plane denoted by R above.

7
 æ ( z - z0 ) ö
Then the transformation w = eiq0 ç ÷ maps this upper half in a one-one manner on the
è z - z0 ø
interior R ' of the unit w = 1 and conversely. Each point of the x-axis is mapped onto the
boundary of the circle. The constant q 0 can be determined by making one particular point of the
x-axis correspond to a given point on the circle.
Example 40
Find a linear transformation which maps the upper half of the z-plane into the unit circle in the
w-plane in such a way that z=I is mapped into w=0 while the point at ¥ is mapped into w = -1 .
Solution:
We have w=0 corresponding to z=I and w=-1 corresponding to z = ¥
æ ( z - z0 ) ö
w = eiq0 ç ÷ …(1)
è z - z0 ø
When w=0,z=i
æ z - z0 ö iq0 æ i - z0 ö
i.e. 0 = eiq0 ç ÷ ,0 = e ç ÷
è z - z0 ø è i - z0 ø
Þ eiq0 ( i - z0 ) = 0
Þ ( i - z0 ) = 0 since eiq0 cannot be 0
Þ z0 = i, z 0 = -i …(2)
When z = ¥, w = -1
z
1- 0
z - z0 z
lim = lim
z ®¥ z - z z ®¥ 1 - z 0
0
=1
iq0
\ e = -1 …(3)
æ z-i ö
Substituting 2 and 3 into 1, we get w = ( -1) ç ÷
è z +i ø
Exercise 20
1. Find a linear transformation that maps the points z1 = ¥, z 2 = i, z3 = 0 onto the points
w1 = 0, w2 = i, w3 = ¥ .
2. Find the fixed points of the transformation
z -1
(a) w = f ( z ) =
z +1
6z - 9
(b) w =
-z
3. Find a bilinear transformation that maps z = 0, -i, -1 into w = i,1, 0 respectively.

8
Complex line Integral
Let f ( z ) be continous at all points of a curve c which we shall assume has a finite length.

ek

zk -1

ek -1 zk en -1

a e1 e2 z2 zn -1 en b

z0 z1 zn

Subdivide c into n parts by means of points z1 , z2 ,K zn -1 ,chosen arbitrarily and call a = z0 , b = z n .

e
On each arc joining zk -1 to z k ,choose a point . Form the sum
k
æeö æeö
S n = f ( e1 )( z1 - a ) + f ç ÷ ( z2 - z1 ) + K + f ç ÷ ( b - z n-1 )
è2ø è nø
On writing zk - zk -1 =V zk …(1)
n n
Equation (1) becomes S n = å f ( ek )( z k - zk -1 ) = å f ( ek )V zk …(2)
k =1 k =1
n

ò f ( z ) dz = lim å f ( e )V z = ò f ( z ) dz
b b
Taking lim as V zk ® 0 , k k
a V z ®0 a
k =1

b
ò f ( z ) dz = ò f ( z ) dz …(3)
a c

Equation (3) is called the complex line integral of f ( z ) along curve c.

Note:The integral does not represent area but a complex number. If P(x, y) and Q(x, y) are real
functions of x and y continous at all points of curve c ,the real line integral of Pdx + Qdy along
curve is defined by ò éë P ( x, y ) dx + Q ( x, y ) dy ùû …(4)
c

If c is a smooth curve and has parametric equations x = f ( t ) , y = g ( t ) where t1 £ t £ t2 , then the

t2

ò P éë f ( t ) , g ( t )ùû f ( t ) dt + Q éë f ( t ) , g ( t )ùû g ( t ) dt …(5)

' '
value of equation (4) is given by
t1

If f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) , the complex line integral (3) can be written in terms of the real line
integral.

1
i.e. ò f ( z ) dz = ò éëu ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y )ùûd ( x + iy )
c c

= ò ( u + iv )( dx + idy )
c

= ò udx + iudy + ivdx - vdy

c

= ò ( udx - vdy ) + i ( udy + vdx )

c

= ò udx - vdy + i ò udy + vdx …(6)

c c
Equation (5) is called the real line integral and equation (6) is called the complex line integral.
Example 40
( 2,4 )
Evaluate = ò )
éë 2 y + x 2 dx + ( 3x - y ) dy along
( 0,3)
(a) the parabola x = 2t , y = t 2 + 3 .
(b) straight lines from (0, 3) to (2, 3) and then from (2, 3) to (2, 4).
(c) a straight line from (0, 3) to (2, 4).
Solution:
(a)along the parabola x = 2t , y = t 2 + 3 since 0r and y are in parametric form, we use the
ò P éë f ( t ) , g ( t ) ùû f ( t ) dt + Q éë f ( t ) , g ( t )ùû g ( t ) dt
' '

P ( x, y ) = 2 y + x 2
Q ( x, y ) = 3 x - y
But x = 2t = f ( t ) × y = t 2 + 3 = g ( t )
f ( t ) = 2t Þ f ' ( t ) = 2; g ( t ) = t 2 + 3 Þ g ' ( t ) = 2t
Limits (0, 3) and (2, 4), in terms of t ,are:
( 0,3) : x = 0, y = 3 ( 2, 4 ) : x = 2; y = 4
Þ 2t = 0, t 2 + 3 = 3, 2t = t , 3 + t 2 = 4
t = 0, t = 0, Þ t = 1, t = 1
\ ( 0,3) ® 0 \ ( 2, 4 ) ® 1
1

( ) (
\ ò é 2 t 2 + 3 + ( 2t ) ù 2dt + éë3 ( 2t ) - t 2 + 3 ùû 2tdt
ë
2
û )
0
1 1

( ) (
= ò 12t 2 + 12 dt + ò 12t 2 - 2t 3 - 6t dt )
0 0

é 3 1 4 2ù
1
é 1
= 4t + 12t ùû + ê 4t - t - 3t ú
3
êë û0
êë 2
0

1 33
= 4 + 12 + 4 - - 3 =
2 2

2
(b)(i) along the straight line from (0, 3) to (2, 3)

3 (0, 3) l1 (2, 3)

2 x

Along the straight line l1 , change in y is 0 Þ dy = 0, y = 3

P ( x, y ) = 2 y + x 2 Þ
P ( x,3) = 2 ( 3) + x 2 = 6 + x 2
Q ( x, y ) = 3x - y = 3x - 3
( 0,3) ® 0 ü since no change along y-axis
( 2,3) ® 2ýþ
Limits
( 2,3) 2

ò( )
2 y + x 2 dx + ( 3 x - y ) dy becomes ò ( 6 + x ) dx + ( 3x - 3) dy but dy = 0
2
:
( 0,3) 0
2
é x3 ù
( )
= ò 6 + x 2 dx = ê6 x + ú = 12 + =
8 44
0 ë 3û 3 3
(b)(ii)along the straight line from (2, 3) to (2, 4)
y
4 l2 (2, 4)

3 (2, 3)

1 2 3 x

Along the straight line l2 , change in x is 0 Þ dx = 0, x = 2

\ P ( x, y ) = 2 y + x 2 Þ P ( 2, y ) = 2 y + 4
Q ( x, y ) = 3x - y Þ P ( 2, y ) = 6 - y
( 2,3) ® 3 ü since no change along x-axis.
( 2, 4) ® 4ýþ
Limits

3
 ( 2,4 ) 4
\ ò( )
2 y + x 2 dx + ( 3x - y ) dy becomes ò ( 2 y + 4 ) dx + ( 6 - y ) dy; but dx = 0
( 2,3 ) 3

4 é y2 ù
4
9 5
= ò ( 6 - y ) dy = ê 6 y - ú = 24 - 8 - 18 + =
3 êë 2 û3 2 2
(c) a straight line from (0, 3) to (2, 4)

4 l3 (2, 4)

3 (0, 3)

1 2 3 4 5 x

Get the equation of the line l3

4-3 1
y = mx + c; c = 3; m = =
2-0 2
1
\ y = x + 3 Þ 2 y = x + 6 or 2 y - x = 6
2
x = 2 y - 6 Þ dx = 2dy
P ( x, y ) = 2 y + x 2 Þ P ( x , y ) = 2 y + ( 2 y - 6 ) = P ( y )
2

Q ( x, y ) = 3x - y Þ Q ( x, y ) = 3 ( 2 y - 6 ) - y = 5 y - 18 = Q ( y )
Since P ( x, y ) and Q ( x, y ) reduce to P(y) and Q(y) respectively, we use the limits of y only, i.e.
y=3 to y=4.
( 2,4 ) 4
\ ò( )
2 y + x 2 dx + ( 3x - y ) dy becomes ò é 2y+ ( 2y-6 ) ù dx + ( 5 y - 18 ) dy but dx = 2dy
2
ë û
( 0,3) 3
4
= ò é 2 y + ( 2 y - 6 ) ù 2dy + ( 5 y - 18 ) dy
2
ë û
3
4
= ò éë( 2 y ) + 4 y 2 - 24 y + 36 ùû 2dy + ( 5 y - 18 ) dy
3
4
= ò éë8 y 2 - 44 y + 72 + 5 y - 18ùû dy
3
4
= ò éë8 y 2 - 39 y + 54 ùû dy
3

4
 4
é 8 y 3 39 y 2 ù 97
=ê - + 54 y ú =
ë 3 2 û3 6
1
Note:the result can also be obtained using y = x+6.
2
Example 40
Evaluate ò z from z = 0 to z = 4 + 2i along the curve c given by
c

(a) z = t + it
2

(b)the line from z = 0 to z = 2i and then the line from z = 2i to z = 4 + 2i

Solution:
(a) z = t 2 + it
Limits
z = 0 Þ 0 = t 2 + it Þ t = 0
z = 4 + 2i Þ 4 + 2i = t 2 + it Þ t = 2
z =0Þt =0
z = 4 + 2i ® t = 2
4+ 2i 2 2

ò ( ) (
zdz = ò t 2 - it dz = ò t 2 - it d t 2 + it ) ( )
0 0 0
2

(
= ò t 2 - it ( 2t + i ) dt)
0
2

(
= ò 2t 3 + it 2 - 2it 2 + t dt )
0
2

(
= ò 2t 3 - it 2 + t dt )
0

8i
= 10 -
3
(b)(i)the given line integral is equal to
ò zdz = ò ( x - iy ) d ( x + iy )
c c

= ò ( x - iy )( dx + idy )
c

= ò xdx + ixdy - iydx + ydy

c

= ò ( xdx + ydy ) + i ( xdy - ydx )

c
The line from z = 0 to z = 2i is the same as the line from (0, 0) to (0, 2).
z = 0 = 0 + oi ® x = 0, y = 0 ® ( 0, 0 )
z = 2i = o + 2i ® x = 0, y = 2 ® ( 0, 2 )
x = 0 Þ dx = 0 (i.e. change in x is 0).

5
 y =2 2
é y2 ù
\ ò ( xdx + ydy ) + i ( xdy - ydx ) becomes ò ydy = ê ú = 2
c y =0 ë 2 û0
iy

(0, 2)

l1

(0, 0) x

(b)(ii)the line from z = 2i to z = 4 + 2i , this line is the same as the line l2 from (0, 2) to (4, 2)

y along line l2 , change on y is

Þ dy = 0, and y = 2
2(0, 2) l2 (4, 2)

limits z = 2i to z = 4 + 2i become ( 0, 2 ) ® ( 4, 2 ) ® 0 ® 4
4
\ ò ( xdx + ydy ) + i ( xdy - ydx ) becomes ò xdx + 2 ( 0 ) + i éë x ( 0 ) - 2dx ùû
c 0
4 4
= ò xdx - i ò 2dx
0 0
4
é x2 ù
= ê ú - i [ 2 x ]0
4

ë 2 û0
= 8 - 8i
Properties of integrals
1. ò ( f ( z ) + g ( z ) ùû dz = ò f ( z ) dz + ò g ( z ) dz
c c c

2. ò Af ( z ) dz =Aò f ( z ) dz
c c
where A is any constant.

b a
3. ò f ( z ) dz = - ò f ( z ) dz
a b
b m b
4. ò f ( z ) dz = ò f ( z ) dz + ò f ( z ) dz
a a m

6
 Where a, b, m are on the curve c.

5. ò f ( z ) dz £ ml , where f ( z ) £ m i.e. m is an upper bound of f ( z )

c
on c and l is the length

of c .
Example 42:
Evaluate ò z 2 dz where c1 is the line segment OB from z = 0 to z = 2 + i .
c1

Method 1
Segment OB from z = 0 to z = 2 + i
z = o = o + oi = ( 0, 0 )
z = 2 + i = ( 2,1)
1
Equation of a line joining (0, 0) and (2, 1) is given by y = x Þ x = 2y
2
dy 1
\ = Þ dx = 2dy
dx 2
ò z dz = ò ( x + iy ) d ( x + iy )
2 2
Now,
c1

(
= ò x 2 + 2iyx - y 2 ( dx + idy ) )
( )
= ò éë x 2 - y 2 + 2iyx ùû [ dx + idy ]

( ) ( )
= ò x 2 - y 2 dx + i x 2 - y 2 dy + i 2 yxdx - 2 yxdy

= ò(x )± 2 yxdy + i ò ( x )
dy
2
- y2 dx
2
- y2 + 2 yxdx
1
Now, dx = 2dy and y = x Þ x = 2y
2
\ using limits of y and writing x in terms of y
( 2,1) ( 2,1)

ò( )
x 2 - y 2 dx - 2 yxdy + i ò (x )
- y 2 dy + 2 yxdx becomes
2

( 0,0 ) ( 0,0 )
1 1

ò éë( 2 y ) - y ùû [ 2dy ] - 2 y ( 2 y ) dy + i ò éë( 2 y ) - y ùû dy + ( 2 y ) 2 y ( 2dy )

2 2 2 2

0 0
1
= ò 6 y 2 dy - 4 y 2 dy + i ò 3 y 2 dy + 8 y 2 dy
0
1 2

(
= ò 6 y 2 - 4 y 2 + i ò 11 y 2 dy )
0 0
1 1
é2y ù é11 y ù
3 3
=ê ú +iê ú
ë 3 û0 ë 3 û0
2 11
= 16 + 56 i + i
3 3 3 3

7
Method 2
2 +i 2 +i
é z3 ù
ò z dz = ê ú
2

0 ë 3 û0
(2 + i)
3

=
3
= ( (1) 8 + ( 3) 4i - ( 3) 2 - (1) i ) / 3
1
= (8 + 12i - 6 - i )
3
11
=2 + i
3 3

8
Curves
If f ( t ) and g ( t ) are real functions of the real variable t assumed continous in t1 £ t £ t2 , the
parametric equations z = x + iy = f ( t ) + ig ( t ) = z ( t ) , t1 £ t £ t2 define a continous curve or arc in
the z-plane joining a = z ( t1 ) and b = z ( t2 ) .
( )
If t1 ¹ t2 while z t1 = z ( t2 ) i.e. a = b , the end points coincide and the curve is said to be closed.
A closed curve which does not intersect itself anywhere is called a simple closed curve.

If f ( t ) and g ( t ) have continous derivatives in t1 £ t £ t2 , the curve is often called a smooth

curve or arc.
A curve which is composed of a finite number of smooth arcs is called a piece-wise or
sectionally smooth curve or a contour.

e.g y

x x

simple closed curve not simple

SIMPLY AND MULTIPLY CONNECTED REGIONS

A region R is called simply connected if any simple closed curve which lies in R can be shrunk
to a point without leaving R. A region R which is not simply-connected is called multiply-
connected.
Example 44
Suppose R is the region defined by z < 2 in the figure below.
y z <2
z <2 x2 + y 2 < 2
G x2 + y 2 < 4
2 x

Fig 1

1
If G is any simple closed curve lying in R, we see that it can be shrunk to a point which lies in R
so that R is simply connected.
On the other hand, if R is the region defined by 1 < z < 2 shown in figure 2 below, then there is
a simple closed curve G lying in R which cannot possibly be shrunk to a point without leaving R,
so that R is multiply connected.
y y

z <2

x x

Fig 2

This can be changed to simple closed by introducing a cross cut.

Intuitively, a simply-connected region is one which does not have any ‘hole’ in it while a
multiply-connected region is one which does.
Thus the multiply connected regions of fig 2 and 3 have respectively one and three holes in them.
Note: The symbol Ñò f ( x ) dz is used to denote integration f ( z ) around the boundary c in the
positive sense or direction i.e. it is always the counter-clockwise direction.
CAUCHY’S THEOREM
Cauchy’s Fundamental theorem
Let f ( z ) be analytic in the region R and on the boundary c. Then, Ñò f ( z ) dz = 0 .This is often
called Cauchy’s Integral theorem. It is valid for both simply and multiply connected regions. It is
also known as Cauchy-Gourstat theorem.
e.g. If c is a simple closed contour, then ò dz = 0, ò zdz = 0, ò z 2 dz = 0 .
c c c
Extension of Cauchy’s theorem
Theorem 1: Let f ( z ) be analytic in the region R bounded by the simple closed curves c1 and c 2 .
Then, Ñò f ( z ) dz =Ñò f ( z ) dz
c1 c2
where c1 and c 2 are both transveresed in the positive sense.

C1
L

DD C2
F
E

G K

2
 H J

To connect it to a simple closed curve, cross-cut DE. Then since f ( z ) is analytic in the region R.
we have by Caunchy’s theorem ò f ( z ) dz = 0
DEFGEDHJKLD
Example 44
dz
Evaluate Ñò z - a where c is any simple closed curve and z=a is
(a)outside c
(b)inside c
Solution:
1
(a)If a is outside c, then f ( z ) = is analytic anywhere inside and on c. Hence by Caunchy’s
z-a
dz
theorem, Ñò z - a = 0 .
(b)Suppose a is inside c and let G be a circle of radius e with centre z=a so that G is inside c
(Caunchy’s theorem is not applicable since f ( z ) is discontinuous at z=a)

C
P
e
a

dz dz
By the above theorem;(theorem 1) Ñò z - a = ò z - a
G

On G, z - a = e
\ z - a = e eiq o < q £ 2p
dz
Þ z = e i iq + a; = ie eiq
dq
dz = ie e dqiq

2p
dz ie eiq dq
\ Ñò = ò iq
G
z - a 0 ee + a - a
2p 2p
ie eiq dq
ò idq = [iq ]
2p
= ò
0
e eiq
=
0
0
= 2p i

3
 dz dz
\ Ñò = Ñò = 2p i
c
z - a P
z - a
Example 45
dz
Find Ñò 2 along the circle c : z = 1
c
z + 4
Solution:
1
Singular points of f ( z ) = 2 occur when z 2 + 4 = 0 Þ z = ±2i
z +4
Plot the points to determine whether they are inside or outside the circle z = 1 .
z1 = 2i = o + 2i
z2 = -2i = 0 - 2i
Circle z = 1 has radius 1
Both points are outside the circle, hence f ( z ) is analytic on and inside c. Thus by Caunchy’s
dz
theorem, Ñò z
c
2
+4
=0.

2 ( z1 )
1y

c x

-1 1

-1

-2 ( z2 )

Example 46
dz
Evaluate Ñò along the circle c : z = 1 .
c
z
1
Solution:the singular point of f ( z ) = occurs at z=0, which is inside the circle c : z = 1 of
z
radius 1 y
1 c

z
-1 1 x

-1

4
 1
\ f (z) = is discontinuous and therefore not inside. Cauchy’s formula therefore does not apply
z
since at z = 0 f ( z ) is not analytic.
dz
Using theorem1, Ñò z
= 2p i

(see example 45)

Example 47
dz
Evaluate Ñò along the circle c : z = 1 .
c
z ( z + 2 )
dz
Solution: Singular points of f ( z ) = occur when z ( z + 2 ) = 0 Þ z = 0 and z = -2 ,z=0 is
z ( z + 2)
inside while z=-2 is outside the circle.
1 y

z x
-1 1

1 A B
By partial fractions, = +
z ( Z + 2) Z z + 2
1
= A ( z + 2 ) + Bz
Z ( z + 2)
1 = Az + 2 A + Bz
0z +1 = ( A + B ) z + 2 A
1 1
A + B = 0 Þ A = - B; 2 A = 1 Þ A = ÞB=-
2 2
1 1 1
\ = -
z ( z + 2) 2 z 2 ( z + 2 )
dz
dz é1 1 ù
\ Ñò =ò ê - ú
c
z ( z + 2 ) ëê 2 z 2 ( z + 2 ) ûú
1 1
=ò dz - ò dz
2z 2 ( z + 2)
1 1dz 1 1
= ò - ò
2 z 2 z+2
dz
1
Ñò z dz = 2p i
c
since the singular point z=0 is inside the circle.

1
Ñò z + 2 dz = 0 since the singular point z=-2 is not inside c.

5
 dz 1 1
\ Ñò = ( 2p i ) - ( 0 ) = p i
c
z ( z + 2) 2 2

Exercise 21

dz 1
1. Find Ñò z +12
along c : z = .
2
dz
2. Find Ñò along c : z = 1 .
( z + 1)( z + 2 )

6
RESIDUES
Let f ( z ) be single-valued and analytic inside and on c except at the point z = a chosen as the
centre of c.Then the Laurent series about z = a is given by
¥
f (z) = å a ( z - a)
n
n
n =-¥

a -1 a-2
= a0 + a1 ( z - a ) + a2 ( z - a ) + K + + + K (1)
2

( z - a ) ( z - a )2
1 f ( z)
2p i Ñò6 ( z - a )n+1
Where an = dz, n = 0, ±1, ±2 …(2)

1 f ( z)
In the special case n = -1 ,we have from equation (2) a - 1 = ò
Ñ
2p i c ( z - a ) 0
dz and so

1
f ( z ) dz
2p i Ñòc
a -1 =

Þ Ñò f ( z ) dz = 2p ia-1 …(3)
c
Calculation of residues
To obtain the residue of a function f ( z ) at z = a ,it may appear from equation (1)that the
Laurent expansion of f ( z ) about z = a must be obtained. However, in the case where z = a is a

pole of order k,there is a simple formular for a-1 given by a-1 = lim
1 d k -1
z ® a ( k - 1) ! dz k -1
{( z - a ) k
}
f ( z)

…(4)
If k=1(Simple pole)
a-1 = lim ( z - a ) f ( z ) where 0! = 1
z ®a

Example 54
z3 + 5z + 1
Find the poles of f ( z ) = and the corresponding residue.
z-2
Solution:
Pole: z - 2 = 0 Þ z = 2
z3 + 5z + 1
Residue at z=2 is given by lim ( z - 2 ) = 8 + 10 + 1 = 19
z ®2 ( z - 2)
Example 55
z
Find the residue of f ( z ) = at the poles.
( z - 1)( z + 1)
2

Solution:

1
Poles occur at ( z - 1)( z + 1) = 0 Þ z = 1 (order 1) and ( z = -1) order 2 at
2

z 1
z = 1, lim ( z - 1) =
( z - 1)( z + 1)
z ®1 2
4

1 d ìï z üï
At z = -1, lim ( z + 1)
2
í ý
z ®-1 1! dz
( z - 1)( z + 1) þï
2
îï
d æ z ö
= lim ç ÷
z ®-1 dz
è z -1 ø
z - ( z - 1) 1 1
= lim = lim =
( z - 1) ( z - 1) 4
z ®-1 2 z ®-1 2

Example 56
Confirm the answer to example 55 by using Laurent Series.
Solution:
z3 + 5z + 1
f (z) =
z-2
Pole occurs at z=2
Laurent expansion around z=2
Let z - 2 = u Þ z = u + 2
( u + 2) + 5 (u + 2) +1
3

f (z) =
u
u + 3u ( 2 ) + 3 ( 2 ) u + 8 + 5u + 10 + 1
3 2 2

=
u
u + 6u + 12u + 8 + 5u + 11
3 2
=
u
u + 6u + 17u + 19
3 2
=
u
19
= u 2 + + 6u + 17
u
19
\ f ( z ) = ( z - 2) + + 6 ( z - 2 ) + 17
2

( z - 2)
1
\ co-efficient of is the residue at z = 2 ,which is 19.
z-2
Example 57
z2 - 2z
Find the residues of f ( z ) = at all its poles.
( z + 1) ( z 2 + 4 )
2

Solution:
Poles: z = -1 - order 2
z = ±2i - order 1

2
At z = -1, lim
1 d ìï ( z + 1) z - 2 z üï
2 2
( )
í ý
z ®-1 1! dz
ïî ( z + 1) z + 4 ïþ
2 2
( )
z2 - 2z
= lim 2
z ®-1 z + 4

= lim
( )
z2 + 4 (2z - 2) - z 2 - 2z ( 2z ) ( )
( )
z ®-1 2
z2 + 4

( 5)( -4) - ( 3)( -2 ) 14

= =-
25 25
At z = 2i,
( z - 2i ) ( z 2 - 2 z ) ( z2 - 2z )
lim = lim
( z + 1) ( z - 2i )( z + 2i ) z ®2i ( z + 1) ( z + 2i )
z ®2i 2 2

=
( -4 - 4i )
( 2i + 1) ( 4i )
2

=
( -4 - 4i )
( -4 + 4i + 1)( 4i )
-4 - 4i
=
( -3 + 4i )( 4i )
4 ( -1 - i ) 1 ( -1 - i )
= =
4i ( -3 + 4i ) i ( -3 + 4i )
- (1 + i ) - (1 + i ) 1+ i
= = =
-3i - 4 - ( 3i + 4 ) 3i + 4

=
(1 + i )( 4 - 3i ) = 4 + i + 3
( 4 + 3i )( 4 - 3i ) 16 + 9
7+i
=
25
At z=-2i, (order 1)

lim í
(
ìï ( z + 2i ) z 2 - 2 z ) üï
ý
ïî ( z + 1) ( z + 2i )( z - 2i ) ïþ
z ®-2 i 2

z2 - 2z
Res = lim
( z + 1) ( z - 2i )
z ®-2 i 2

( -2i ) - 2 ( -2i )
2

=
( -2i + 1) ( -4i )
2

3
 -4 + 4i -4 + 4i
= =
( -4 - 4i + 1)( -4i ) ( -3 - 4i )( -4i )
4 ( -1 + i ) ( -1 + i )
= =
( -3 - 4i )( -4i ) (3i - 4 )
=
( -1 + i )( -4 - 3i ) = 4 + 3i - 4i + 3 =
7 -i
( 3i - 4 )( -4 - 3i ) 25 25
At z = -2i ( order 1, Þ k = 1)
( z + 2i ) ( z 2 - 2 z )
Res = lim
( z + 1) ( z + 2i )( z - 2i )
z ®-2 i 2

= lim
(z 2
- 2z )
( z + 1) ( z - 2i )
z ®-2 i 2

( -2i ) - 2 ( -2i )
2

=
( -2i + 1) ( -2i - 2i )
2

-4 + 4i
=
( -4 - 4i + 1)( -4i )
4i - 4 4 ( i - 1)
= =
( -4i - 3)( -4i ) -4i ( -4i - 3)
=
( i - 1) ( -4 - 3i )
´
( -4 + 3i ) ( -4 - 3i )
-4i + 3 + 4 + 3i
=
( -4 ) + ( 3)
2 2

i+7
=
25
THE RESIDUE THEOREM
Let f ( z ) be a simple closed contour within and on which f ( z ) is analytic except for a finite
number of singular points z1 , z2 ,K zn interior to c.
If b1 , b 2 ,K , b n denote the residues of f ( z ) at these points, then

Ñò f ( z ) dz = 2p i ( b
c
1 + b 2 + K + b n ) where c is described in the positive sense.

iy

z2

zn z1 z4
z3

4
Examples

2z + 3
1. Evaluate ò
z -1
dz around the circle z = 3 .
Solution:Pole: z = 1 -order 1

Residue at z = 1 is given by lim

( z - 1)( 2 z + 3)
z ®1 ( z - 1)
= lim ( 2 z + 3) = 5
z ®1

2z + 3
\ Ñò = 2p i ( 5 ) = 10p i
c
z - 1
OR
By Cauchy,s integral formula
1 f (z)
f (a) = ; z = 1, f ( z ) = 2 z + 3
2p i Ñòc z - a
Þ f (1) = 5
1 2z + 3
Þ f (1) = ò
Ñ dz
2p i c z - 1
1 2z + 3 2z + 3
5= ò
Ñ
2p i c z - 1
dz Þ Ñò
c
z -1
dz = 10p i

ez
2. Evaluate Ñò ( z - 2 )( z - 4) when
(a) z = 5 (b) z = 3 (c) z = 1
Solution:
(a) z = 5
Poles are at z = 5 and z = 4 ,therefore they are inside c.

At z = 2 ,residue = lim
( z - 2) ez ez e2
= = =B
z ® 2 ( z - 2 )( z - 4 ) ( z - 4 ) -2 1
At z = 4 ,residue = lim =
( z + 4) e z ez e4
= = = B2
z ®4 ( z - 2 )( z + 4 ) z - 2 2
ez æ e2 e 4 ö
òc ( z - 2)( z - 4 ) dz = 2p i ç- + ÷ = pi e - e
4 2
( )
è 2 2ø
(b) z = 3
Pole z = 2 is inside while pole z = 4 is outside.
Pole z = 4 is outside Þ residue at z = 4 is 0.
e2
Pole z = 2 is inside Þ residue at z = 2 is - (see (a) above)
2

5
 ez æ e2 ö æ e2 ö
\ Ñò dz = 2p i ç 0 + - ÷ = 2p i ç - ÷ = -p ie 2
c (
z - 2 )( z - 4 ) è 2ø è 2ø
(c) z = 1
\ Both poles z = 2 and z = 4 are outside c.
ez
\ By Cauchy’s Theorem, ò dz = 0
( z - 2 )( z - 4 )
3z 2 + 2
3. Show that Ñòc ( z - 1) - z 2 + 9 dz = p i ,where c : z - 2 = 2
( )
dz
4. Evaluate Ñò z 2
- iz + 6
,where c : z - 2i = 1
Solution:
Poles are at z 2 - iz + 6 = 0
( -i ) - 4 (1)( 6 )
2
i±
Þz=
2
i ± -1 - 24
=
2
i ± -25
=
2
i ± 5i
=
2
6i i - 5i
z1 = = 3i or z2 = = -2i
2 2
c : z - 2i = 1 Þ ( x + iy ) - 2i = 1 Þ x + i ( y - 2 ) = 1

Þ x 2 + ( y - 2) = 1
2

Þ x2 + ( y - 2) = 1
2

This equation represents a circle center (0, 2), radius 1.

iy
4

1 x

-3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3

-2 z=-2i (outside)

6
\ z = 3i is on the curve while z = -2i is outside.
Residue at z = 3i
k =1
1
\ Re s = lim ( z - 3i ) 2
z ®3 i z - iz + 6
= lim
( z - 3i ) = lim 1 = 1
z ®3i ( z - 3i )( z + 2i ) z ®3i z + 2i 5i
dz ì 1 ü 2p
\ Ñò = 2p i í ý =
z - iz + 6
2
î 5i þ 5
Exercise:
Evaluate
2z2
1. ò 3 2 dz , c : z = 2
c z ( z + 2z + 7)

e2 z
2. òz dz , c : 2 z + 3i = 1
(z )
2
c
2
+ z +3