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Lecture 18:
Revision
Problem Solving

INF 113
Dr Lizette Weilbach &
Prof Machdel Matthee
Overview

• Design Thinking
• Problem Solving
• Computational Thinking
Design Thinking
Design
Thinking
• What is design thinking? In your
own words.
• Be familiar with the different
activities in each of the stages of
the Standford d. process. Such as
the problem vision statement
(define) and brainstorming (ideate)
• How Design Thinking is applied to
real life and what is the value of DT
approach?
What is design
thinking?
• A structured approach for human
centered, creative problem solving
• Origins: built environment (e.g.,
architecture, urban planning)
• Emphasis on:
• Empathy: the understanding
the needs of the potential
user(s)
• Brainstorming of potential
solutions
• Prototypes are built and
tested with user(s)
• Regular feedback from
user(s)
Stanford d. process:

• Empathise – to put yourself in the

user’s shoes
• Be curious, don’t judge, be
respectful
• Define – Focus in on the problem
statement/ point of vision statement
• Ideate – Brainstorm ideas
• Prototype – Build one good idea
• Test – get feedback from the user
 • Answer is open-ended but needs to be based on the five steps of the Stanford
Example: process: Empathise, Define, Ideate, Prototype, Test. The student needs to go
Think back to your INF113 beyond just describing the steps. It is also necessary to explain how the steps
assignment. With reference to the added value to the project.
Stanford design thinking process, • For example:
state 4 things that you found • Empathise: by interviewing (an empathise principle) the user we realised
valuable about the process you that they ... That made me design a … for them.
applied during your assignment.
• Test: By giving the elderly the prototype I observed that they use it
differently to what I thought they would - I discovered another use for it.
Problem Solving
What is a problem?
• We are all faced with problems on a
daily basis: getting to class on time,
scheduling our homework and studies,
relationship issues…
• To respond to a problem, we must be
able to identify it.
• A problem situation may present
symptoms of another, deeper problem.
• E.g., a recurring headache may be a
symptom of a brain tumour. Treating it
as a headache will therefore not solve
the problem.
Problems can be • Complexity
classified
according to: • Structure
Complexity of
problems
• Complexity refers to
how many aspects a
problem has, and
how these interact
with each other and
with other problems.
Complexity of
problems
Ackoff classified problems according to increasing
complexity:
• Puzzles: well-defined problems with a
specific solution that one can get 100%
right. Examples: Sudoku, logic problems.
• Problems: It is also clear what the
problem is, but there are many possible
solutions, depending on… Example: the
route to a destination (depending on
travel time, or distance, or travel cost).
• Messes: Complex issues where there is
not even agreement on what the
problem is. Example: how to respond to
the coronavirus situation; conflict in the
Middle East.
 • Puzzle : the problem/goal is clear and there is only one correct solution.
Puzzles require an analytical approach to solve. E.g., geometry problem in
Example: high school mathematics.
Differentiate between a puzzle, • Problem : the problem/goal is clear but there are multiple possible solutions,
problem and a mess by providing depending on the particular situation and options available Problems require
your own example. an analytical approach that can handle uncertainty/assumptions. E.g., where
should I plan to stay while I am studying?
• Mess : it is not even clear what the underlying problem is, and different role-
players have different views on it. The solution requires a facilitated
approach. E.g., youth unemployment.
Structure of
problems
• Problems with a high level of structure are
more straightforward to solve.
• Herbert Simon classified problems as:
• Structured: routine problems, can be
solved by a known method
• Semi-structured: part of the problem is
structured. That part could easily be
solved, and judgement must be made
on the other part.
• Unstructured: there is no ready
method for solving it; it requires
structuring before it can be resolved.
 • Structured problems are budget management and budgeting
Example: • programmable
Use Herbert Simon’s classification
• Semi-structured problems are sales forecasting and product pricing
and provide an example of each
type of problem. while
• Programmable with some AI?
• Unstructured problem is personnel management
• Non-progammable
Puzzle Problems
Puzzle problems
• It is clear what the problem is (what
needs to be done).
• There may be multiple ways to solve
it, but there is only one correct
answer.
• One needs to know what the
appropriate methods are for solving
a particular “puzzle”.
• Puzzles may be very difficult to solve.
The difficulty is at an analytical or
cognitive level.
• Example: A high school math problem
Problems of type Puzzle

• For some problems, possible solutions can be

easily calculated but there are too many
possible options to go through.
• Brute Force Encryption
• E.g. chess or Sudoku – one has to have a
strategy.
• Knowing the computational complexity of a
problem is important in fields such as logistics
scheduling and bioinformatics.
Devise a strategy

• Logical reasoning
• Pattern recognition
• Working backwards
• Adopting a different point of view
• Considering extreme cases
• Solving a simpler version
• Organising the data
• Drawing/visual presentation
• Considering all possibilities
• Informed guessing
Example: • Pattern recognition
Which strategy will you use to determine
the next number? 2; 5; 10; … (Could be a multiple choice or ‘essay type’ of question
Example:
Which strategy will you use to • Working backwards
determine at what time you need to
wake up in order to watch the Boxing (Could be a multiple choice or ‘essay type’ of question
match in the USA?
Example:
The boxing match is at 2pm UK time,
and the UK time is GMT+1. What time • Working backwards:
will you watch the match in South 3pm
Africa if South Africa’s time is GMT +
2?
Logical
Reasoning
• Logical reasoning is always part of
analytical problem solving
• However, sometimes logical reasoning on
its own is enough and can save significant
calculation effort.
• Example: Find all pairs of prime numbers
whose sum is 741.
• Hint: Consider the following: if the sum of
two numbers is odd, then one of the
numbers must be odd and the other must be
even. How many even prime numbers are
there?
Pattern
Recognition
• Mathematics is often about
finding patterns!
• Finding patterns is
important for police to solve
crimes, and for doctors to
diagnose patients. It is an
important general skill.
• Example: What are the next
two numbers in the
sequence:
• 1, 2, 3, 6, 11, 20, 37, _, _
Working
backwards
• Important general skill
• What time do I have to leave home if I
have to catch the 9 am flight from OR
Tambo to Cape Town?
• Police reconstructing the sequence of
events leading to an accident or a
crime
Considering extreme
cases
• Another useful real-life strategy. We
often think: “What is the worst that can
happen?” in a decision situation.
• People testing products (or information
systems) need to test them for extreme
situations of use.
• Example: In a rainstorm, is it better to
run or walk? What will make me less
wet?
Consider the extreme case of walking extremely
slowly (of basically standing still).
Also revisit the slides
on these strategies

•Solving a simpler version

•Organising the data
•Drawing/visual
presentation
•Considering all
possibilities
•Informed guessing
Problem Problems
Problem Problems

• Example: Where do I want to work after I have

graduated
• My decision may be determined by a number
of factors, such as:
• What position(s) I am qualified for?
• What companies offer such positions, and
where are they located?
• What are the opportunities and working
conditions at these companies?
• Where do I want to live?
• Do I have a bursary or loan that binds
me?
Problems: constraint
satisfaction
• The factors we have to consider, are also called
constraints.
• Some constraints are “hard” or binding, like if you
have a bursary with binding conditions.
• Other constraints allow more flexibility, like where
you want to live. These constraints allow for trade-
offs (e.g., to sacrifice your ideal location for a more
lucrative position in a less desirable location).
• Many problems are constraint-satisfaction (or
multiple criteria) problems.
• Decision-making has methods for dealing with such
problems.
• The most common one is MCDA (multiple criteria
decision analysis).
Problems:
optimisation
• Optimisation problems, or minimisation and
maximisation, are frequently encountered:
• How do I maximise my mealie harvest?
• How do we minimise the number of
repeating students?
• How do we optimise an online purchasing
process?
• Methods to solve optimisation problems are
available, such as linear and integer programming.
• Information systems to support business
operations may well require an optimisation
facility.
Mess(y) Problems
Messes

• Puzzles and problems can be

managed with analytical
techniques.
• However, many human
problems cannot be resolved
in this way, for example:

How must the problem of

youth unemployment in South
Africa be dealt with?
Characteristics of messes
• There are multiple role-players with differing
views on the situation
• There is no clear agreement on what the actual
problem is
• There is disagreement on whose problem it is
• There is no agreement on objectives. Each
stakeholder group has other goals and objectives
– sometimes these are not clear or not stated
• Complexity is at a political rather than
computational level
• Many of the methods of solving problems do not
apply to messy problems
The Soft Systems
Methodology
SSM

Root definition / CATWOE:

• Transformation or main function to be
achieved, by
• Owners of problem (who can stop the
activity?)
• Actors (who performs the function)
• World Views (that makes activity
meaningful)
• Customers of the system
(victims/beneficiaries)
• Environmental constraints (that are taken
as given by system)
 • Consider the messy problem of students not being
able to study on campus. Develop a root definition for
the following stakeholder group by using the CATWOE
Example mnemonic:
• University management

C The University management, the students, the lecturers, the

parents
A Government, Lecturers, Students, Parents
T Keep staff and students safe
Continue delivering high level education
Keep staff morale high
W The University is a place of excellent learning
The University is a place for innovative learning
The University is a place for inclusive learning
E The Government rules regarding lockdown
The resources available for students
The parents’ concern regarding quality education for their
children and obtaining value for money
O University management
Computational Thinking
Computational
thinking
• What is computation thinking?
• Thinking processes needed to solve
problems in a systematic way

• Recognise examples of
computational thinking: how to
calculate student marks.
• A. Assign student marks based on class
attendance
• B. Calculate student marks based on pre-
determined weights for assessments

• Recognise/apply decomposition to a
problem: How should lockdown be
determined?
• A. Determine the number of people that
had COVID
• B. Consider who has COVID, what is the
hospital capacity available to tread COVID.
Computational
thinking
• Recognise/apply abstraction
• A. Cats have 4 legs
• B. My cat is black

• Recognise/apply algorithmic
thinking
• Defining a clear step-by-step explanation
of how to solve a problem or execute a
task.
• A. To solve the problem of determining
your semester mark, you need to know
how many subjects you have
• B. To determine if you have exam entrance
for a subject, you need to get the weight
of each assessment, you need to multiply
the assessment mark with the weight, you
add the results together, if the value is >
40% you can write exam.